CI{£  B,  Ji.  m  pbraru 


54-1 
D3 


This  BOOK  may  be  kept  out  TWO  WEEKS 
ONLY,  and  is  subject  to  a  fine  of  FIVE 
CENTS  a  day  thereafter.  It  is  due  on  the 
day  indicated  below: 


0ik^l^ 


52829 


THE 

NEWENGLAND  FARMER  ■ 

OR 

GEORGICAL .  DICTIONARYo 

CONTAINING 

A  COMPENDJOUS  ACCOUNT 

OF    TBB 

PFATS  AND  METHODS 

IN    WBICB    THB 

IMPORTANT  ART  of  HUSBANimY, 

IN  ALL  ITS  VARIOUS  BRANCHES, 

IS,  o&  MAY  BE, 

•RACTISED,  TO  THE  GREATEST  ADVANTAGE, 
IN  THIS  COUNTRY. 


BY  SAMUEL  DEANE,  B.  D. 

ViCEPRKSIDENT  o?  BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  and  FELLOW  of  thi 
AMERICAN  ACADEMY  of  ARTS  and  SCIENCES. 


THE   SECOND   EDITION, 

SORRECTED,  IMPROVED,  and  ENLARGED,  by  the  AUTHOR. 


*•  FRIGORIBUS  PARTO  AGRICOL^  PLERUMQl'E  FRUUlTrUS, 

MLTUAQT'E  INTER  SE  LJETI  COXVIVIA  CURA>rT  : 

INVITAT  GENIALIS  HYEMS,  CURASQLB  RESOL\  IT." riRGIL. 


PRINTED  AT  WORCESTER,  MASSACHUSETTS, 

AT   THE  PRESS  OF 

ISAIAH    THOMAS, 

By  LsoNARD  WoRCESTSR,  for  Isaiah  Tuoma(| 


\ 


' i797t 


TO   THE 


FARMERS 


or 

NEWENGLAND  ; 
THIS     EDITION 

UF   THE 

GEORGICAL   DlCTlONART, 

REVISED,  CORRECTED,  an  a  ENLARGED, 
IS  INSCRIBED, 

WITH  MUCH  RESPECT, 
BY  THEIR  MOST  OBEDIENT, 
AND 

VERY  HUMBLE  SERVANT, 

THE  EDITOR. 

WORCESTER,  MARCH,    I797. 


CONTENTS. 


Cabbage 
Calf 
Canker 

Canker  Worm 
Carriage 


A.  ract 

Agriculture  9 

Air  10 

Anticor  ii 

Ants  13 

Apples  13 

Apple  Tree  14 

Arable  Land  15 
Arncho]iLe,Cynara  15 
Artichoke,//<r/ean/.  15 

AOi  15 

Aftes  16 

Afparagus  17 

Afpen  17 

Autumn  17 

Axe  17 

Barley 

Barn 

Barn  Yard 

Bean 

Beer 

Bees 

Beet 

Bidens 

Bird  Grafs 

Blight 

Blood 

Bog 

Browfe 

Buck  Wheat 

Bull 

Burn  Baking 

Burnet 

Burnt  Clay 

Burnt  Grain 

Buflies 


rue 

Carrot  44 

Cart  47 

Caterpillar  47 

Cattle  48 

Change  of  Crops  50 
Change  of  Seeds    52 


x8 
21 

21 

23 
25 
29 

32 
33 
33 
34 
34 
34 
34 
35 
35 

36 

37 

37 
38 


39 
41 

42 

42 

44 


Charcoal 

CharlocJc 

Cheele 

Chick  Weed 

Churn 

Churning 

Cider 

Ciderkin 

Cives 

Clay 

Clay  Soil 

Clearing  Land 

Climate 

Clog 

Clover 

Cole  Seed 

Compoft 

Copfe 

Corn 

Coulter 

Cow 

Cow  Hoiife 

Cradle 

Cream 

Crop 

Cucumbers 

Cultivator 

Currant 

Cuftom 

Cuttings 

Cyon 

D. 

Dairy 

Dairy  Room 

Darnel 

Denlhiring 

Dibble 

Ditch 

Ditching 


54 
55 
65 
56 
56 
67 

1^ 

62 
62 

64 
66 
66 
66 
69 

7=> 
71 

7» 

72 

72 

72 
74 
74 
74 
75 
7b 

76 
77 

77 


77 
78 

79 

79 

79 

79 
60 


Divifions 

80 

Door  Dung 

81 

Drain 

82 

Dray 

85 

Drefling 

85 

Drill 

86 

Drought 

V 

Dung 

89 

Dunghills 

94 

Dung  Mecrs 

95 

Dutch  Hoe 

95 

Dyke 

95 

E. 

Earth 

96 

Eddifli 

97 

Effluvium 

97 

Elder 

97 

Elf  Shot 

97 

Elm 

08 

Employment 

98 

EncJofure 

58 

Ewes 

<)8 

Excrement 

99 

Experience 

99 

Experiments 

99 

F. 

Faggot 

101 

Fall 

101 

Fallowing 

101 

Falfe  Quarter 

103 

Fan 

103 

Farcy 

103 

Farm 

104 

Farmer 

105 

Fen 

los 

Fence 

105 

FcrmetUation 

110 

Fern 

111 

Fefcue 

111 

Field 

111 

Fifh 

111 

Flail 

112 

Flanders  Grafs 

112 

Flax 

112 

Flax  Brake 

52829 


VI 


CONTENTS. 


Flnx  Brake 

115 

Hidebound 

153 

Flooding 

115 

Hoe 

1.54 

Flour 

116 

Hoeing 

>54 

Flower 

116 

Hoglly 

V57 

Flv 

117 

Hop 

158 

Foal 

117 

Horn  Diftemper 

160 

Fodder 

117 

Horfe 

i6o 

Foddering 

liq 

Horfe  Hoe 

162 

Fog 

121 

Hurdle 

162 

Folding 

121 

Hurls   in  the  1 
Withers       J 

163 

Food  of  Plants 

122 

Forci'l 

125 

Hufbandry 

163 

Foandcring 

125 

I. 

Freezing 

127 

F^  uit  Trees 

129 

Improvement 

163 
166 

Furrow 

^31 

Inarching 

Furrowing 

'31 

Inclofure 

169 

G. 

Increafe 

169 

Indian  Corn 

170 

Garden 

131 

Inoculating 

176 

Gardening 

132 

Infect 

^77 

Garget 

132 

Intcrral 

/4 

Gigs 
Glanders 

»^3 

K. 

Goats 

»33 

Kale 

185 

Goofe 

m 

Kalendar 

185 

Grafting 

^34 

Kali 

i-^e 

Grain 

'34 

Kalmia 

186 

Granary 

*3'' 

Kid 

186 

Grafs 

136 

Killing 

186 

Gravel 

J  37 

Kiln 

187 

Greafe 

^3^ 

Kine 

187 

Green  DrefTing 

139 

Kitchen  Garden 

4 

Greens 

'39 

L. 

Green  Scouring 

^39 

Gripes 

139 

I^ambs 

188 

Ground              ' 

140 

Lampas 

1H9 

Grove 

140 

Land 

189 

Grub 

i4i 

Larch 

189 

H 

Layers 

189 

J.  X  . 

Lay  Land 

190 

Harrow 

14 » 

Leaves 

190 

Harrowing 

H3 

Lees 

190 

J-iarveft 

»45 

Lice 

191 

Halchel 

146 

Lime 

191 

Hay 

.147 

Limeftone 

192 

Hayhoolc 

147 

Loam 

193 

Haymaking 

H7 

Locuft  Tree 

193 

Hemp 

15^ 

Luccfn 

194 

Heniin^  Furrows  i"."^ 

Lupines 

*94 

Herds  Grafs 

153 

Lye 

195 

M.  ft,, 

Malanders  195 

Malt  19^ 

Malt  Duft  195 

Manure  196 

Maple  203 

Mare  2?o 
Marking  of  Cattle2oo 

Marie  201 

Marlh        •  203 

Mattock  2C4 

Meadow  204 

Meafles  2C5 

Melon  205 

Meflin  205 

Metheglin  206 

Mice  2c6 

Mildew  207 

Milk  210 

Millet  210 

Mofs  211 

Mould  212 

Mouldboard  213 

Mow  213 

Mowing  213 
Mowing  GrouDd2i4 

Muck  217 

Mud  217 

Mulberry  219 

Mulch  219 

N. 

Nave  219 

Navel  Gall  219 

Nectarine  220 
New  Hufbandry  220 

Nurfery  225 

Nut  Tree  226 

Nympha  227 


Oak 

Gats 

Olive 

Onions 

Orchard 

Ore  Weed 

Ofier 


22  S 
231 
232 

233 
23; 
237 
239 


Overflowing  1 
ofiheGallj     ""^ 

Olli  HQUfi?3 


C  O  I^  T  E  N  T  S. 


Out  Houfcs 

240 

Ox 

240 

Oyfter 

340 

P. 

Pale 

241 

Pan 

241 

Panax 

242 

Panic 

243 

Parfnep 

243 

Pafture 

245 

Pafture  of  Plants  247 

Peach  Trees  249 

Pear  Trees  249 

Peafe  250 

Peat         ,  253 

Pen  255 

Perkin  or  Purre  259 

Perry  255 
Perfpiration  "• 

ot  Plants    /  ^^5 

Plant  25^ 

Plafter  of  Paris  257 

Plat  258 

Plough  2 -,8 

Ploughing  260 

Plum  Trees  265 

Poll  Evil  fi66 

Pond  266 

Poplar  267 

Potato  268 

Poultry  274 

Prong  Hoe  275 

Provender  275 

Pulfe  275 

Q. 

uakingMeadow275 
275 
275 

276 
juincunx  Order  276 
►uitch  Grafs       276 


>uick 
Juicks 
[iiickfilver 
Kiince  Tree 


R. 


Rabbit 

Rack 

Radicle 

Radilh 

Kags 


276 

277 
277 
277 


Rails  278 

Rain  278 

Rats  279 

Red  Worm  279 

Reed  279 

Ridgling  279 

Ripling  Cart  280 

Rod  2  80 

Roller  28o 

Rolling  28o 

Rood  281 

Roots  281 

Rot  283 
Rotation  of  Crops283 

Rowel  2^4 

Runnet  285 

Rufh  286 

Ruft  2B6 

Rye  286 

Rye  Grafs  287 

S. 

Salt  287 

Salting  288 

Sand  289 

Sandy  Soil  291 

Sap  291 

Scratches  292 

Sea  Water  292 

Seeds  293 

Seeding  294 

Seedling  294 

Semination  294 

Shade  295 

Shed  295 

Sheep  29J 

Shells  297 

Shrub  298 
Siliquofe  Plants   298 

Sithe  298 

Sled  298 

Slips  29?i 

Slough  299 

Sluice  299 

Smut  300 
Snead,  or  Snathe  3'->5 

Snow  335 

Soil  of:Qi 

Soiling  307 

Soot  307 

Sow  308 

Sowing  308 


Spade 

Spavin 

Spaying 

Spelt 

Spiky  Roller 

Spring 

Springs 

Spring  Grain 

Springe 

Spur  in  Rye 

Squalh 

Stable 

Stack 

Staggers 

Stale 

Stallion 

Stercorary^ 

Stock 

Stones 

Stone  Wall 

Stooking 

Stover 

Strain 

Stfangles 

Straw 

Strawberries 

String  Halt 

Stubble 

Stump 

Sty 

Sucker 

Summer 

Sunllovver 

Surfeit 

Swamp 

Sward 

Swarm 

Swarth 

Swath  Rake 

Swine 

Sycamore 

T. 


Tail  Sicknefs 

Team 

Teafcl 

Tetl'.er 

Thatch 

Thill  Horfe 

Thidle 

Thrafhin^ 

Tike       ° 


VII 

I'ag« 
312 
312 

3»3 
313 
3^3 
3H 
314 
315 
3^5 
3»5 
316 
316 

3V 

317 
3id 

318 
318 

320 
321 
323 
323 
323 
323 
324 
325 
32/? 
326 
326 
326 
327 

32  > 
328 
328 
328 

33a 
33-^ 
331 
33^ 
331 

33  i 
337 


33« 

3-1'^ 
340 
340 
340 
341 
341 
Till,-o 


VHI 


CONTENTS; 


Tillage  342 

Tiller  342 

Tilth  342 

Timber  342 

Timothy  Grafs  343 

Tobacco  343 

Top  Dreffing  34  s 

Tranlplantiilg  346 

Tree  347 

Trefoil  34>J 

Trench  348 

Trench  Plough.  34*$ 

Trowel  348 

Tumour  348 

Turf  350 

Turkey  350 

Turnip  351 

Turnip  Cabbage  354 

V. 

Valley  355 

Van,  or  Fan  355 

Udder  356 

Veering  356 

Vegetable  356 

VegetatioH  356 

Ventilator  357 

Verjuice  357 

Verminc  338 

Vetch  358 

Vmc-  358 


363 
364 
364 
304 
365 
366 


Vinegar 

Vineyard 

\'ives 

Ulcer 

Urine 

Uftifago 

W. 

'^Vaggon  366 

Wall  367 

AVane  367 

Warbles  367 

AA'ater  367 

WaterFurro^'ing  369 


Watering 

Weather 

A\'^edge 

^^[eedlng 

A^'eeds 

'V\'^eevil 

Wheat 

W^heel 

Wheezing 

Whelp 

Whey 

White  Scour 

White  Weed 

Willow 

Wind  Gall 

Wine 

Winnowing 


369 
369 
371 
371 
372 
376 

377 
3«i 

3«3 
3^3 
3«3 
383 
383 
384 

386 
391 


Winter 

Winter  Grain 

Withe 

Woad 

Wolf 

Wood 

W^ood  Land 

Woody 

W^ool 

Worms 

Wound 

Y. 


39  » 
391 
391 
392 
392 
392 
392 
392 
393 
394 
394 


Yard  a  Aafure    395 
Yard  an  enclofure  395 


Year 

Yellow  Weed 

Yellows 

Yeoman 

Yeft 

Yew  Tree 

Yoak 


Z. 


Zapctino 

Zea 

Zebra 

Zephyr 

Zeft 


395 
395 
395 
396 
396 
396 
397 


397 
397 
397 
397 
397 


INTRO  DUCTJOI^, 


INTRODUCTION. 


It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that  the  moft 
complicated  of  all  the  arts,  in  which  the  brighteft  genius 
may  find  fufficient  room  to  exert  and  difplay  itfelf,  fhould 
be  flighted  and  neglecled,  by  a  people  not  generally 
wanting  in  ambition.  And  it  is  equally  ftrange  and  unac- 
countable, that  the  moft  ufeful  and  neceffary  of  all  em- 
ployments (hould  have  been  confidered,  even  by  the  en- 
lightened people  of  Newengland,  as  below  the  atten- 
tion of  any  perfons,  excepting  thofe  who  are  in  the  low- 
eft  walks  of  life  ;  or,  that  perfons  of  a  libeml  cr  polite 
education  fliould  think  it  intolerably  degrading  to  them, 
to  attend  to  praftical  agriculture  for  their  fupport. 

Perhaps,  one  occafion  of  the  low  efteem  in  which  huf- 
bandry  has  been  held,  in  this  country,  may  have  been 
the  poor  fuccefs  which  has  moft  commonly  attended  the 
labours  of  thofe  who  have  embraced  the  profeflion.  Not 
only  hare  moft  of  them  failed  of  rapidly  increafing  their 
eftates  by  it,  bu  too  many  have  had  the  mortification  of 
making  but  an  indiEFerent  figure  in  life,  even  when  they 
have  ufed  the  ftrideft  economy,  and  worn  out  their con- 
llilutions  by  hard  and  incellant  labour.  The  misfortune 
has  been,  that  a  great  proportion  of  their  toil  ha^  been 
loft  by  its  mifapplication.  To  prevent  this  evil  in  fu- 
ture is  a  leading  defign  of  the  prefent  publication.  And 
fmce  manv  among  us  begin  to  be  c6nvinced  of  the  ur- 
gent neceffity  of  having  the  attention  of  the  publick  turn- 
ed to  agriculture,  it  is  hoped  that  the  following  attempt  to 
promote  the  knowledge  of  its  myfteiies,  and  a.  fpinted  at- 

£^  tentiQQ 


a  I  N  T  R  O  D  U  C  T  1  ON. 

tcntipn  to  the  operations  of  it,  will  meet  with  the  grciitT' 
approbation  and  fuccefs.  And  as  a  very  refpe61able  So- 
ciety in  the  Commonwealth  of  Maffachufetts  have  under- 
taken to  propagate  the  knowledge  of  hufbandry,  the  day 
may  be  at  hand,  when  the  employment  of  the  farmer  fhall 
no  more  be  treated  with  contempt  ;  when  the  rich,  the  po- 
lite, and  the  ambitious,  fhall  glory  in  paying  a  clofe  at- 
tention to  their  farms  ;  when  refpedlable  perfons  Ihall 
confefs  it  is  one  of  the  noblefh  employments  to  aflift  na- 
ture in  her  bountiful  prodiiftions  *  when  it  fhall  be  our 
ambition  to  follow  the  example  of  the  firft  man  in  the 
nation,  who  does  not  think  an  attention  to  hufbandry 
degrading  ;  and  wlien.  inftead  of  being  afhamed  of  their 
employment,  our  laborious  farmers  fhall,  as  a  great  writ- 
er fays,   "  tofo  about  their  dung  with  an  air  of  majefly." 

Amidfl  the  laudable  efforts  that  are  now  making  to 
promote  fo  excellent  a  defign  as  the  revival  of  agricul- 
ture, the  writer  of  the  following  fheets  is  humbly  attempt- 
ing to  throw  in  his  mite.  He  has  been  more  prompted 
to  engage  in  fo  arduous  an  undertaking,  by  an  opinion 
he  has  long  entertained  of  the  need  of  a  work  of  this  kind, 
adapted  to  the  Hate  and  circumftances  of  this  country, 
than  by  any  idea  of  his  being  thoroughly  qualified  to 
undertake  it. 

European  books  on  agriculture  are-  fufhciently  plenty 
in  the  world,  fome  of  which  are  extremely  well  written  ; 
and  this  country  is  not  wholly  unfurniflied  with  them. 
But  they  are  not  perfedly  adapted  to  a  region  fo  differ- 
ently circumllanced.  Though  the  produdions  of  En- 
glifh  writers  may  be  perufcd  by  the  judicious  to  great  ad- 
\'antage,  it  would  be  unadvifable,  and  perhaps  ruinous, 
for  our  farmers  to  adopt  the  methods  of  culture  in  grofs, 
which  they  recomnvend  to  their  countrymen.  Local cir- 
cumilances  fo  widely  differ  in  the  two  countries,  that,  in 
many  cafes,  the  right  management  in  the  one  mufl  needs 
be  wrong  in  the  other.  Britain,  being  generally  liable  to 
too  much  wetnefs,  the  EngliQi  methods  of  culture  mull 
in  may  refpeQs  be  different  from  thofe  of  a  region  that  is 
moflly  annoyed,  as  ours  is,  with  the  oppofite  extremity 
of  drought.  Difference  of  heat  and  cold  muft  require  a 
coriefpondent  variation  in  thefuitable  crops  and  manage- 
ments 


INTRODUCTION.  g 

•Tnent-  DifFercnce  of  fcafons  and  climates  vary  the  fit 
times  for  fowing  the  fame  kinds  of  feed  ;  and  the  ma- 
nures that  prove  to  be  mofl  profitable  in  one  country, 
cannot  always  be  rationally  cxpt61cd  to  prove  fo  in  an- 
other, although  they  were  equally  obtainable.  And 
though  Americans  fpeak  the  Engli(h  language,  yet  the 
di6lion  peculiar  to  different  farmers  on  the  eafi  and  wcfl; 
of  the  Atlantick,  and  the  manner  of  their  communicat- 
.  ving  their  ideas  on  hufbandry  are  fo  little  alike,  as  to  ren- 
der it  highly  expedient  that  we  fhould  be  indructcd  in  it 
by  our  own  countrymen,  rather  than  by  flrangers,  if  any 
among  us  can  be  found  capable  of  doing  it  in  a  tolerable 
degree. 

The  writer  confeffes  he  has  never  had  fuflicient  leifure 
to  attend  very  clofely  to  the  ftudy  of  agriculture.      But, 
having  always  had  a  high   relifh  for  natural  philofophy, 
and  particularly   for  this  mofl    profitable  and   important 
branch  of  it,  he. has  paid  all  pofTible  attention  to  it  for  a 
number  of  years,  employed  many  of  his  vacant  hours  in 
perufing  what  has  been  publifhed  by  tjiebcft  writers,  and 
in  making  ufeful  experiments  in  hulbandry.      He  flatters 
himfelf,  therefore,  that  he    Ihall   not  have  the   unhappi- 
nefs  of  grofsly  mitlL-ading  any  of  the  moil  ignorant  of  his 
readers.     Many   things  are  written  from  his  own  exoeri- 
.ence,    and  from     that     of    others  in     this     country,    on 
whofe   veracity    in   their    communications   he  can   rely. 
Things  which  are  not  certainly  known  are  mentioned  on- 
ly as    opinion    or  conjc6lure.     Extra6ls   are   made  from 
fome  of  the  beft  authors,  and  marked   as  '';'ch.     He  has 
not  wilfully  allerted    any  thing  which  he  does  not   know 
tobefa^.t.      And  though  he  has  adopted  the  ideas  of  others, 
he  has  not  paflTed  any   thing  on   the  pubhck  as  his    own, 
which  has  beeu  publifhed  by  others,  unlefs  it  be  throu<yh 
inattention  or  miftake.     Whether  the   rcafonings  be  juft, 
every  intelligent  reader  muft  judge  and  determine  ;  and 
to  the  candour  of  fuch  the  whole  isfubmitted. 

Long  and  particular  accounts  of  experiments,  fuch  as 
abound  in  many  European  publications,  are  generally 
omitted,  left  they  fhould  tnke  up  too  much  room,  in  a 
book  that  is  me.mt  to  be  comprehenfive,  and  clieap  to  the 
purchafer,  at  the  fiinie  time  that  it  is  dcligncd  to  contain 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

a  ^\'ho!e  fyftem  of  hufbandn'.  N^either  would  the  inten- 
tion of  comprehending  much  in  a  little  room  permit  the 
pages  to  be  filled  with  lengthy  bills  of  the  coft  of  culture, 
and  computations  of  profit,  which  many  writers  have  too 
much  run  into  :  and  in  which  any  writer  in  this  countrv, 
where  the  price  of  labour  is  variable,  would  be  in  dan- 
ger of  deceiving  both  himfelf  and  his  readers.  Our  farm- 
ers have  a  fufficient  knowledge  of  ariihmetick  to  do  thefe 
things  for  themfelves  ;  and  it  would  not  be  amifs  for 
them  to  amufe  themfelves  in  this  way.  in  fome  of  their 
moments  of  leifure. 

That  the  writer  has  been  excited  to  treat  on  the  pref- 
€nt  fubjecl  by  a  tender  concern  for  the  welfare  of  his 
countri-,  more  than  by  any  felfifh  and  finifter  view,  thofe 
Tvhoarebeft  acquainted  with  him  arefufficiently  convinc- 
ed. At  the  fame  time,  he  will  not  pretend  to  deny  his 
feeling  of  an  ambition  to  be  one  of  the  firfl  of  his  nation, 
who  has  thus  endeavoured  to  lighten  the  labours,  and  pro- 
mote the  happinafs  of  his  countrymen.  Yet  he  moft  fin- 
cerely  wifhes,  that  other  writers  on  the  fubjecl  mav  foon 
carry  the  fyfcem  nearer  to  perfedion,  as  they  undoubtedly 
•will.  But  the  difadvantages  he  is  under  by  being  To  ear- 
ly, and  having  an  unbeaten  way  to  explore,  will  doubt- 
lefs  apologize  for  him  with  all  who  are  candid  andconfider- 
ate,  and  partly  atone  for  his  errors  and  imperfections,  from 
which  it  would  be  ftran^e  if  he  were  wholly  free. 

Though  agriculture,  {hidlv  confidered.  has  nothing  to 
do  with  the  breeding  and  management  of  tame  animals, 
yet  it  is  fo  clofelv  connected  with  thofe  employments,  in 
praftice,  that  the  farmer  cannot  be  complete  wihout  a 
confiderable  knowledge  thereof.  It  is  by  the  affiftance 
of  labouring  beads,  fuch  as  horfes  and  oxen,  that  he 
mufl  carry  on  his  tillage,  and  fend  the  produce  of  his 
lands  to  market.  By  the  help  of  milch  Vine  his  grafs, 
hay,  and  other  fodder,  are  to  be  converted  into  butter  and 
cheefe.  Bullocks,  poultr)'  and  fwine  muft  be  fed  and 
fattened  with  the  produce  of  his  farm,  that  he  and  his 
family  may  be  fed  with  their  flefb.  and  the  markets  fup- 
plied  with  meat.  And  the  fheep  mufl  afCft  him  in 
the  tranfmutation  of  the  fruits  of  his  ground  into  mate- 
rials for  clothing  and  food.  Therefore  the  rearing,  tend- 
ing 


INTRODUCTION".  5 

jDg,  and  whole  manngcmciit,  of  all  thefe  forts  of  animals, 
are  attended  to  in  the  ftillowinj;  work  ;  including  the 
methods  of  preventing  and  curing  the  moH  common  dif- 
tempers  to  which,  in  this  climate,  they  arc  liable. 

Noxious  animals,  fuch  as  beafts  of  prey,  ravenous  birds, 
and  devouring  infedls,  have  too  much  connexion  with  agri- 
culture, as  the  farmer  knows  by  his  forrowful  experience. 
He  ought  therefore  to  be  inflru6led  in  the  mofl  effectual 
methods  of  defending  his  property  againfl  them.  This 
arduous  tafk,  to  which  no  one  perhaps  can  pretend 
to  be  fully  equal,  the  reader  will  find  attempted,  and  it  is 
hoped,  in  fome  good  degree  performed,  in  the  toilowing 
pages. 

As  fruit  trees  are  of  effential  importance  to  the  farmer, 
the  rearing  of  them  from  feeds  and  otherwile,  as  alio  the 
grafting,  tranfplanting  and  pruning  them,  are  attended 
to  in  this  work. 

And  as  agriculture  cannot  be  carried  on  to  the  beft  ad- 
vantage, without  a  variety  of  luitabJe  tools  and  machines  ; 
the  mofl  important  and  ufeful  of  farming  implements 
are  treated  of.  Much  of  the  eafe  and  comfort  of  the  la- 
bourer, as  well  as  the  profit  of  the  farmer,  depends  upon 
their  being  well  conflnittcd.  Their  conftruttion,  there- 
fore, is  minutely  attended  to,  although  the  art  of  the  me- 
chanick  is  the  branch  to  which  it  mod  properly  belongs. 

The  author  attempted  to  arrange  the  parts  of  his  fub- 
jc6l  analytically.  But  the  variety  of  the  materials  he 
had  colle£led  was  fo  great,  and  their  heterogeneoulnels  fo 
obvious,  that  he  found  it  not  eafy  to  doit  to  his  own  fat- 
isfadlion  ;  which  is  one  of  the  reafons  why  the  book 
makes  its  appearance  in  the  lexicographical  form.  And 
when  he  confiders  that  what  he  is  doing  is  not  principal- 
ly for  the  inflruQion  of  critical  Icholars,  but  for  the  di- 
reclion  of  the  conat'non  people,  it  appears  that  the  want 
of  a  fyftematical  arrangement  iiamatrer  of  no  greatconlc- 
cjucnce.  On  the  prelrMit  plan,  he  has  faved  himfclf  the 
trouble  of  writintr  a  long  index,  which  mnfl  have  added 
leveral  pages  to  the  volume,  andincreafcd  its  price  to  the 
purchafers,  which  ht*  wifiics  mav  be  as  low  as  poffibje, 
for  their  encouragement.  Perhaps  it  need  not  be  added, 
t'lat  the   fafhionablenefs  of  an  alphabetical   method  is  a 

further 


6  INTRODUCTION. 

further  apology  for  the  form  in  which  this  book  appears  • 
nor  the  advantage  the  mofl  illiterate  reader  will  have  of 
readily  rurning  to  any  particular  part  cf  the  general  fubjeft. 

It  IS  hoped  that  an  acquaintance  with  this  volume,  if 
it  fliould  be  perufed  by  the  generality  of  our  farmers,  will 
enable  them  to  communicate  their  ideas  to  each  other,  and 
to  learners  in  hufbandry,  with  the  greater  perfpicuity  and 
propriety,  and  lead  them  to  ufe  nearly  the  fame  language 
in  doing  it,  in  the  various  parts  of  the  country.  For  the 
writer  has  endeavoured  that  his  diclion  fhould  not  only 
be  concife.  but  plain  and  intelligible  to  ordinary  readers  ; 
fuch  as  is  moft  fuitable  to  the  fubjed,  and  not  adapted  to 
lead  any  into  the  ufe  of  abfurd  and  ungrammatical  lan- 
guage. How  far  thefe  deCgns  are  accomplifhed  the  learn- 
ed and  judicious  reader  will  be  able  to  determine. 

As  a  mumber  of  vulgar  errors  and  prejudices  are  de- 
tected, and  new  methods  of  management  propofed,  it  is  ex- 
pected that  ivhat  is  written  will  be  cenfured  by  many,  who 
have  confirmed  themfelves  in  wrong  practices  by  invete- 
rate habits.  But  if  perfons  will  only  be  fofair  as  to  allow, 
that  there  is  a  poflibili ty  of  fome  want  of  perfeftion  in 
their  prefent  eflablilhed  praftice  ;  which  is  at  lead  high- 
ly probable,  as  this  is  a  country  where  hufbandry  as  an 
art  has  not  been  taught,  nor  much  attended  to  ;  they  will 
then  fee  it  is  reafonable  to  give  a  candid  hearing  to  any 
new  fcheme  of  improvement  fuggefled,  and  to  plaufible 
arguments  offered  in  fupport  of  its  utility  ;  and  allow 
themfelves  to  be  influenced  by  them.  If  thofe  who  are 
in  low  circum fiances  fhould  fear  they  may  fuffer  lofs,  by 
trying  any  new  praftice  in  hufbandry,  it  is  hoped  the 
richer  fort  will  be  inclined  to  do  it  by  love  of  their  coun- 
try. For  others  will  undoubtedly  inquire  concerning 
their  fuccefs  ;  and  when  they  are  convinced  by  experi- 
ments made  by  their  neighbours  of  the  advantage  of  any 
new  pradice,  one  would  think  they  can  need  no  other 
motive  to  induce  them  to  adopt  it. 

On  the  other  hand,  let  not  the  book  be  reprobated  for 
containing  fo  many  things  as  it  does,  which  are  already 
well  known  to  farmers.  The  farmer  may  find  reafons  for 
his  good  pradice  which  he  has  not  before  thought  of,  and 
be  induced  to  perfevere  in    it,     And  befides,  all   ufeful 

knowledge 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

knowledge  ought  to  be  recorded,  that  it  mav  be  retained, 
and  be  in  no  danger  of  being  loft,  as  a  great  deal  has  beeii 
in  the  world.  It  fiiould  alio  be  remembered  that  things 
which  are  well  known  by  fome  may  be  quite  new  to  oth- 
ers ;  cfpecially  to  young  perlons,  and  to  all  thofe  who- 
have  newly  turned  their  attention  to  hufbandiy. 

The  writer  has  had  more  zeal  and  courage  in  attempt- 
ing to  promote  improvements  in  agriculture,  lince  the 
happy  termination  of  the  late  ftruggle  for  independence 
than  before.  Our  holding  the  rank  of  a  free  and  inde- 
pendent nation  allows  us  to  confider  the  country  as  in- 
difputably  our  own,  and  ourfelves  as  monarchs  over  our 
farms.  Nor  does  it  appear  probable,  that  we  fliall  fooii 
meet  with  any  thing  that  will  give  us  a  material  inter- 
ruption, in  purfuing  the  arts,  or  enjoying  the  bleflings  of 
peace.  If  great  improvements  were  now  to  be  inade,  we 
might  have  reafon  to  hope  we  fliould  enjoy  the  benefits  of 
them  through  life,  and  that  pofterity  would  not  be  de- 
privt"i  of  them. 

But  the  moft:  forcible  reafon  for  our  cultivating  this  art, 
is  the  indifpcnfable  necefTity  of  it,  to  enable  us  to  live  as 
becomes  an  independent  people.     The  alarming  cffcd  of 
the  prefent  low  ftate  of  hufbandry  is,  that  we  are  neceffi- 
tated  to  import  much  of  our  food,  and  clothing,  while  we 
are  incapable  of  making  proportionable  remittances  in  the 
produce  of  the  foil,  or  in  any  thing  clfe.  As  a  good  fyfteni 
of  national  government  is  now  eftablilhed,  I  fee  no  reafon 
to  doubt  but    that  a  fpirited   attention  to  hufbandry  and 
manufadures,  accompanied  with  a  more  general  pradlice  of 
fmgality  and  economy,  wouldput  usona  rcfpeftable  foot- 
ing; fo  that  fuch  a  foundation  would  be  laid  for  our  increaf- 
ing  wealth,  that  we  fhould  be  able,  in  a  fliort  time,  to  can- 
cel our  publick    debts  ;   and  might  reafonably  hope  ere 
long  to  become  an.  opulent,  refpedable  and  'very    pow- 
erful nation. 

As  to  the  prefent  edition,  its  appearing  fo  foon  after  the 
firft  IS  dccafioned  by  the  rapid  fale  of  the  book,  aiifing 
from  the  general  acceptance  it  has  obtained  ;  and  the  in- 
cre.ifmg  demand  could  not  otherwife  be  fupplied. 

The  author  has  taken  the  opportunity  to  corrcda  grcit 
number  of  fmall  errors.     .Some  few  things  are  fupprefl- 


8  INTRODUCTIONS 

c'd  in  this  publication.  The  diftion  in  many  parts  is  much 
improved.  Many  articles  are  more  largely,  and  more  accu- 
rately treated  of  than  they  were  before  ;  and  a  number  of 
new  andimportantones  are  added,  with  a  view  to  render  the 
work  a  more  complete  direQory  for  hufbandmen.  And 
that  the  vegetables  that  are  treated  on  may  be  known  to 
perfons  in  other  countries,  as  well  as  in  remote  parts  of  our 
own,  where  they  are  probably  called  by  different  names  from 
thofe  Englifli  ones  he  had  given  them,  he  has  now  added 
the  botanical  names,  which  are  extenfively  known  by  per- 
lonsof  erudition.  On  the  whole,  he  thinks  the  book  is  far 
more  increafed  in  value  than  in  fize.  If,  in  its  prefemt  im- 
proved flate.it  ftiall  be  found  to  contribute  towards  reviv- 
ing and  continuing  the  fpirit  of  hufbandry,  and  towards  the 
increafing  advantage  of  thofe  who  are  employed  in  it,  he 
will  confider  it  as  the  molt  happy  reward  he  can  hav« 
for  his  labour. 


THE 


THE 


NEWENGLAND    FARMER: 


O     R 


GEORGICAL   DICTIONARY, 


A, 


A  G  R 


.GRICULTURE,  in  gener- 
al, nearly  the  lame  as  liiifbandry  ; 
but  tnore  llii^Uy  tillage,  or  the 
culture  of  land. 

The  word  is  compounded  ot 
ager,  a  field,  and  lultura,  tilling  ; 
and  intends  the  art,  or  employ- 
ment, ot  rendering  the  earth  triiit- 
ful  by  tillage,  extending  to  the 
care  of  all  iilcrul  vegetables.  Hor- 
ticulture, or  gardening,  is  includ- 
ed in  it  ;  and,  tlicrctore,  will  not 
be  wholly  omitted  in  the  follow- 
ing pages. — Though, in  amorcrc- 
Itrained  ienfc,  agriculture  is  ufed 
lor  the  culture  of  arable  lands, 
including  ploughing,  manuring, 
feeding,  ^c.  yet  it  is  really  con- 
verfunt  with  the  care  t)f  paftures 
and  meadows,  orchards  and  lor- 
efts  ;  and  wiUi  the  cultivation 
of  all  the  ufeful  fruits  of  the  earth, 
that  in  any  way  arc  produced  by 
the  caie  and  laiiour  ot  man. 

Agriculture  is  juflly  thought  to 
be  the  moil  ancient  art  ;  and  it  is 
certainly  by  far  the  moU  ulctul, 
ncCedary  and  beneficial.  1  he 
tiibHilencc  and  welfare  of  man- 
kind depend  more  on  it  than  on 

U 


A  G  R 

any,  or  all  others  :  And  all  other 
arts  would  foon  be  ulelefs,  were 
the  culture  of  the  furlace  ot  the 
earth  negle^^ted.  No  art,  there- 
fore, ought  to  be  held  in  higher 
ellimation.  The  ancients  valued, 
it  highly  ;  and  no  good  reafon 
can  be  given  why  the  modcrn-j 
Ihould  lightly  eflcem  it.  The 
Egyptians,  Greeks  and  Romans, 
afcribed  the  invention  ot  this  art 
to  their  Gods  ;  but  Jews  and 
Chriltians  rather  trace  it  up  to 
Noah  and  Cain,  the  former  of 
whom  planted  a  vineyard,  and  the 
latter,  long  before  him,  was  a  till- 
er of  the  ground.  Even  Adam 
in  paratlife  pratfifcd  one  branch 
of  this  art  ;  he  was  put  into  the 
garden  of  Eden  to  cirefs  it,  and 
to  keep  it. 

The  immortal  jioel  Virgil  did 
not  think  agriculiurcafubjctf  un- 
worthy ot  h:s  genius  ;  and  fns 
Gcorgicks  are  eilecmed  as  fome 
of  the  moft  excellent  of  his  works. 
Agriculture  has  drawn  the  atten- 
tion of  Ibmeot  tliegreatefl  men  in 
all  nations,  many  ot  whom  liayc 
b.ad  theii  hands,  as  well  as  their 
hc^ds, 


10  A  G  R 

head?-,  emy'loyed  in  it,  Cyrus  the 
younger  planted  and  cu!t!\"ated 
h;$  garden  partly  -with  his  own 
hanr.i  ;  And  it  is  well  known  that 
the  Romans  took  forae  of  their 
preateft  generals  from  the  plough. 
Cincinnatas,  whofe  fame  is  great, 
and  ^^'hcfe  name  is  much  honour- 
ed in  America,  was  ploughing  in 
l,is  field,  when  the  Roman  army 
wasbefieged  in  its  trenches  by  the 
-^uJandVolfci.  Being  feni  tor, 
}:e  went  to  the  arm\',  routed  the 
enemy,  entered  the  city  in  tri- 
timph,  and  then  returned  to  hiy 
former  employment-  The  mon- 
arch of  the  great  empire  of  Chi- 
na, every  fpring,  attends  to  the 
ceremony  of  opening  the  ground, 
by  holding  the  plough.  What 
could  more  conduce  to  the  en- 
couragement of  this  occupation 
smong  his  numerous  fubjects  ? 
Agriculture  has  been  fo  great  an 
object  in  Britain,  as  to  employ  the 
pens  of  a  multitude  of  its  geni- 
ufes  ;  and  the  Englifti  books  that 
have  been  Mo-itten  upon  it  are 
furprifingly  numerou5»  In  that 
country,  if  I  miftake  nor,  huf- 
bandry  has  been  brought  as  near 
to  perfefition,  as  in  any  part  of 
the  world.  And  it  is  owing  to 
tnis  that  th«  iOand  fapports  fo 
great  a  num'ber  ot  inhcabrtants  ; 
and  that  tlie  Knglifli  nation  has 
been  fo  opulent  and  powerful. 

Though  other  employments 
are  oftentimes  more  lucrative  to 
individuals  than  hufbandrx",  none 
can  be  fo  ad\-antageous  to  the 
w^orld.  If  it  is  a  flower  way  ot 
gaining  wealth  than  fome  others. 
It  is  perhaps  the  leaft  hazard- 
ous of  any.  The  fanner  depends 
r.ot  on  winds  and  waves,  like  the 
mariner  ;  nor  on  the  good  will 
of  his  neighbours  and  the  pub- 
lick,  for  employment  and  bread, 
like  the  mechanick.  The  bufi- 
nefs  of  hufbandry  is  highly  adapt- 
ed to  promote  the  health  of  the 


A  I   K 

body,  and  the  cheerfulnefs  and 
content  of  the  mind.  And  if  it 
were  better  underftood  in  this 
country,  and  more  fpiritedly  pur- 
fued,  both  the  pleafure  and  the 
profit  attending  it  would  be  vaft- 
ly  greater  than  we  have  yet  expe- 
rienced. It  is  an  eroplovment, 
which  affords  a  variety  of  enter- 
taining fpeculations  to  an  inquifi- 
tive  mind  ;  and  is  adapted  to  lead 
us  into  a  confiderable  acquaint- 
ance with  the  works  of  nature, 
and  with  nature's  God. 

"  In  a  philofophick  \*iew,"  fays 
one,  "  Agriculture  is  great  and 
extenfive.  In  a  political  view,  it 
is  important,  and  perhaps  the  on- 
ly firm  and  ftable  loundation  of 
freatnefs.  As  a  profeflion,  it 
rengthens  the  mind,  without  e- 
nervating  the  body.  In  morals,  it 
tends  to  increafe  'rirtue,  without 
introducing  vice.  In  religion,  it 
naturally  infpires  piety,  devotion, 
and  a  dependence  on  Providence, 
without  a  tincture  of  infidelity. 
It  is  a  rational  and  agreeable  a- 
mufement  to  the  man  of  leifure, 
and  a  boundlefs  fource  of  con- 
templation and  activity  to  the 
induftrious." 

AIR,  the  matter  of  which  the 
atmofphere  of  the  earth  con  fills, 
or  the  fluid  which  furrounds  the 
terraqueous  globe.  The  air  is  al  - 
ways  fo  loaded  with  heterogene- 
ous particles,  that  it  is  imj>oflible 
entirely  to  extricate  it  from  them. 
It  is  therefore  confidered  by  fome 
as  a  kind  of  chaos.  That  it  has 
much  water  in  it  is  eafily  obfer\'- 
able.  The  dew^  that  nightly  falls 
out  cf  it  proves  it.  Ten  thou- 
fand  different  fl^eams  from  min- 
erals, vegetables  and  animals,  are 
continually  afcending,  and  mix- 
ing with  the  air. 

The    air,  therefore,    contains 

much  of  the  food  of  plants  ;  for 

it  is  well  known,  that  all  animal 

aad  vegetable  fubllances  nourifli 

plants. 


A  I  R 

plants.  Accordingly,  the  molt 
barren  turts  laid  high  in  dikes,  or 
fuch  as  in  fomc  countries  are  pil- 
ed up  for  fences,  or  the  walls  of 
buildings,  by  being  long  expofed 
to  the  air,  become  [o  highlv  im- 
pregnated wiih  the  food  ot  plants, 
as  to  be  a  rich  manure.  And  it 
is  well  known  to  farmers,  in  fomc 
countries,  that  laying  the  furlace 
ot  the  land  in  fteep  ridges,  only 
during  one  winter,  conduces 
much  to  its  fertility.  The  tcrtil- 
izing  particles  in  the  air  cafily 
enter  the  foil,  when  it  is  loofe 
and  open,  and  much  expofed  to 
the  penetration  ot  air. 

Seeds  that  are  fecludcd  from  the 
air  will  not  vegetate.  Thofe  which 
are  buried  deep  in  the  ground  will 
not  fprout,  till  by  fome  means 
they  are  brought  fo  near  the  fur- 
lace as  to  fupply  tliem  with  air. 
Numbers  ot  new  weeds  will  ap- 
pear on  fallowed  land,  alter  eve- 
ry ploughing  :  The  realon  -of 
which  is,  that  each  ploughing 
brings  up  fome  feeds  to  the  air, 
which  were  before  too  low,  or  too 
clofely  confined,  to  receive  its  in- 
fluence. 

Mr.  Ray  fowed  feme  lettuce 
feed  in  the  glafs  receiver  of  an  air 
pump,  exhaufled  of  air,  which 
feed  did  not  grow,  nor  fprout  at 
all,  in  eight  days :  Whereas  fome 
of  the  fame  feed,  fown  at  the  fame 
time  in  open  air,  was  rifea  to  the 
height  ot  an  inch  and  a  half.  But 
tlie  air  being  admitted  into  the 
receiver,  the  fame  feed,  which 
had  not  difcovered  the  leail  fign 
ot  vegetation  in  fo  many  days  be- 
tore,  in  a  week  grew  to  the  height 
ot  three  inches. 

A  plant  needs  air  in  every  ftagc 
of  its  growth.  Itsoutcrcoat  needs 
a  free  air  to  keep  it  in  a  dry  ftate 
and  give  it  lolidiiy.  It  abforbs 
air  and  perfj)ircs  it.  It  is  an  ef- 
Ijpntial  part  ot  the  nourifiimentof 
plants,   which  enters  chiefly   at 


A  X  T  11 

their  roots,  but  very  plciuifully, 
alfo  tlirough  the  pores  of  the 
leaves.  Air  is  known  to  cxift  in 
all  plants ;  they  fenfibly  fend  tWth 
much  of  it  w  Ilea  they  are  burxi- 
ing  in  the  fire. 

A  tree  circulation  of  air  about 
all  parts  of  the  furfacc  of  a  plant 
is  nccelTary  to  keep  it  in  a  healthy 
ftate.  It  is  the  want  of  this,  which 
caufcs  thick  grafs  and  grain  to 
lodge,  before  it  is  come  to  matu- 
rity. Therefore,  care  Ihould  be 
taken  that  grain  be  not  fowed  too 
thick,  nor  the  weeds  lufrered  to 
grow  among  it,  in  fuch  plenty  as 
to  Hop  the  tree  current^  of  air 
through  it.  The  flcms  will  be 
fott  and  feeble,  if  they  are  not 
hardened  by  a  free  current  of  air 
among  them. 

ANTICOR,  "  a  fwclling  in 
the  gullet  and  throat  of  a  horfc, 
and  IS  the  fame  which  in  man  is 
called  angina.  It  proceeds  from 
the  fame  cauies  that  brin^  on  ma- 
ny other  difeafcs  on  hoHcs,  trom 
hard  riding,  expofing  a  horfc  to 
the  cold,  giving  him  cold  water 
to  drink  when  he  is  hcrt,  full  feed- 
ing, and  whatever  elle  may  cauie 
a  itagnaiion  in  t!u?  blood. 

"  The  Cgr.s  of  this  diforder  are 
all  thofe  tliat  accompany  a  fever  i 
foran  anticor,  while  it  is  internal, 
never  wants  a  tever  to  attend  it ; 
But  when  it  fhews  itfelf  external- 
ly the  tever  begins  to  abate,  un- 
lefs  it  continue  to  be  both  exter- 
nal and  internal. 

'*  So  long  as  the  inflammation 
continues  in  the  gullet,  the  horfe 
forfakes  his  food  :  And  though 
he  has  lixquent  inclinations  to 
drink,  the  fidl  gulp  deters  him 
from  meddling  with  it  again,  un- 
til he  has  forgot  the  pain  and  ag- 
ony it  put  him  iijto.  And  the 
pain  in  the  gullet  is  yet  more  man- 
ifeft  trom  this,  that  whenever  » 
drench  is  given  him  be  ftaggers, 
ajid   fcems  as  if  he  would  faJi 

down, 


12  A  N  T 

<Iown,anfl  rrake?  fhort  interrupted 
groans,  and  fometimes  will  have  a 
cold  clammy  fweat  about  his  ears. 

"  The  cure  muft  be  begun  by 
bleeding,  and  that  needs  not  be 
very  fparing :  For  this  difeafe  fel- 
dom  happens  to  horfes  that  are 
poor  and  low.  And  here  we  al- 
io approve  of  fticking  one  or  oth- 
er ofthe  veins  in  the  hind  parts, 
to  make  revulfion. 

"  After  bleeding,  the  following 
clyfter  may  be  given  : 

"  Take  two  handfuls  of  barley, 
tvro  ounces  of  fal  polychreft,  re- 
duced to  fine  powder  :  Boil  thera 
in  two  quarts  of  water  for  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour  :  Add  to  the  de- 
coftion  a  pint  of  wine,  four 
ounces  of  rrefh  butter,  and  two 
ounces  of  oil  of  rue.  Let  this  be 
given  blood  warm,  and  repealed 
twice  a  day,  or  oftener. 

"If  he  takes  to  food,  nothing 
mull  be  given  him  but  rcoiftened 
hay,  and  fcalded  bran  ;  cr  what- 
ever elfe  muft  be  chiefly  fuch 
things  as  are  proper  to  keep  down 
the  heat  and  inflammaticn,  znd 
abate  the  feverifli  fymptoms ;  for 
which  purpofe  we  recommend, 
after  blooding,  thofe  things  that 
are  proper  to  promote  fweat. 
Therefore,  let  the  following 
drench  be  prepared  for  him  : 

"  Take  treacle  water  and  cardii- 
Hs  water,  of  each  one  pint  :  dif- 
folve  in  thefe  two  ounces  of  Ve- 
nice treacle  :  And  after  this  has 
been  given,  clothe  him  well,  and 
give  him  a  little  warm  ^^-a'er  to 
drink.  Inftead  of  the  treacle  and 
caiduus  \*-ater.  a  pint  of  ftale 
beer,  mixed  with  fraall  beer,  may 
be  u/ed.  Nothing  is  fo  effe6*ual 
to  remove  inSammation,  efpecial- 
}y  after  bleeding,  as  fweating  : 
Therefore,  if  you  find  it  difficult 
to  promote  fweat.  you  may  give 
the  following  ball : 

"  Take  old  Venice  treac'e  two 
our.ces,  volatile  fait  of  hanfhom 


A  M  T 

fifteen  grains,  Mathews'  pill  on* 
dram,  camphor  in  powder  fix 
grains,  powder  of  liquorice,  or 
faflafras  in  powder,  zs  much  as  is 
fufficient  to  make  it  into  a  pafte. 
Let  this  be  given  after  the  ope- 
ration of  the  ciyfter  is  over. 

"  If  the  fymptoms  begin  to  a^ 
bate,  you  may  venture  to  give 
your  horfe  a  gentle  purge. 

"  If  the  fM'elling  appears  out- 
wards, and  if  the  other  fymptoms 
<d>ate,  you  may  leave  off  purging : 
For  what  is  intended  by  that  e^^ac- 
uation,  is  chieCy  to  difperfe  the 
inward  diforder.  Nextly,  you  are 
only  to  apply  ripening  cataplafras, 
allowing  him  fal  prunellse,  nitre, 
or  the  fal  polychreftum,  diflblv- 
ed  in  his  drink. 

"  Cow's  dung  alone,  applied 
warm  to  the  part,  with  lard,  or 
ointment  of  marih  mallows,  may 
be  fufficient  to  bring  the  fwelling 
to  maturity. 

*'  When  the  matter  fecms 
ready  for  a  difcharge,  it  may  be 
opened  in  the  dependent  lower- 
moft  part,  by  the  application  of  a 
hot  iron  ;  afterwards  keeping  a 
doffel  in  the  mou:ii  of  the  wound 
till  the  running  abates  ;  and  ap- 
plying comprelfe?,  and  conveni- 
ent bandage  to  keep  the  elevated 
(kin  clofe  to  the  fiefh,  that  it  may 
be  the  focner  united.  But  if  the 
cavity  of  the  impofthumadon  be 
large,  it  Avill  not  be  amifs  to  lay 
It  op>en  an  inch  or  more. 

"  The  cur:*  may  be  finifhed 
with  applying  only  the  unguen- 
tum  bafilicum  ;  or  a  digeftive 
made  with  rc?rpentine,  the  yolks 
of  ^gs,  or  honey,  with  a  mode- 
rate mixture  of  brandy,  c«^  fpirit 
of  wine.  And  if  any  foulnefs  ap- 
pear?, cr  if  it  heal  too  faft,  or  it 
fpungy  foft  flefh  arife.pledgits  dipt 
in  copperas  water,  or  a  folution  ot 
blue  vitriol,  may  be  applied, 
which  will  keep  it  fmooth  and 
even, 

"But 


ANT 

"But  if  the  fwelllng  incroafe 
fall,  with  no  tendency  to  digcl- 
tion,  and  it  it  rile  up  towards  the 
neck,  affecting  all  the  mulcies  of 
the  part,  the  horlc  will  he  indan- 

§er  of  fiifFocation,  unlcfsicotirlc 
ifferentfrcinihetvirnicrbctakeii. 
"  Befides  rcpc.ucd  bleeding,  if 
he  is  not  too  much  woin  out,  take 
a  hot  fearing  iion,  and  apply  it 
to  five  or  fix  places  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  fwelling,  cauterizing 
thofe  parts,  that  they  may  be 
fpeedily  brought  to  matter,  which 
may  be  drefled  with  flax  dipped 
in  tar  and  turpentine,  mixed  be- 
fore the  fire,  and  ioplied  warm. 
For  by  giving  pain  iji  thofe  de- 
pendent and  interiour  parts,  yoii 
caufe  the  humours  to  flow  down- 
wards from  the  fwel'ing ;  and  by 
making  vents  you  prevent  exccf- 
five  violence  of  pain.  Nor  need 
you  be  afraid  of  the  fwelling  that 
may  happen  in  the  fore-legs,  &c. 
by  cauterizing  ;  tor  that  cannot 
be  of  fo  ill  confequence,  as  when 
it  is  upon  the  neck  and  throat  ; 
nor  will  it  be  of  any  confcqusnce, 
if  care  be  taken  ot  the  vents. 

"  SolUyJ'cll  recommends  the 
making  ol  fmall  incifions  with  a 
fleam  or  lancet,  in  eight  or  ten 
places,  on  the  fwelling  ;  and  to 
thruft  into  the  holes,  between  the 
fkin  and  the  flelh,  pieces  ot  the 
root  of  black  helebore  :  And  li 
the  tumour  be  "cry  large,  lie  rec- 
ommends the  ufe  of  white  hele- 
bore ;  at  the  fame  time  charting 
the  part  with  the  ointments  ot  a- 
grippa  and  marlh  mallows.  The 
roots,  by  their  hot  auality,  draw 
down  and  incrcafc  tht;  fwelling  ; 
and  the  ointments  ire  to  ripen 
the  inclofed  matter,  and  fit  it  for 
a  difchargc. 

"  The  (aipc  author  aifo  recom- 
mends the  ule  ot  Kuptories,  tor 
drawing  an  immediate  flux  ot 
moifture  from  the  difeafed  part. 
Thcfcarcpinur.ents  ot  ikc  f««ncna. 


A   P  P  13 

turcasthofcrnaJc  to  draw  blifters 
on  the  human  body  .and  conipo  fed 
ot  the  fanu:  materials.  The  way 
to  apply  them  is,  to  fpread  tlicin 
by  iutlc  at  a  time  on  the  part  al- 
tected,  holding  a  b.tr  ot  hot  iron 
to  make  tliem  link  in.  "  (iibjon  s 
farriery. 

AMI  S,  an  infect,  which  fome- 
tiraes  annoys  fields.  "  I'hey  will 
deltroy  barley,  rye,  hemp  leetl, 
fiax  feed,  and  rape  feed.  Other 
grain  is  cither  too  lar^e,  double 
Ikinned,  or  too  bitter  aiul  ill  tatt- 
ed tor  them.  Wh^iii  you  find 
them  in  quantities  near  home, 
pour  hot  water  upon  them.  The 
tarmer,  when  he  dungs  his  land, 
if  he  ufcs  alhes,  lime,  or  ialtfand, 
he  may  be  certain  no  ant  will 
ever  llay  upon  the  ground  where 
any  of  the  three  is  fpiead."  Scot's 
Farmer. 

APPLES,  a  well  known  erv:u- 
}ent  fruit,  of  great  ufe  tor  food, 
and  for  making  cyder.  An  ap- 
ple confills  of  the  rind,  the  pa- 
renchyma or  pulp,  the  leed  vef- 
fels,  and  the  feeds.  The  forts,  or 
varieties,  are  nuir.erous  almolt  be- 
yond account  :  And  it  is  faid  a 
feed  will  not  produce  fruit  ot  the 
fame  kind  with  that  trom  which 
it  is  taken.  Sometimes  I  iliink 
I  have  found  tluit  it  will  ;  but  I 
do  not  know  that  it  will  in  ali 
cafes.  The  feed  of  grafted  fruit 
will  not  produce  fuch  truit  as  the 

f;raft  produced  ;  but  probably 
uch,  if  any,  as  the  (lock  wonld 
have  produced,  it  it  had  not  been 
gratted. 

All  the  kinds  of  apples  are  dif- 
tinguiljied  into  Iweet  and  lour  ; 
thoiigh  fonie  partake  fo  equally 
of  both  qualities,  that  it  is  doubt- 
iul  to  which  cUfs  they  belong. 
They  are  alfo  divided  into  natur- 
al fnnt  and  grafted,  i  he  gratt- 
ed and  the  iiatural  fruit  were 
originally  the  lame.  The  crait- 
ed  fyrt  have  been  fclectcd  tor 
propagation. 


14 


A  P  F 


propagation,  and  are  generally 
more  pleafant  for  eating ;  the  latter 
are  oi  equal  value  lor  other  vifes. 

Some  apples  ripen  early  ;  thefe 
are  ufed  to  make  into  cyder  ; 
Others  ripen  later,  and  are  better 
to  preferve  for  ufe  in  the  winter 
and  fpring.  One  fort  is  ripe  in 
June  ;  therefore  called  a  jennet- 
ing or  juneting  apple.  But  moft 
forts  are  not  ripe  till  autumn,  and 
fome  not  till  winter. 

The  fecret  of  preferving  them 
through  the  winter,  in  a  found 
ilate,  is  of  no  fmall  importance. 
Some  fay,  that  Ihutting  them  up 
in  tight  cafks  is  an  effedual  meth- 
od ;"  and  it  feems  probable  ;  for 
they  foon  rot  in  open  air. 

But  an  eafier  method,  and 
•which  has  recommended  itfelt  to 
Kie  by  the  experience  ot  feveral 
years,  is  as  follows  : — I  gather 
them  about  noon,  on  the  day  of 
the  full  of  the  moon,  which  hap- 
pens in  the  latter  pait  ot  Septem- 
ber, or  beginning  of  Oftober. 
Then  fpread  them  in  a  chamber, 
or  garret,  where  they  lie  till 
about  the  laft  of  November. 
Then,  at  a  time  when  the  weath- 
er is  dry,  remove  them  into  caflcs, 
or  boxes,  in  the  cellar,  out  ot  the 
way  of  the  froft  ;  but  I  prefer  a 
cool  part,  of  the  cellar.  With 
this  management,  I  find  I  can 
keep  them  till  the  lail  of  May, 
fo  well  that  not  one  in  fitly  will 
rot.  In  the  autumn  of  1793,  I 
packed  apples  in  the  fhavings  ot 
pine,  fo  that  they  fcarcely  touch- 
ed one  another.  They  kept  well 
till  fome  time  in  May  following ; 
though  they  were  a  fort  which 
arc  mellow  for  eating  in  Decem- 
ber. Dry  fawdufl  might  per- 
haps anfwer  the  end  as  well. 
Some  barrel  them  up,  and  keep 
them  through  the  winter  in  up- 
per rooms,  covering  them  with 
blankets  or  mats,  to  prevent  freez- 
ing. Dry  places  are  bell  for  them. 


A  P  P 

Some  may  think  it  whimfical 
to  gather  them  on  the  day  above 
mentioned.  But,  as  we  know 
both  animals  and  vegetables  are 
influenced  by  the  tnoon  in  fome 
cafes,  why  may  we  not  fuppofe 
a  greater  quantity  of  fpirit  is  fen.t 
up  into  the  fruit,  when  the  attrac- 
tion of  the  heavenly  bodies  is 
greateft  ?  If  fo,  I  gather  my  ap- 
ples at  the  time  of  their  greateft 
perfe6}ion,  when  they  have  mofl 
in  them  that  tends  to  their  pref- 
ervation. — I  fufpeft  that  the  day 
of  the  moon's  conjunftion  with 
the  fun  may  anfwer  as  well  ;  but 
I  have  not  had  experience  of  it, 
The  fame  caution,  I  doubt  not, 
Ciould  be  obferved  in  gathering 
other  fruits,  and  even  apples  for 
cyder  :  But  I  have  not  proved  it 
by  experiments. 

APPLE  TRKE,  py r us,  z  well 
known  fruit  tree  of  great  impor- 
tance to  mankirjd.  The  way  to 
propagate  them  is,  by  fowing  the 
pomace  from  cydermills,  dig- 
ging, or  hoeing  it  into  the  earth 
in  autumn.  The  young  plants 
will  be  up  in  the  following  fpring. 
And  the  next  autumn,  they  Ihould 
be  tranfplanted  from  the  feed  bed 
into  the  nurfery,  in  rov/s  from 
two  to  three  feet  apart,  and  one 
toot  in  therows,  where  the  ground 
has  been  fitted  to  receive  them. 
The  ground  for  a  nurfery  fliould 
not  be  very  rich,  but  mellow,  and 
well  pulverized,  and  cleared  of 
the  roots  and  feeds  of  weeds.  It 
is  a  good  rule.  That  the  young 
trees,  at  their  final  tranfplanting 
into  orchards,  fhould  not  be  put 
into  poorer,  but  rather  into  rich- 
er ground,  than  that  to  which 
they  have  been  accullomed.  For 
by  not  finding  their  ufual  fupply 
ot  nourifhment,  they  will  be  ftmt- 
ed  in  their  growth,  and  never  be- 
come good  trees. 

If  apple  trees  happen  to  be  full 

of  fruit,  the  firlt  year  of  their 

bearings 


A  R  A 

bearing,  they  will  be  fo  exhaufl- 
ed  as  to  bear  little  or  none  the 
following  year  :  But  by  the  third 
year  they  will  be  (o  recruited  as 
to  bear  another  plcntitul  crop. 
Having  got  into  tliis  alternate 
bearing,  rhey  mud  continue  in  it. 
But  trees  which  begin  their  bear- 
ing gradually  become  annual 
bearers.  Thcfc  oblervaiions  do 
not  foabviouHy  hold  with  refpeft 
to  any  otiicr  fruit  trees  that  I 
know  ot.  The  reafon  may  be, 
that  no  other  arc  fo  plentiful- 
ly loaded  with  fruit  at  any  time. 
It  is  wifhcd  that  naturalifts  would 
obferve  whether  accidents  do  or 
do  irot  fometimes  difadjuft  this 
regular  alternate  bearing,  as  when 
the  fruit  happens  to  be  all  killed 
by  froft  at  the  time  of  bloffbming, 
or  when  the  roots  of  a  tree  arc 
highly  manured  in  its  barren  year. 

vVhen  a  tree  has  part  of  its 
limbs  grafted,  thealternation  will 
be  the  fame  in  the  grafted  and  in 
the  natural  part  of  the  tree.  For 
the  nourifhrncnt  aboiinds  or  is 
deficient  in  both  at  the  fame  time. 
So  tliat  it  is  not  to  be  expelled 
that  a  fcion  will  follow  the  rule 
of  its  parent  tree  in  bearing. 

It  is  faid,  that  when  an  apple- 
tree  has  become  barren,  its  fruit- 
ful nefs  may  be  renewed  by  (trip- 
ping ofTal  I  the  bark  from  its  body, 
and  from  lomcpartof  the  largcft 
limbs  ;  and  that  this  operation 
rauft  be  performed  at  the  time  of 
the  fummer  folflice.  But  con- 
cerning this  1  can  (ay  nothing 
from  cx}>erience. 

ARABLE  /and,  that  which  is 
fit  for  ploughing  ;  or  which  has 
been  ploughed  from  rime  to  time. 
The  name  comes  tioin  the  Latin 
atarc,  to  plough.  Any  land  is 
naturally  arable,  which  is  not  too 
Ifrcp,  too  rocky,  too  wet,  or  too 
much  filled  with  ffrong  roots. 
But  moft,  or  all,  thefe  hindrances 
of  the  plough  may  be  removed  ; 


ASH  X5 

and  land  may  become   affually 
arable,  which  is  not  naturally  fo. 

It  is  ncceflary  that  each  farm 
(liould  have  a  (ulFicient  quantity 
of  this  fort  of  land  :  Otherwife 
the  farmer  will  not  be  able  toraifc 
his  own  bread,  roots,  flax,  &c. 
Nor  will  he  knf)w  how  to  bedow" 
his  manure  to  (b good. advantage. 
But  if  fo  mnch  as  a  tenth  part  of 
a  farm  be  arable  it  may  anfwer 
well  enough. 

ARTICHOKE,  called  cynara 
by  botanifts,  an  efculcnt  plant 
highly  elteemed.  It  is  much  cul- 
tivated on  the  other  lide  of  the 
Atlantick. 

AKTlCnOKY.Mianthustu^ 
btrofus,  called  Jerufalcm  Arti- 
choke, a  plant  oi  the  (unflower 
kind,  with  an  efculent  root  that 
is  perennial.  It  is  laid  to  be  a 
native  of  America.  It  grow^ 
luxuriantly  ;  and  yields  as  plen- 
tifully as  any  kind  of  potatoes- 
Many  perfons  are  fond  of  eating 
them  ;  but  they  are  faid  iO'  be  a 
flatulent  food.  Swine  are  excef- 
fively  fond  ot  them,  and  will  fat- 
ten upon  them.  It  would  b& 
worth  while  to  cultivate  them  for 
this  purpofe  :  Efpecially  thofe 
(hould  do  it  who  have  not  warm 
cellars,  to  fave  potatoes  from 
freezing,  as  is  often  the  cafe  in 
new  plantations.  As  thisrootwill 
bear  a  great  degree  of  troll,  they 
may  be  left  in  tiie  ground  all  win- 
ter. They  are  cultivated  in  the 
fame  manner  as  potatoes,  and  ttie 
fame  kind  of  foil  fuits  both.  A 
Mr.  Crow  in  England  obtained 
at  tberateof  480  bulhcls  per  acre, 
of  this  root. 

ASH,  hraxinwi  Americana,  a 
well  kno\>m  and  ulefultrcc  natur- 
al to  this  climate  ;  ot  which  wr 
reckon  three  (orts,  the  blaek,  the 
wlute,  and  the  yellow.  The  body 
of  the  bl.uk  alh  is  ealily  ("eparai 
ed  into  thin  ftrips,  by  bruiiing  it 
with  a  b?et!e  ;  and  is,  tijcrelorfi, 

n:uct\ 


i6 


ASH 


much  ufed  for  brooms  and  haf- 
kets.  The  white  alh  is  of  tno 
lorts.  or  varieties,  one  of  which 
is  a  fliff,  hght,  and  durable  tim- 
ber. It  is,  therefore,  liighly  ei- 
teemed  by  the  farmer,  and  much 
ufed  for  ploughs  and  carriages, 
and  many  of  the  tools  ufed  in 
agriciUnu-e.  That  is  tougheft 
which  grows  upon  high  bnd. 
But  implements  made  of  this 
wood  (hould  not  be  much  expofed 
to  the  weather.  For  it  foou  rots, 
if  it  be  not  kept  dry. 

The  bark  of  the  afli  is  ufed  by 
many  to  make  velTels  for  lloring 
of  grain,  feeds,  &c.  They  are 
light  to  handle,  fufficicntly  ftrong, 
and  extremely  durable. 

The  feafon  of  felling  afh  for 
timber  is  from  November  to  Feb- 
riiary.  If  it  be  cut  in  the  wrong 
icafon,  the  fappy  part  of  it  will 
be  deftroyed  by  worms  :  And 
turned  to  what  is  called  powder- 
poft. 

ASHES,  a  duU,  confifling  of 
the  terrene  and  faline  parts  of 
wood,  and  other  combuftibles, 
which  remains  after  burning. 

It  is  not  to  be  doubted,  but 
that  all  the  fub fiances  which 
plants  contain  are  the  food  of 
lilants  ;  and  as  tliey  have  con- 
tributed to  the  growth  of  one 
plant,  they  may  be  made  to  nour- 
i!h  another.  The  fine  particles 
of  earth,  and  the  fixed  falts,  which 
were  contained  in  a  tree,  remain 
in  its  allies.  The  growth  of  ^'eg- 
etables  on  burnt  fpots  was  evi- 
dence enough  to  convince  men, 
]oii^  a^o,  of  the  advantage  of  this 
kind  oi  manure.  Alhes  were 
found  to  be  a  good  manure,  as 
long  ago.  at  leaft,  as  the  time  ot 
Virgil.     He  fays, 

ne  j-udcdt 

Effodos  anerem  '(mmumluin  jac- 

tar^  per  agros. 
A  flies  are  commonly  accounted 
a  raaaure  moll  fuitable  for  low 


ASH 

I  and  moift  lands.    A  cold  and  four 
;  fpot  certainly  needs  them  mcM-e 

than  any  other.  But  I  have  found 
J  tliem  to  be  good  in  all  forts  of  foil. 
I      They  are  not  only  a  valuable 

manure, but  an  excellent  antidote 
;  to  the   rapacioufnefs  of  worms 

and  other  infefts.  Therefore  they 
I  are  a  more  proper  manure  for  all 

thofe  plants,  which  are  liable  to 

fuffer  by  worms  and  infects ;  fuch 
I  as  cabbages,  turnips,  cucumbers, 
j  melons,  peas,  and  other  pulfe. 

They  fhould  be  fpread  evenly, 
!  and  not  in  too  great  quantity. 
I      Wood  ajhes   is    an    excellent 

nourifliment  for  the  roots  ot  trees. 
j  They  reftore  to  trees  what  has 
j  been  taken  from  trees  ;  and  tend 
I  at  the  fa3"ne  time  to  drive  away 
'  certain  infefts,  which  are  hurtful 

to  trees. 

Alhes  of  all  kinds  are  a  good 

;  ingredient   in   compofts,   which 

i  are  kept  under  cover.     But  when 

!  they  aie  laid  upon  land  immixt, 

they  fhould  he  fpread  as  evenly 

as  pofTible.  They  are  thought  to 
1  do  better  on  the  top  of  the  fur- 
1  face  than  buried  in  tlie  foil  ;  for 

there  is  nothing  in  them  that  will 

evaporate.  Their  tendency  is 
I  only  downwtirds  ;  and  their  falls 

will  foon  fmk  too  low.  if  they 
i  be  put  under  die  fmface.  If  they 
I  be   fpread  upon  ground,  which 

has  tejider  plant*,  it  fhould  be 
■  done  jult  before  a  lain,  which 

will  diffolvc  and  foften  their  ac- 
,  rimony  :  For  tender  plants,  when 
i  the  weather  is  dry,  will  be  apt  to 
I  be  injured  by  them  ;  at  leall,  if 

they  are  in  contatt  with  the 
I  items  or  leaves. 

Alhes  in  their  ful!  ftrength  are 
;  certainly  bell  for  manure  ;  and 
;  ihey  wiil  not  be  in  full  fliength, 
j  unleis  ihey  be  kept  dry  ;  nor  will 
j  it  be  eafy  to  fpread  ihem  proper- 
!  ly.  And  iliey  fliould  not  be  laid 
j  on  Iduds-  long  betore  there  are 
'  jof.its  to  be  njiirilhed  bv  them» 


ASP 

left  the  rains  rob  them  of  their 
falts,  by  walhing  them  into  the 
Hollovrs,  or  Iiy  finking  thcra  to 

<>  eresu  a  Hepth  in  the  foil.  A 
,<w  Duthels  on  an  acre  are  a  good 
drefling  for  giafs  lands  that  are 
low,  and  inclining  to  be  molfy. 
But  alhes  horn  which  lie  h.is 
been  drawn  have  no  fmall  degree 
©f  virtue  in  thein.  The  earthy 
particles  arc  but  little  diminiih- 
rd  ;  and  fo:nc!  of  the  fall nc  par- 
ticles rrmajn  in  them. 

A  handful  of  alhes,  laid  about 
the  roots  of  a  hill  of  Indian  corn, 
is  goi»<l  to  quicken  its  vegcution. 
But  it  fhould  not  much  if  any  of 
it  be  in  contact  with  the  ffalks. 
The  bcft  time  for  giving  corn 
lhi$  drelFing,  is  tho  jght  to  be  juU 
before  the  fecond  or  third  hoe- 
ing :  But  fomedo  itbcforc  the  firft, 
and  even  before  the  plants  are  up. 
Like  other  top  drrllings,  it  is  of 
moft  fervice  When  applied  at  the 
time  when  plants  need  the  great- 
eft  ouantity  of  riourilhment. 
This  nappens,  in  Indian  corn,  at 
the  time  when  the  plants  are  juft 
toing  to  fend  out  ears  and  Ipindles- 

ASP.\RAGUS,  a  valuable 
plant,  the  young  Ihoots  of  which 
are  a  plealant  and  wholefome 
food  ;  of  more  account  for  the 
table  than  any  othergieens  which 
the  fpring  prtxince^.  They  come 
up  early,  and  an*  conlequcntly 
of  the  greater  importance-  Jn 
latitmie  44.  the  Ihoots  are  fit  for 
life  tiie  hrit  week  in  May.  The 
fiuit  is  a  Iphrrical,  red  berry, 
which  rip*.*ns  m  Jirtumn,  contain- 
ing two  black  leeds. 

The  root  of  this  plant  is  efieem- 
ed  in  medicine,  as  an  opener  and 
dinreMik. 

'i'o  cultivate  afiparagus  in  the 
beft  manner,  open  a  trench 
three  feet  wi«le,at>i  twelve  indies 
deep.  If  it  be  c)oic  to  the  li»uth 
fide  of  a  garden  '.*-all,  it  Will  be 
»«p  the  earlier  in  the  fpring.    Fill 


Axe 


17 


the  trench  half  full  of  good  dung ; 
make  it  level,  and  fpnnkle  a  lit- 
tle rich  eaiih  over  it,  and  lay 
on  the  roots,  in  their  natural  po- 
fition,  eight  or  nine  inches  apart. 
Or.  if  you  cannot  get  roots,  place 
the  leedsat  half  thediHance  Irom 
each  other.  Cover  them  by  fill- 
ing up  the  trench  with  the  black- 
ed of  the  e  trth  which  vas  taken 
out.  II  you  plant  roots,  the 
Ihoots  may  be  cut  the  fecond 
year  after  ;  if  feeds,  they  will  not 
be  fit  to  cut  till  the  third  year. 
All  the  llioots  which  come  up 
belorc  the  middle  of  June,  may- 
be cut  off  without  injuring  the 
roots  :  After  which  time,  the  late 
fhoots  (hould  be  left  to  run  up, 
and  feed  ;  othenrifc  tlie  root* 
willbeweakened.  Thefeeds  may 
be  well  preferved  on  the  branches 
through  the  winter,  hung  up  in 
a  dry  fiiuation. 

This  plant  grows  well  in  ground 
that  is  Ihaded.  The  fprouts  will 
be  very  large  and  tender  ;  but 
they  will  not  be  fo  early.  It  is 
not  amifs  to  have  one  bed  in  a 
thady  place,  lo  fupply  the  table, 
alter  the  feafon  is  over  for  cut- 
ting the  firft.  In  autumn,  after 
the  tops  are  turned  white  by  the; 
troll,  they  fhould  be  clearefl  off, 
and  a  layer  of  dung,  or  rich  foil, 
an  inch  thick,  laid  over  the  bed. 
This  fhould  he  done  yearly,  and 
the  bod  kept  clear  of  weeds.  If 
the  bed  (hould  get  too  high  by  this 
management,  the  furface  may  be 
taken  off  with  a  iy^vAe  early  ia 
the  fpring  to  the  depth  of  two 
inches,  before  the  young  Ihoots 
arc  m  the  wr.  But  when  thic 
is  done,  a  thin  drrffing  of  rotten 
dungorcomp>ft  fhould  be  laid  on. 

ASPhiV.     See  Pop/ar. 

AUILMN.  the  thu-d  feafon 
of  the  year.     See  fa//. 

AXt.a  neceliary  toolforfarm- 
ers.  A  na:Tow  axe  is  meant  ;  for 
a  broad  a\e  is  a  carpenter's  tool. 

A 


iS 


BAR 


A  narrow  axe  fhould  have  a 
thick  poll,  as  in  that  part  it  com- 
jnonly  fails  fooneft.  It  fhould  be 
made  of  the  heft  of  iron  and  fteel, 
bequite  free  from  cracks  and  flaws, 
and  nicely  tempered  ;  not  fo  fott 
as  to  bend,  nor  lo  hard  as  tobreaL 

Take  care  that  you  do  not 
grind  your  axes  thin  at  firft,  till 
you  learn  by  inlng  them  what 
their  temper  is,  and  whether 
they  will  bear  it.  Aroundingedge 
is  befl  for  chopping  large  logs,  a 
ifraighter  one  for  fmallerwood. 

Let  the  helve  of  an  axe  be  made 
of  the  tougheff  of  wood,  either 
walnut  or  white  oak.  Let  it  be 
fet  in  the  centre  of  the  eye,  and 
at  right  angles  with  the  outer  fide 
of  the  axe  ;  let  it  be  fmail  near 
the  eye,  thnt  the  hands  may  not 
be  too  much  jarred  by  the  flrokes 
in  chopping,  and  gradually  larger 
towards  the  other  end.  Three 
feet  is  the  greateft length  thatal- 
mofl  ever  will  be  needful:  Short- 
er for  chopping  flicks  not  un- 
commonly large.  It  fhould  nev- 
er be  lefs  than  32  inches^ 

A  good  deal  of  rubbing  with  a 
whetflone,  /after  an  axe  is  ground 
on  a  coarfe  grindflone,;  is  befl  ; 
not  only  to  bring-  it  to  a  good 
edge  that  will  not  crumble,  but 
chiefly  to  make  the  blade  very 
fmooth,  that  it  may  enter  the 
wood  eafily,  and  not  flick  too 
"fail  when  entered. 


B. 


BARLEY,  Hordeum,  a  well 
known  grain  ot  which  malt  is 
made.  In  fome  countries,  it  is 
alfo  much  ufed  for  bread.  If  it 
be  kept  long  before  g'-inding,  it 
vill  be  the  better  for  this  ufe,  as  a 
certain  bitter  tafle,  which  it  has 
when  new,  is  abated  by  age. — 
Barley  is  accounted  cooling  and 
deterfive  ;  a  broth  of  it  is  there- 
fore given  to  perfbns  in  fevers  ; 


BAR 

But  it  mufl  be  hulled  before  it  is 
fit  for  this  ufe. 

It  is  a  fort  of  corn  very  fuitablc- 
for  cultivation  in  this  region,  as  it 
feemsliabletonodiflemper.inour 
northerly  part  of  MafTachufetts 
efpecially  ;  bears  the  drought 
well,  and  never  fails  of  yielding 
a  crop.  I  have  commonly  gained 
40  bulhels  per  acre,  without  any 
extraordinary  tillage, and  without 
much  manuring.  It  will  grow  in a- 
ny  foil :  Even  a  foil  fo  clayey  that 
it  is  fit  for  fcarcely  any  othergrain, 
will  anTv/er  well  for  this,  as  I  have 
found  by  long  experience.  But 
it  does  better  on  fome  other  foils. 

It  fhould  be  fowed  as  early  as 
the  feafon  and  foil  will  admit. 
About  the  beginning  of  May  is 
a  f  uitable  time.  The  quantity  of 
feed  for  an  acre  is  two  bufnels, 
if  the  grain  be  fmall  ;  if  larger, 
more  in  proportion.  A  corref- 
pondent  of  the  Bath  Agricultur- 
al Society  writes  :  "  The  lafl 
fpring  (1783;  being  remarkably 
dr)-,  I  foaked  my  feed  barley  in 
the  black  water,taken  from  a  refer- 
voir,  which  conftantly  receives 
the  draining  of  my  dung  heap  and 
ftables.  A5  the  light  corn  float- 
ed on  the  top,  I  fkimmed  it  ofF, 
and  let  the  refl  ftand  24  hours. 
On  taking  it  from  the  water,  I 
mixed  the  grain  with  a  fufhcient 
quantity  of  fifted  wood  afhes,  to 
make  it  fpread  regularly,  and 
fowed  ths-ee  fields  with  it.  The 
produce  was  60  bufhels  per  acre. 
I  fowed  fome  other  fields  with 
the  fame  feed  dry  ;  but  the  crop, 
like  thofe  of  my  neighbours,  was 
very  poor,  not  more  than  20 
bufhels  per  acre,  and  much  mix- 
ed \\'ith  green  corn  and  weeds, 
when  har\'efled.  I  alfo  fowed' 
fome  of  my  feed  dry  on  one 
ridge  in  each  of  my  former  fields^ 
but  the  produce  was  very  poor 
in  comparifon  of  the  other  parts 
of  the  field."   The  ground  fhould 

have: 


BAR 

liave  two  ploughJngs  at  lead.  It 
Ihould  be  well  harrowed  after 
fowing  ;  and  then  a  roller  palfcd 
over  it  to  dole  the  foil  aho;»t  nte 
corns,  that  they  may  not  fail  of 
vegetating.  And  rollnig prepares 
llie  furfacc  for  mowing  the  crop, 
and  raking  it  i|p  clean,  which  is  a 
matter  of  great  imponance.  For 
it  1%  ijnpoilil)le  to  rake  it  up  clean, 
when  the  ground  has  been  laid 
^iigh  at  fowing. 

In  Scotland,  after  the  grain  is 
up,  the  farmers,  near  t  lie  lea  coall, 
give  It  a  top  drelFuig  ot  lea  weeds, 
which  has  an  excellent  effect. 
This  practice  I  would  recom- 
mend to  thofe  of  my  country- 
men who  farm  near  the  fea. 

1  fhould  luve  obferxed,  that 
barley  mull  he  lowed  foon  after 
ploughing,  lell  t'i\c  mcillure  ot 
the  foil  be  two  much  evaporated. 
It  being  a  dry  bulky  grain,  a  con- 
fiderable  degree  <it  moiilureis  req- 
uifite  to  make  it  vegetate  If  the 
ground  Ihould  be  very  dry  at  fow- 
ing time,  and  tlvj  feafon  late,  fteep- 
ing  the  feed  in  lie  would  not  be  a- 
uiifs.  Steeping  it  in  the  walh  of  a 
barn  yard  has  an  excellent  effc6^. 

Some  ha.'e  got  an  opinion,  that 
barley  Ihould  be  harvelled  before 
it  is  quite  ripe.  Though  the  tlour 
may  be  a  little  whiter,  tlic  grain 
ihrinks  fo  much,  that  die  cnjp 
feems  to  be  greatly  diminilhed  and 
walled  by  early  cutting.  No  grain, 
I  think,  requires  more  ripening 
tiian  this ;  and  it  is  not  apt  to  ihat- 
tcr  out  when  it  is  very  ripe.  It 
fhould  be  threlhed  fiMjn  after  har- 
vefting  :  And  much  beating,  alter 
it  is  cleared  from  the  11  raw,  is  nee<l- 
tul  to  get  off  the  beards.  Let  it  lie 
a  night  or  two  in  the  dew,  alter  it 
is  cut,  and  the  beards  wjll  come 
off  the  more  eafily. 

I  had  gained  the  idea  (»f  the 

nccelhty  ot  barley's  being  well 

ripened  before  cutting,  from  my 

-Awa experience.  1  have  been  more 


BAR 


1^ 


confirmed  in  the  opinion,  by  trie 
loUowing  pallage  in  an  Hngliih 
writer,  who  appears  to  have  been 
well  acquainted  with  the  culture 
ot  this  corn.  "1  his  grain,"  fays  he, 
"mar  hcgreatly  d.:magt-d,oi  Inoil- 
ed,i)yhciugmowntO(. ;. -on;  which 
nia\  rflierwardt  be  dii.i.'vered  by 
its  lhnxelle»l  and  lean  body,  tiiat 
never  will  make  good  malt." 

3  he  lame  wiitcr  fays,  "  This 
grain  I  annually  fthv  in  my  Pcldt 
on  aiffeient  foils,  wlu-rehy  I  have 
brought  to  my  kn..wlciii;<',  Icver- 
al  diffv^Tcnces  arifing  thcrctrom. 
On  our  r*;d  clays,  this  ;jraiii  gen- 
erally comes  off  reddilh  at  both 
ends,  and  lometiines  all  o-er, 
witli  a  thick  QJin  and  tough  na- 
ture, fomewhat  like  the  fcil  it 
grows  in  ;  and,  tlierefore,  is  not 
lo  \aluabJe  as  that  ot  contrary 
qualities  Nor  are  the  black, 
bluilh,  marly  cJays  of  the  vaJe 
much  better  :  But  loams  apd 
gravels  are  better.  On  tlicle  two 
laft  foils  the  barley  acquires  a 
whitifh  body,  a  thin  fkin,  a  Ihort 
plump  kernel,  and  a  fwcei  flour.' 
It  has  often  been  widied  that 
the  practice  ol.hulhng  barley  and 
other  grain,  v.ere  introduced  in- 
to this  country^  The  time  is  at 
length  arrived  ;  and  it  is  only  to 
be  wilhcd  that  every  part  ot  tlie 
country  w^rre  turnilhed  with 
mills,  and  with  perions  uho  are 
fkiltiil  in  the  bufiiiels.  A  Rev- 
erend gcntlcman,to  whom  I  am  in- 
debted for  many  ufetul  inilruc- 
tions  and  communications,  writes 
me  as  tollows  : 

"  Barley  Is  ,t  hardy  and  nroSt- 
able  grain.  When  hullefi,  it  is 
prelerable  to  rice,  in  every  branch 
of  cookcrv  tor  which  lice  i* 
ufed.— Mcffrs.  S.  and  Ca.  of 
Wells,  have  lately  erected  a  hull- 
ing mill.  Ii  hulls  and  fplits  peas  ; 
and  hulls,  not  only  barley,  but 
all  other  kinds  ot  corn  and  pulfc 
with  the  grcaicft  expcditio;:." 


to 


BAR 


He  has  fent  me  a  fample  of 
the  hulled  barley  ;  which  appears 
to  be  equal  to  any  that  is  import- 
ed. And  further  fays,  '*  Thefe 
hulling  mills,  when  common, 
muft  give  a  fpring  to  the  culture 
of  barley.  When  hulled,  it  may 
be  ground  and  bolted.  The  raw, 
bad  tafte  of  barley,  lies  wholly 
in  the  hull." 

I  am  informed  that  the  toll  they 
take  for  hulling  barley  at  the  mill  a- 
bovementioned,is  two  fixteenths, 
or  four  quarts  out  of  a  bufhel.  This 
appears  to  be  but  a  moderate  toll. 

Barley  that  has  been  hulled, 
is  faid  to  be  made  into  an  extrel- 
lent  flour  by  grinding  and  bolt- 
ing, but  little,  if  at  all  inferiour, 
to  that  which  is  made  of  wheat  ; 
and  ot  equal,  or  greater  whitenefs. 

Barley  is  a  corn  that  is  very  apt  to 
degenerate,  unlefs  prevented  by  a 
frequent  changing  ot  feed.  But  it 
will  not  become  oats,  as  fome  ig- 
norant pcrlons  have  believed.  I 
have  indeed  known  a  fpot  where 


v.'as  lowea  to  produce  an 


]m 


barley 

entire  crop  of  oats.  The  fecret 
was,  that  a  confiderable  quantity 
of  oats  was  mixed  with  the  barley 
when  it  was  fown,  which  was  not 
attended  to.  When  the  corn  was 
in  its  blade,  a  flock  of  Iheep  broke 
in,  and  ate  it  do^•."n.  v.'hich  v/as  fatal 
to  all  the  barley.  But  the  cats,  be- 
ing not  fo  fopvard  in  their  growth, 
efcaped  ;  and  were  the  more  pro- 
<iut>ive  for  the  deftruction  of  the 
barley,  which  allowed  the  oats 
more  room  and  nouriihment. 

If  ever  fo  few  oats  are  fown 
among  barley,  the  crop,  in  a  few 
years,  will  come  to  be  mofl^ly 
oats  ;  becaufe  oats  increafe  more 
tlwn  hai'iey.  Svrimming  the  bar- 
ley before  it  is  fowed,  will  in 
great  meafure  prevent  this  in- 
convenience. Almoft  every  oat, 
and  a  tew  of  the  wcrft  of  the  bar- 
ley corns,  will  be  on  the  furface 
of  the  water,  and  may  be  taken  off. 


BAR 

But  the  fpeedy  degeneration  ot 
barley  is  a  good  reafon  for  chang- 
ing the  feed  very  frequently.  In 
fome  parts  of  the  country,  the 
barley,  for  want  of  changing,  has 
come  to  produce  little  or  nothing. 

Not  only  changing  feed,  but 
forts  of  barley,  fliould  be  attend- 
ed to.  Some  forts  are  at  leaft 
more  produtfive  than  others,  if 
not  of  a  better  quality.  The  two 
rowed  barley  has  feldom  more 
than  32  corns  on  an  ear  :  The 
fix  rowed  has  fometimes  72,  that 
is  12  in  a  row.  Of  the  latter 
fort  one  pint  produced  me  three 
pecks  in  a  fingle  drill  row.  It 
was  at  the  rate  of  about  three 
pecks  of  feed,  and  forty  bufliels 
crop  to  the  acre,  on  a  poor  grav- 
elly foil.  This  fort  is  called  bear, 
here,  or  barley  big.  It  is  a  win- 
ter grain  in  England  and  Ireland. 
But  I  muft  mention  one  inconve- 
nience attending  the  fix  rowed 
barley,  which  is,  that  the  feeds  are 
apt  to  break  ofl"  and  tall,  it  the 
corn  ftands  till  it  is  ffllly  ripe.  I 
now  cultivate  a  four  rov.'ed  barley, 
which  has  not  this  inconvenience 
attending  it  :  And  it  yields  as 
plentifully  as  any  other. 

I  would  recommend  the  drill 
and  horfe  hoeing  method  of  raif- 
ing  barley,  v/hen  it  is  defigned 
for  hulling,  as  the  corns  will  be 
the  more  full  and  plump,  and 
have  a  lefs  quantity'  of  hull  in 
proportion  to  the  flour. 

The  farmers  in  Pennfylvania 
have  a  four  rowed  barley,  which 
is  the  fort  that  they  principally 
cultivate.  This  alfo  has  the  name 
of  bear  in  Europe.  Bear  is  much 
cultivated  in  Ireland  and  Scot- 
land ;  but,  in  England,  they  chief- 
ly cultivate  other  forts,  which 
they  think  better  for  malting. 

I  have  received  a  naked  bar- 
ley, fo  called,  with  no  more  hull 
on  the  corns  than  wheat.  How 
profitable  this  wi^  be,  time  and 
experieiKe 


BAR 

txpcriencc  mull  difcover.  But 
this  is  unrloubtedly  what  is  c;il!- 
ed  German  barley,  tnttco  Jp^i- 
tum,  or,  in  Englifh,  {\mi\x. 

BARN,  a  (ort  ot  hoafc  ufed 
for  iloring  unthrclhcd  crain,  hay 
and  ftraw,  and  all  kinds  ol  fod- 
der. But  the  other  ufcs  ot  barns 
in  this  country  are,  to  lodge  and 
feed  beads  in,  to  thi-clh  gram, 
drefs  flax,  8cc.  A  barn  fhould  be 
large  cnouj^h  to  ferve  the  farmer 
for  all  thele  pui  poles  :  For  there 
is  always  more  loft  by  Itatking 
of  hay  and  grain,  ihan  enough  to 
balance  the  cxpcnte  of  barn  room. 

Regard  mult  be  had  to  the  fit- 
uation  of  a  barn.  It  fhould  be 
at  a  convenient  diftance  horn  the 
dwelling  houfe,  and  other  build- 
ings ;  but  as  near  as  may  be  with- 
out danger  of  fire,  it  the  Ihape  of 
the  ground  permits.  Too  low  a 
fpot  will  be  miry  in  fpring  and 
fall.  Too  high  an  eminence  will 
bfc  bad  for  drawing  in  loads,  and 
on  account  ot  laving  and  making 
manures.    It  other  circumllances 

germit,  it  may  be  bell  to  place  a 
arn  in  fucli  a  manner  as  to 
dcter.d  the  dwelling  houfe  from 
the  force  ot  the  coldell  winds. 

The  nloft  confidcrabie  parts  of 
a  barn  are,  the  floor,  the  bay,  the 
cow  houle,  the  fcaftblds,  the  fla- 
ble.  See  Cozu  Hviifi',  and  SlahU. 
The  threlhing  floor  Ihould  be  laid 
on  llrong  and  ifeady  flcepers, 
well  fupported  beneath  ;  other- 
wife  cartmg  in  loads  upon  it  will 
foon  loofen  it,  and  render  it  un- 
fit for  the  operation  of  threlhing. 
It  fhould  be  made  of  planks,  well 
feafoned,  and  nicely  jointed  ;  and 
care  Ihould  be  taken  to  keep  it 
very  tight.  If  it  Ihould  be  lo  o- 
pen  a.s  to  let  grain,  or  any  feeds, 
pafs  through,  the  grain  will  be 
worfc  than  k>fl,  as  it  will  ferve  to 
feed  and  increafe  vermin,  A 
floor  of  boards  Ihould  therefore 
be  laid  under  the  plankj. 


BAR  21 

The  fills  of  a  barn  (houlJ  be 
made  of  the  tnolt  durable  kind  of 
timber,  as  they  arc  more  liable 
to  rot  than  thole  of  oilier  build- 
ings, on  accouiu  of  the  dung  ly- 
ing aboiu  them.  Wnite  oak  is 
very  fit  tor  this  ufe.  The  (ills 
mull  be  laid  rather  lo\^',  not  only 
for  the  (:onveI^ient  entrance  of 
rattle  and  carts,  but  bccaufc  tlic 
ground  will  be  lowered  round 
barns,  by  the  yearly  taking  away 
ot  lume  ot  the  fujlare  wuh  the 
dung.  They  Ihould  be  well  un- 
derpiimed  with  ffones  laid  a  lit- 
tle below  the  furfacc  of  the 
;;round  ;  and  well  pointed  with 
lime,  to  prev'ent  \oh  of  manure. 
And  dung  Ihould  not  lie  ferment- 
ing againll  the  fides  of  a  barn  ; 
but  be  fpcedily  removed  \v!ieii 
warm  weather  comes  on. 

BARN  YARD,  a  fmall  piece 
of  inclofcd  ground,  contiguous  to 
a  barn,  in  which  cattle  are  ulual- 
ly  kept.  It  Ihould  fiave  a  high, 
clofe,  and  ftrong  fence,  both  to 
fhcltcr  the  beafls  from  the  force 
ot  driving  ftomis,  and  to  keep 
the  moll  unruly  ones  trom  break- 
ing out.  By  the  he!})  ot  this  yard, 
a  farmer  may  prodigioully  in- 
create  his  quantity  of  manure,  if 
he  will  be  careful  to  uke  the  right 
m.ethuds. 

I'he  groimd  of  a  yard  for  this 
purpolc  Ihould  he  ot  luch  a  Ihape 
as  to  retain  all  the  manure,  or 
prevent  its  being  walhed  away  by 
rains.  It  Ihould  be  louvlt  in  the 
middle  ;  or  at  Icalf  fo  hii^h  on  all 
the  (ides,  that  even  the  greatelt 
rains  Ihall  not  carry  away  any  of 
the  manure.  This  is  a  matter  of 
lo  much  importance,  that  it  may 
be  well  worth  vs  bile  to  form  tin? 
ground  to  the  ri;^ht  Ihape  where 
nature  has  not  done  it.  But  a 
bafin  fhould  not  be  dug  fo  deep 
as  to  go  thifiugh  tfie  hard  under 
ffratum,  th^t  the  manure  may  not 
efcapc  into  the  earth. 


12  BAR 

A  yard  fhould  be  larger  or 
linaller  in  proportion  to  the  ftock 
that  is  kept  in  it.  A  finall  one 
is  bad,  as  the  cattle  vill  be  more 
apt  to  puQi  and  hurt  one  another. 
A  large  one  is  more  favourable 
to  the  defign  of  making  abnn- 
•dance  of  manure.  Not  only 
fhould  the  yard  be  contiguous  to 
the  barn,  but  as  many  of  the  oth- 
er out  houfes  as  conveniently 
may  be  (hould  be  placed  on  the 
fides  of  the  yard,  efpecially  thofe 
cf  them  which  afford  manure  or 
rubbifh,  as  the  hogfty,  &c- 

Many,  who  have  good  farm 
yards,  are  not  fo  careful  as  they 
{hould  be  to  make  the  greateft 
advantage  by  them, by  confining 
the  cattle  continually  in  them, 
during  the  foddering  feafon.  The 
practice  of  driving  cattle  to  wa- 
ter, at  a  diflance,  is  attended  with 
great  lofs  of  manure.  Inftead  of 
continuing  in  this  abfurd. practice, 
the  well  that  ferves  the  houfe,  or 
one  dug  for  the  purpofe,  fhould 
be  fo  near  the  yard,  that  a  v-ater- 
ing  trough  may  reach  from  it  in- 
to the  yard-  Some  have  a  well 
in  the  yard  ;  but  this  is  not  fo  ad- 
vifable,  as  the  w^ter  may  become 
impregnated  with  the  excremxCnts 
of  die  cattle,  and  rendered  lefs 
palatable.  He  that  has  a  large 
ilock,  may  fave  enough  in  ma- 
nure in  this  way,  in  one  year,  to 
pay  him  for  making  a  well  of  a 
moderate  depth  :  Befides  fecur- 
ing  the  advantage  of  having  his 
cattle  under  his  eye ;  and  of  pre- 
venting their  flraggling  away,  as 
they  fometimes  do.  Innumera- 
ble are  the  accidents  to  which  a 
if  ock  are  expofed,  by  going  to  wa- 
tering places,  in  winter,  without 
a  driver,  as  they  commonly  do. 
And  oftentimes,  by  means  of 
fnow  and  ice,  the  difficulty  is  fo 
gr«at,  as  to  difcoarage  them  from 
going  to  the  v.-ater  ;  the  confe- 
^uence  is,  that  they  fuffer  for 


BAR 

want  of  drink,  and  the  owner  it 
ignorant  of  it.  All  thefe  things 
plead  ftrongly  in  favour  of  the 
mode  of  watering  I  have  here 
recommended. — They  {hould  not 
be  let  out,  even  when  the  ground 
is  bare  :  For  what  they  get  will 
caufe  them  to  winter  the  worfe  ; 
and  they  will  damage  the  fields. 

There  fhould  be  more  yards 
than  one  to  a  barn,  where  divers 
forts  of  cattle  are  kept.  The 
Iheep  (hould  have  a  yard  by  them- 
felves,  at  leaft  ;  and  the  young 
flock  another,  that  they  may  be 
wholly  confined  to  fuch  fodder 
as  the  farmer  can  afford  them. 
But  the  principal  yard  may  be 
for  the  cows,  -oxen,  calves  and 
horfes.  And  the  water  from  the 
well  may  be  led  into  each  of 
thefe  yards  by  wooden  gutters. 

If  the  foil  of  the  yard  be  clay, 
or  a  pan  of  very  hard  earth,  it 
will  be  the  more  fit  for  the  pur- 
pofe of  making  manure,  as  the  ejl- 
crements  of  the  cattle  will  not  be 
fo  apt  to  foak  deep  into  it.  Other- 
wife  a  layer  of  day  or  marie  jnay 
be  laid  on  to  retain  the  flale,  and 
the  \;afh  of  ttie  dung,  which  other- 
wife  would  be  almoft  entirely  loff. 

Some  farmers  feem  well  pleaf- 
ed  to  have  a  wafli  run  away  from 
their  barns  upon  the  contiguous 
Doping  lands.  But  they  are  not 
aware  how  much  they  lofe  by  it. 
A  fmall  quantity  of  land,  by 
means  of  it,  may  be  made  too 
rich.  But  thequantity  of  manure 
that  is  expended  in  doing  it,  if  oth- 
erwife  employed,  might  be  vallly 
raoread\antagcous;efpeci3llyifit 
werefo  confined  as  to  be  incorpo- 
rated with  a  N'ariety  ot  abforbent 
and  diffolvabie  fubftances  ;  and 
afterwards  laid  on  thofe  parts  of 
the  farm  where  it  is  mofl  wanted. 

It  is  bell,  in  this  climate,  that  a 
bam  yard  fhould  be  on  the  fouth. 
fide  of  a  barn.  It  being  lefs  fhad- 
ed,  the  manure  will  make  the  fafU 


BAR 

rr.  as  it  will  be  free  from  froft  a 
I  rtot  the  year, diul  confc- 

«1  ivc  a  longer  time  to  ter- 

Bient  in.  The  tcct  of  the  cattle  will 
aJfo  mix  the  materials  the  more, 
which  are  thrown  mto  the  yard, 
and  wear  them  to  pieces,  fo  that 
they  will  htecome  ihort  aiid  fine. 
Alter  the  yard  is  cleaned  in 
the  fprirvg,  the  tarmer  Ihould  em- 
brace tlie  firll  leifure  he  has,  to 
ftore  it  with  a  variety  of  materi- 
als for  making  manure.  For  this 
purpofe,  he  may  cart  into  it 
fwamp  mud,  clay,  brick  duR, 
flraw,  thatch,  fern,  weeds,  leaves 
of  trees,  turfs,  marlh  mud,  eel 

frafs,  flats,  or  even  fand  and  loam, 
f  he  cannot  get  all  fhefe  kinds 
ol  rubbifli,  he  may  take  fuch  of 
them  as  arc  the  moft  eafily  ob- 
tained. Any  of  thefc  fubftances, 
being  mixed  with  the  dung  and 
flale  ol  cattle,  will  become  good 
manure.  But  lome  regard  may 
be  had  to  the  nature  of  the  foil  on 
whichthemanureistobelaid.  Ifit 
be  clay,  tlie  lefs  clay  and  the  more 
brick  duft  and  fand  will  be  prop- 
er: Ifa  Tandy  foil,  clay,  pond  mud, 
and  flats  will  be  better  ingredients. 
All  the  materials  above  men- 
♦ionetl,  and  many  more  that 
might  be  named,  will  in  one  year 
become  g«x>d  manure,  by  being 
mixed  with  the  excrements  of 
the  cattle,  and  prevent  the  wafte 
ot  them.  And  this  is  thought, 
by  the  bell  wrners  on  hufbandry, 
tobe  thecheapeft  methrnl  a  tann- 
er can  take  to  manure  liis  lands, 
confidering  the  fmall  cert  of  ilie 
laateriaU  made  into  manure. 

It  water  ihould  Hand  long  in 
any  pan  of  the  yard,  the  manure 
muft  be  raked  out  of  the  water, 
and  hf.ipcd  round  the  borders  of 
the  puddle,  that  it  raav  be  dry. 
For  there  will  be  no  fermenta- 
lion  where  there  IS  t<x>much  wet- 
■efs  :  The  materials  Will  not  dif- 
ialvc,  but  turn  four.    As  thefc 


B  E  A 


*3 


heaps  grow  dry,  the  water  fliould 
be  Icooped  up,  and  thrown  »>rH»i» 
them  from  lime  to  time.  This 
will  incrcafe  the  fermentation  ia 
the  heaps,  and  they  will  grow 
mellow  the  taller. — It  will  be  of 
fervice  to  fhovcl  the  whole  of 
the  inatiiire  into  heaps,  a  icw 
days  before  it  is  carted  out,  as  it 
will  bring  on  a  brilk  fcrraenu- 
tion,  and  make  it  fitter  to  belaid 
upon  the  land.  Or  if  (hovelling 
be  thought  too  laborious,  turning 
it  up  with  a  plough  will  be  ad- 
vantageous. Or  it  there  be  not 
a  deep  layer,  tearing  it  with  a 
harrow  may  be  fufficient. 

BLAN,  I'iiiit,  a  kind  of  pulfc 
much  ufed  as  food,  both  for  man 
and  bead.  The  forts  and  varie- 
ties ot  beans  are  numerous  almolk 
beyond  account.  Butthofewhich 
are  moll  cultivated  in  this  part 
of  the  world  are,  the  Englilh  bean, 
to  which  the  name  Windfor  is  ap- 
plied J  kidney  beans  of  various 
kinds  ;  fuch  as  the  cafe  knife 
bean,  the  Canada  bean,  die  cran- 
berry bean,  the  fhort  bean,  the 
white  bean  cultivated  in  fields, 
and  the  fcarlct  bean.  Sivy,  or  Saba 
beans, areaifocultivated  in  thiscli- 
mate  ot  late  to  advantage.  They 
are  known  in  fome  places  by  the 
name  of  tlu>ufand  for  one  beans* 

Engjifh  beans  require  a  moift 
and  ftrong  foil.  Nothing  that  I 
know  ot  will  tlourilh  better  m  a 
rtiff  cl.^y.  They  Ihould  be  plant- 
ed as  earlv  as  poflible  in  the 
fpring.  In  Europe  they  fow  them 
in  February.  There  is  rjo  dan- 
ger of  their  being  bun  by  a  fmall 
degree  of  froU,  if  they  fhould 
happen  to  come  up  early.  In 
Europe  fome  fow  them  in  the 
broa^l  call  way  :  But  the  drill 
is  better,  on  account  of 
.  ctweeii  ther'«ws,  as  they 
w.;i  need  ho<ine.  When  tl.ey 
arc  about  a  yard  nigh,  if  they  in- 
cline to  be  too  tall,  tip.'  loni 
fhoidd 


u 


B  E  A 


(houlJ  be  broken  off,  in  the  fairiC 
manner  as  tobacco.  When  the 
fir{t  crop  is  all  gathered,  the 
ftalks  fhould  be  cut  off  clofe  to 
the  ground,  excepting  thofe  on 
xvhich  feed  is  left  to  grow  m*:«re 
perfet^ly  ripe.  The  fuckers  will 
rife  from  the  roots,  and  give  an- 
oiher  green  crop  late  in  the  fall.  I 
have  held  a  plentiful  fecond  crop 
fit  for  the  table  in  November  : 
But  they  will  not  be  ripe,  nor  fo 
good  for  eating  as  the  firft  crop. 

A  fmaller  Engliflibean,  called 
the  horfe  bean,  and  ufed  to  ieed 
horfes,  I  have  attempted  to  cul- 
tivate. 1  planted  them  on  a  rich 
clayey  loam,  made  mellow.  The 
plants  grew  finel)',  and  bloffom- 
cd  ;  but  bore  no  fruit  at  all, 
though  the  plants  appeared  in  a 
healthy  ftate  through  the  fum- 
mer.  But  I  made  only  one  ex- 
perim.ent  :  PofTibly,  others  might 
have  better  fuccefs. 

The  cafcknife  bean,  is  fo  call- 
ed, becaufe  the  pod  is  (haped  like 
that  inftrument,  and  oi  nearly 
the  fame  lize.  The  green  pods, 
half  grown,  are  excellent  food. 
This  bean,  as  all  other  of  the  run- 
nmg  kind,  are  produced  in 
great  plenty  by  the  help  of  hog 
dung,  with  a  little  mixture  of 
afhes.  They  ripen  rather  late  : 
but  a  fufiicient  quantity  of  them 
for  feed  are  ufually  ripened. 
They  are  a  tender  plant,  and 
-fhould  not  be  put  into  the  ground 
till  after  the  middle  of  May.  The 
poles  for  them  to  climb  upon 
may  be  fct  at  the  time  when  the 
feed  is  put  in,  or  afterwards,  as 
may  be  moft  convenient.  They 
are  amazingly  productive.  A 
bufhel  of  pods  may  be  had  from 
one  or  two  poles.  But  it  is  time 
that  new  feed  be  obtained  from 
fomc  diftant  country,  as  of  late 
they  do  not  wtll  run  up  the  poles. 

Canada  beans  have  no  running 
vines.    They  ripen  early  and  are 


B  E  A 

fruitful.  They  are  obloiig  fii£p< 
ed,  and  of  various  colours,  fpeck- 
led,  white  with  black  eyes,  cream 
coloured,  &c.  1  he  pods  are  not 
fo  tender  as  to  be  good  for  eating, 
nnlefs  when  they  are  very  young. 
Thefe,  and  all  other  of  the  bulk 
kind,  grow  befl  in  the  drill  way. 

The  cranberry  bean  is  fo  call- 
ed from  the  refemblancc  it  bear?, 
when  ripe«  to  that  fruit.  The 
vines  grow  luxuriairtly,  and  a- 
bound  with  leaves,  fo  that  ftrong 
poles  are  required  to  fupport 
them.  They  do  not  ripen  quite 
fo  well  as  might  be  wifhed  in  the 
moft  northern  parts  of  Newen* 
gland  ;  but  they  are  more  fruit- 
ful than  almofl  any  other  that  I 
have  met  with.  The  green  pods 
are  fweet,  tender,  and  a  very  luf- 
cious  kind  of  food.  But  they 
are  beft  to  eat  Ihelled. 

The  fliort  bean  is  fo  called  front 
its  fhape.  It  is  of  a  brown  colour. 
Many  grow  in  one  fhort  pod, 
and  each  looks  as  if  it  were  cut  off 
fquare  at  one  or  both  ends.  Th^ 
excellency  of  this  kind  of  bean 
is,  that  the  pod  is  lit  for  eating 
when  the  bean  has  got  its  full 
growth.  But  the  pods  are  liable 
to  be  hurt  by  a  black  ruil,  if  they 
Sre  expofed  much  to  the  fun  ; 
though  they  will  be  frefli  and 
fair  whtii  they  grow  in  a  fiiady 
place.  Planted  with  Indian  com, 
they  grow  extremely  well,  and  are 
fit  to  eat  green  till  fome  time  af- 
ter the  firft  autumnal  frofts  begin. 

The  held  white  beans  com* 
monly  grow  beft  on  a  dry  and 
v.-arm  foil,  but  moderately  rich. 
The  way  to  han'eft  them  is,  to 
pull  them  up  by  the  foots,  a  fhort 
time  before  the  firft  froft  is  ex- 
pefted,  and  let  them  lie  en  the 
field.  The  green  ones  will  fooa 
ripen,  and  efcape  injury  from 
the  froft.  They  muA  be  gather- 
ed in  avA  fecured,  before  they 
begin  to  Ihatter  out  of  the  pod», 

The 


RLE 

''•-  haiim,  or  vines  of  beans, 
,iM  not  be  walled,  but  carc- 
,....;  piclervcd  :  Tin  y  arc  a  ioit 
of  lotlik'r  which  fhccp  awi  i^oats 
ate  very  loiui  <>1,  thoi-.gh  no  oth- 
er iTCatiire  will  fat  diem. 

Ot  beans  calUd  Icarlet  the 
white  are  the  be  ft  and  moll  pro- 
du^iive. 

As  dried  beans  are  of  late  be- 
come a  tonndcniblc  article  of  ex- 
p«-)iTdt!on,  farmers  Ihouid  be  in- 
ionned  that  the  whiti*  beans  are 
moll  prized  by  far  in  foreign 
markets,  and  bear  a  higher  price 
thai)  any  other. 

Cdllivance  are  a  bean  of  great 
vahie,  and  yield  great  crops  in 
fc^nc  of  the  A>rarnier  parts  of  Ncw- 
CM^iland. 

BEER,  a  pleafant  drink  made 
with  malt  and  hops.  It  is  dif- 
tinguilhcfl  from  ale  by  havin;^  a 
greater  quantity  of  hops  ;  whence 
n  IS  more  bhter,  and  will  keep 
longer.  And  beer  that  ii  made 
of  the  highell  dried  mait  has  the 
runie  of  porter. 

Much  has  been  publifhed  for 
the  dirc^iion  of  thofc  who  under- 
take large  breweries.  It  is  much 
to  be  wjlJicd  that  many  fuch  were 
carried  on  in  this  country,  where 
barley  for  making  malt  can  bc- 
ff)  caiily  raifi'd.  I'he  vAe  of  ar- 
dent fpiriis,  which  are  more  coft- 
ly.  and  lefs  wholefome  than  beer, 
might  thus  he  Icifctied.  They 
who  are  difpi^fed  to  undertake 
brewing,  may  fupply  themfelves 
with  volumes  on  the  fubjecf. — 
I  Ihall  only  underuke  to  d;ro6l 
farmers,  who  may  be  dilpofcJ  to 
brtw  beer  for  their  own  con- 
fuii'piion. 

Alinoft  any  houfrholicr  may 
brew,  without  putting  himlelt  to 
imiv-h  :f  anv  charge  lor  a!i  appa- 
r<itn<.  Iiilieadof  a  large  cv'Mprr, 
wli..  h  is  necrlfary  in  a  hiew 
hixik',  a  large  kcttic  or  two  may 
^nfwcr  tbc  purpoics  of  hcjiing 


BEE 


25 


the  water,  and  boiling  the  wort. 
Hoglhcad  and  barrel  tubs,  and 
other  vefTtrls,  may  fcrve  for  malh- 
ing  tubs,  backs,  coolers,  and  tun». 
I'hc  water  ufcd  for  makinz 
beer,  or  ale.  fliould  be  foft,  and 
lucli  as  is  fit  for  wafhing.  For 
this  will  better  penetrate  the 
malt,  and  caufc  it  fodifchargcits 
fpiriiuous  virtue.  Some  recona- 
mend  tiirowlnga  fpoonful  of  fait 
into  a  kettle  full,  which  will 
caufc  any  foulnels  contained  in 
the  water  to  rife  to  the  furface 
when  it  boils,  which  may  be 
ikinimed  off.  When  tlie  \vater 
is  very  good  this  will  be  needlefs. 
But  let  the  water  be  ever  fopurc, 
a  little  bran,  or  malt,  Ihould  be 
thrown  upf)n  the  top,  while  it  in 
heating  ;  to  be  taken  off  whca 
the  water  begins  to  boil.  If  malt: 
be  uled,  throw  it  into  the  malK 
tub.  The  deftgn  of  thus  cover- 
ing the  water  is,  to  prevent  the 
bclf,  molt  liibtil  and  volatile  par- 
ticles of  tlie  water  trom  evapo- 
rating, or  going  off  in  fteam. 
The  water,  for  the  fame  reafon, 
Ihould  but  juff  boil ;  after  which 
it  Ihould  not  be  left  to  cool  grad- 
ually, as  the  evaporation  would 
be  too  great  :  But  as  much  cold 
water  Ifiould  be  thrown  in,  and 
mixed  with  it  in  the  malh  tub, 
as  will  bring  it  to  the  right  tem- 
per, perhai'S  abont  tliree  gal- 
lons to  halt  a  barrel.  For  the 
malt  Ihould  not  be  Icalded,  but 
fteeped  in  water,  as  wargi  as  it 
can  bewiifiout  fcalding  ;  becaule 
the  Icaldmg  of  tlie  mait  would 
rather  clofe  up  its  jwrcs,  and  pre- 
vent its  inipregiiaiing  the  water 
wiiii  its  virtue.  To  Niuch  as  it  will 
in  a  tepid  menllruum.  It  will 
alfo  ix*nder  u  glutinous  and  ad- 
hefivc,  fo  tliat  tne  water  will  not 
have  a  free  pallage  through  it. 
Tfic  cold  water  (hould  be  nut 
firll  uuo  the  mafli,  aui  the  not 
after  it. 


26 


BEE 


The  mafli  tub  fhould  have  a 
cock,  or  a  tap  and  faucet,  fixed 
into  its  bottom,  and  the  hole  cov- 
ered within  with  a  httle  flat 
fhaped  inverted  bafket,  faflened 
with  nails,  that  it  may  not 
get  out  of  place  by  the  mafhing, 
and  a  clofe  ftraining  cloth  may 
be  put  over  it,  and  faflened  in 
the  fame  manner. 

The  water  being  in  the  mafh 
tub,  one  perfon  fhould  put  in  the 
malt  by  little  and  little,  and  an- 
other fhould  flir  it  about  with  a 
ftick  or  paddle,  that  it  may  not 
remain  in  lumps,  or  fail  of  being 
thoroughly  wetted.  This  is  all 
the  flin-ing  that  is  needful.  For 
too  much  flirring  would  caufe 
the  malt  to  thicken,  fo  as  not  to 
give  a  free  paflage  to  the  water 
that  is  to  pafs  through  it. 

Som.e  of  the  laft  of  the  malt, 
inftead  of  being  Ifirred  into  the 
water,  fhould  he  Itrowed  loofely 
over  the  furface,  to  ferve  as  a 
coat  for  the  reft,  and  prevent 
the  copious  pafCng  away  oi  the 
fpirit  in  fleams.  Befides,  the  tub 
fhould  be  clofely  covered  with 
facks,  or  other  cloths,  that  none 
of  the  fleam  may  efcape.  In  this 
fituation  it  fhould  fland  for  two 
or  three  hours.  Then  with  a 
fmall  flream  drav/  off  the  wort, 
upon  a  handful  or  two  of  hops, 
into  the  back,  which  is  placed 
under  the  mafli  tub.  Fill  with 
water  again,  and  mafh  ;  iix  half 
an  hour  run  it  off ;  in  the  mean 
while  be  pouring  hot  water  into 
the  mafh  as  it  is  nmning.  It 
fliould  bd  poured  in  on  that  fide 
of  the  tub  which  is  moft  diflant 
from  the  cock,  or  fo  that  all  the 
malt  may  be  wafhed  with  it  as 
equally  as  poffible.  This  water 
may  be  almofl  or  quite  boiling 
hot,  as  mixing  it  with  that  in  the 
tub  will  fo  cool  it  as  to  prevent 
fcalding.  Continue  thus  to  pour 
ifl  water  and  run  it  off, '  till  you 


BEE 

have  the  quantity  in  the  back 
which  you  defign  for  your  llrong 
ale  or  beer.  Then  flop  the  cock, 
and  fill  the  grains  with  a  fuffi- 
cient  quantity  of  cold  water,  for 
fmall  beer,  or  it  may  be  hot  if 
the  weather  is  cold,  fo  that  there 
be  no  danger  of  fouring.  Let  it 
fland,  covered  as  before,  and  boil 
your  firfl  run.  When  it  has 
boiled  fmartly  for  half  an  hour, 
put  in  your  hops,  and  boil  it  an- 
other half  hour,  or  till  it  breaks 
or  curdles,  as  it  will  when  it  is 
fufficiently  boiled.  Or  you  may 
put  your  hops  into  a  thin  coarfe 
linen  bag,  leaving  room  for  them 
to  fwell,  and  boil  them  the  firfl 
half  hour  in  the  wort,  which  I 
take  to  be  a  better  method. 

When  your  wort  is  boiled  e- 
nough,  flrain  it  into  your  coolers, 
in  which  the  thinner  it  lies  the 
better,  as  it  will  cool  the  tafler. 

The  next  thing  is  to  put  the 
wort  into  the  tun,  an  open  veffel, 
to  ferment.  If  very  fine  and 
clear  drink  is  defired,  the  fedi- 
ments  in  the  coolers  fhould  be 
left  behind,  and  flrained  through 
a  flannel  bag  :  For  the  lefs  of  the 
grounds  go  into  the  tun,  the  purer 
the  beer  may  be  expefted  to  be 
in  the  cafk,  and  the  more  eafily 
fined. 

1  hat  which  is  intended  for  long 
keeping  fliould  be  almofl  or  quite 
cold  before  it  is  put  ilito  the  tun, 
becaufe  a  flow  fermentation  will 
be  mofl  proper  for  it.  But  ale, 
or  fmall  beer,  for  fpeedy  ufe, 
may  be  put  up  a  little  warm. 

Then  flir  in  your  barm,  or  yefl, 
a  pint  of  which  is  enough  tor  a 
barrel.  If  the  fermentation  be 
too  flow,  beat  in  the  yefl  once  or 
twice,  but  not  oftener,  left  the 
drink  fhould  be  injured  by  it. 

In  two  or  three  days  the  beer 
will  purify  itfelf  by  throwing  up 
the  lighter  parts  to  the  top  in  a 
white  curled  foam,  and  precipi- 
tating 


BEE 

fating  the  heavier  and  fouler 
parts  to  the  bottom.  It  IhouM 
then  be  tapped  jull  above  the 
kes,  and,  having  taken  ofl  the 
jreft,  the  beer  muft  be  drawn  off 
into  the  cafks  in  whit  liit  is  to  he 
kept  :  Which  Ihould  ftand  with 
the  bungs  open,  till  the  tennen- 
tation  ceafes,  and  be  kept  coii- 
ilantly  lull,  not  by  pouring  in  that 
which  runs  over  with  the  ycU  at 
the  bung  hole  ;  but  with  fonie  of 
the  fame  beer  kept  in  a  vcdel  by 
itfelf.  Thus  it  will  throw  off  the 
yell,  and  depofit  a  dreggy  part 
furticient  for  the  beer  to  teed  up- 
on in  the  cafk.  Referving  the 
yeft  lor  ufc,  bung  the  calks  clofe 
as  foon  as  the  working  ceafes. 
If  the  brewing  be  done  in  Octo- 
ber, the  bungs  Ihould  not  be  tak- 
en out  till  Ipring.  Then  open 
the  vent  holes  :  ror  the  coming 
of  warm  weather  will  caiile  a  new 
fermentation.  This  being  over, 
keep  the  cafks  well  Hopped  till 
September  following  :  Then  fine 
it  with  ifinglafs,  firU  racking  it 
off,  if  it  be  not  pretty  fine. 

But  Un  ales  and  fmall  beers,  it 
may  anfwcr  well  enough,  to  omit 
the  tunning,  and  remove  the  wort 
from  the  coolers  diretUy  into  the 
caflcs  ;  obferving  to  keep  them 
full,  that  they  may  purge  them- 
lelves  ot  the  ye  It. 

Butt  beer  of  the  flrongefl  kind, 
takes  eight  bufhels  ol  mail  for  a 
barrel.  But  a  fmallcr  quantity 
will  makeaplcafanterand  whoie- 
fomer  drink.  The  fame  quanti- 
ty will  make  a  barrel  and  a  half 
of  good  ftrong  ale  ;  or  lix  barrels 
ol  fmall  beer. 

Receipt  for  hrfwingfor  a  pri- 
vate family. 

Take  four  bulhelsof  malt,  and 
from  ten  ounces  to  a  jmund  of 
hops,  as  you  wiih  your  beer  tx)bc 
more  or  Icfs  bitter.  Brew  accord- 
ing to  the  above  nx'thod.  Von 
will  have  one  b-iu  I  of  good  .ile, 


BEE 


«7 


and  anotlier  of  fmall  beer.  For 
the  fmall  beer  half  a  pound  of 
bops  will  be  enough.  Some  ufe 
the  hops  that  ha\e  been  boiled 
beiore  :  But  frcfli  hops  will  be 
tar  better  and  wholelomer. 

iJPRUCE    BkKR. 

Take  a  fufiicient  quantity  of 
fprucebonglis ;  boil  them  in  water 
about  halt  an  hour,  or  till  the  out- 
ward Ikin,  or  rind,  peels  off:  Strain 
the  liquor,  and  llir  in  at  the  rate  of 
two  quarts  of  inolaflrs  to  half  a  bar- 
rel. Work  it  with  l»oer  grounds, 
or  emptyings ;  or  rather  w  ith  yell. 

Inilead  of  fpmce  fome  ufe  ju- 
niper, and  prefer  it.  It  is  the  low 
fpecies,commonly  called  favin.  A 
httle  wheat  bran  Ihould  be  boiled 
in  this  beer  to  give  it  abrilknefs. 

Molasses  Beer  ; 
according  to  a  method  fai<l  to  bo 
prattifed  in  Philadelphia. 

"Take  five  pounds  of  mt  laffes, 
half  a  pint  of  yeft,  and  a  fpoon- 
fulot  pow<lered  race  ginger:  Put 
thele  ingredients  into  your  vcf- 
fel,  and  pour  on  them  two  gal- 
lons ot  Icalding  hot,  loft  and 
clear  water  :  Shake  them  well 
till  it  tcnncnts  ;  and  add  thirteen 
gallons  of  the  fame  water  cold, 
to  fill  up  the  cdfk:  Let  the  liquor 
ferment  about  twelve  hours,  then 
bottle  it  off,  with  a  raifm  or  two 
in  each  bottle." 
A  pood  Hov ^^fMOLii  Bekr. 

Take  a  heaped  'half  peck  of 
wheat  bran,  and  three  or  four 
ounces  of  hops  :  Boil  them  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  in  fifteen  gal- 
lons of  clear  water  :  Strain  it 
through  a  clofc  ficvc,  and  fwect- 
en  it  with  two  quart.s  of  molaf- 
fes  :  Cool  it  quick  till  it  is  no 
warmer  than  new  milk,  and  fill 
your  half  barrel.  Warm  water 
may  be  ufed  to  fill  up  the  cafk  if 
needful.  Leave  the  bung  out 
for  '-'4  hours,  that  the  drink  may 
woik,  and  throwoff  the  yeft,  and 
it  will  be  fit  fur  ufe.  About  the 
tounU 


28 


BEE 


fourth  or  fifth  day,  bottle  off  what 
remains  in  the  veilel,  efpecially 
if  the  weather  be  hot,  that  it  may 
not  turn  four  or  Hale,  li  the  calk 
be  new,  or  not  before  ufed  tor 
beer,  apply  yeft  or  bper  grounds 
to  ferment  it  :  Otherwife  it  will 
not  be  neceffary. 

The  praftice,  which  is  common 
in  this  country,  of  fermenting  our 
fmall  drinks,  with  the  fediments, 
or  dregs  of  the  fame,  ought  to  be 
laid  afide.  For  this  is  undoubt- 
edly the  fouleft,  and  mofl  un- 
wholefome  excrement  of  liquor. 
Praftice  is  apt  to  reconcile  the 
aiiinds  of  people  to  the  moft  ab- 
furd  and  unwholefome  things. 
Would  not  a  man  be  confidered 
as  infane,  who  fhould  take  the 
emptyings  of  cyder,  and  put  it 
into  his  new  cyder  to  tcrment 
it  ?  But  how  much  better  a  prac- 
tice is  it,  to  ferment  our  iniall 
beers  in  this  manner,  with  the 
fediments  of  fmall  beer  ?  It  is 
true,  that  yeft  is  alfo  an  excre- 
mcutitious  part  ;  but  that  which 
is  white,  is  evidently  far  lighter, 
and  freer  from  filth,  and  contains 
much  of  the  volatile  and  Ibiritu- 
ous  parts.  As  I  had  rather  re- 
ceive the  breath  or  perfpiration 
of  cattle  into  my  body,  than  their 
dung,  or  ftale,  fo  1  prefer  the 
v/hlte  fcum  in  my  drink  to  the 
ponderous  dregs  of  liquors.  Thefe 
obfervations  will  as  well  apply 
to  the  fernienting  of  dough. 

To  mend  diforders  in  beer, 
and  improve  it,  the  London  and 
country  brewer  gives  th;;  follow- 
ing directions. 

To  cure  a  butt  of  ropy  heer. — 
Mix  two  handfuls  of  bean  flour 
with  one  handful  of  fait,  and  flir 
it  in. 

To  feed  a  butt  of  beer. — Bake  a 
rye  loaf  well  nutmeged,  put  it  in 
pieces  into  a  narrow  bag  of  hops 
vith  fome  wheat,  and  put  the  bag 
into  the  c^ik  at  the  bmig  hole. 


BEE 

To  cure  vn{fiy  drink. — ^\\v\  it 
through  fome  hops  that  have 
been  boiling  in  ftrong  wort,  and 
afterwards  work  it  with  two  parts 
of  new  beer,  to  one  of  the  mufty 
old.  This  is  called  vamping, 
and  is  a  cure  for  mufty,  or  ftink- 
ing  beer. 

To  feed  and  give  a  fne  favour 
to  a  barrel  of  beer. — Put  lix  fea 
bifcuits  into  a  bag  of  hops,  and 
put  all  into  the  calk. 

To  fine  or  clarify  beer  in  twen- 
ty four  hours, — Put  in  a  piece  of 
foft  chalk  burnt,  about  the  big- 
nefs  of  two  hen's  eggs,  which 
will  difturb  the  liquor,  and  caufe 
it  afterwards  to  be  fine,  and  draw 
off  brilk  to  the  iaft,  though  it 
were  flat  before.  This  will  do 
for  a  kilderkin,  or  half  barrel. 

To  fine  and  fed  butt  beer. — Cut 
ifmglafs  into  fmall  pieces,  and 
foak  it  in  fome  ftalc  beer  ;  then 
boil  fugar  in  imall  beer  or  ale  to 
a  thin  fyrup,  and  mix  it  with 
fome  of  the  ihngiafs  beer,  which 
put  into  a  butt  of  beer,  flirring 
it  brifl^ly  together.  It  will  fine 
and  preferve  the  drink  well. 

To  recover  a.  kilderkin  of  fiale. 
frnall  beer. — Put  two  ounces  of 
good  hops,  and  one  pound  of 
mellow  fat  chalk,  broke  into  a 
dozen  pieces,  in  at  the  hung  hole, 
and  ftop  it  up  clofe.  It  will  prove 
found  and  pleafant  to  the  Iaft. 

To  fine  a  kilderkin  of  ale  or 
beer,  and  preferve  the  fame  found 
and  pleafant  for  a  long  time. — ^ 
lake  a  large  handful  of  hops, 
boiled  in  a  firft  wort  only  half 
an  hour,  and  dried  ;  half  a  pound 
of  loaf  lugar  dillolved  in  fome 
of  the  ale  or  beer  ;  one  pound 
of  chalk  broke  in  fix  pieces  ;  the 
wlu(,epartofoyfter{hells,calcined 
in  a  clear  charcoal  fire  to  a  white- 
nefs,  and  the  ftems  of  tobacco 
pipes,  that  have  been  ufed  and 
are  burnt  again,  of  each  in  pow- 
der four  ounces.     Put  in  your 

hops 


BEE 

hop?  fiift.  with  the  pieces  ol 
I  ii  ilk  ;  and  tlicn  mix  your  two 
powdtris  <iiul  \oa\  iii^di  in  lunie 
ot  the  ale  or  beer,  and  pour  all 
in  immediately  alter  the  hops 
and  chalk,  llirrin«»  them  well 
about  with  a  Itafl.and  biin^down. 

Some  put  thele  iuto  alcquitk- 
ly  alter  it  has  done  working  ; 
others  will  rack  off  their  O^to- 
ber  or  March  beer  into  another 
cafk,  ami  then  put  in  ihefe  in- 
piedients,  and  ftir  it  well  with  a 
liariF :  Or  give  the  velfel  a  roll 
or  two,  that  the  bottom  may  be 
turned  up.  You  may  tap  it  at  a 
week's  end  :  You  will  have  a 
clear  wholelome  ale  or  beer. 

BEtS,an  indiiftriousand  prof- 
itable fpecies  ot  infects.  Rural 
cccnoniy  is  incomplete  wliere 
bees  are  wanting.  The  coil  ot 
keeping  them  is  nothing,  .iltcr  the 
houle  aisd  boxes  are  made  ;  and  , 
the  care  that  is  required  about 
them  is  but  trifling,  affording  an 
agreeable  amufcmcnt. 

There  are  three  forts  ol  bees 
in  a  hive  :  i.  The  queen  bee, 
which  \s  larger,  and  ot  a  brighter 
red,  than  the  rell.  Her  bufinels 
is  to  condufci  the  new  iwarm,  and 
lay  eggs  in  the  cells  for  a  new 
brood  :  And  her  tertility  is  lo 
great  that  Ihe  brings  torth  many 
thoufands  ot  vout]g  otiqs  in  a 
year.  2.  TJjc  drones,  which  have 
:io  fting";,  are  ot  a  darker  colour 
than  the  rell,  and  are  fuppofed 
to  be  the  males.  3.  The  honey 
l>ees,  or  working  bees,  which 
are  by  tar  more  numerous  than 
the  other  two  kinds. 

A  bee  houfe  ihould  be  fitiiated 
.".t  a  good  diitancc  trom  places 
s\  here  cattle  are  kept,  elpcci.illy 
Irora  hogitics,  hen  and  dove 
honfes,  and  remote  trom  filth 
and  dunghills.  It  Ihould  be  (i*:- 
fcndcd  from  high  winds  on  .dl 
lidcs,  lo  tar  as  nuiy  be,  coniiJl- 
cnily  with  adnjittiag  the  heat  gl 


BEE 


29 


the  fun.  1  he  houfe  fhould  be 
open  to  tlie  fourh,  or  louthwell, 
and  tlie  backfidc  Ihould  be  very 
tight  ;  with  a  tight  root  proje^t- 
inp,  diat  driving  rains  may  not 
injure  the  bees.  If  fnow  lodge* 
upon  or  about  the  hives,  it  Ihould 
be  brullud  off  without  delay. 
The  bench  on  which  the  hives 
Hand,  lliould  be  a  little  canting 
outwards,  that  if  wet  Ihould  tall 
on  it,  it  may  run  oH"  without  en- 
tering the  hi\'es.  jVlir.  Broinwich 
nropofes,  "  that  a  bee  houfe  be 
boarded  in  front  :  And  that  the 
hackfide  fhould  confift  oi  three 
doors,  which,  opened,  give  a  full 
view  ot  the  hives,  and  give  op- 
portunity to  allift  or  lift  them. 
All  feams  are  to  be  flopped, 
which  would  admit  inlects,  trom 
which  the  houfe  is  often  to  be 
brufhed. 

"  If  the  houfe  fhoidd  be  in 
danger  ot  being  too  hot,  when 
thus  inclofed,  it  may  be  occafion- 
ally  ihaded  with  bougtis  of  trees. 
As  win'er  approaclies,  ail  the 
f earns  ot  the  houfe  are  plaiflcred 
with  clay,  in  veiy  eold  climates, 
the  houle  ihould  be  filled  witli 
ft  raw,  to  keep  t!ie  bees  warm, 
watching  againll  mice,  and  re- 
moving the  itraw  in  the  fpring. 

"  Cut  a  hole  through  the  front, 
ot  the  lame  fi/e  as  the  mouth  ot 
the  lower  hive,  and  directly  a- 
gainil  it.  Under  this  palliige, 
on  a  level  with  tlic  floor,  is  a 
lighting  board,  at  the  mouth  of 
each  hive,  ot  abi'iit  hvc  inches 
long,  and  tiirec  wide.  It  is  a 
little  (belt  tor  tiie  hees  to  land 
upon  after  their  excurfions. 
Thcfe  being  feparatc,  iu)t  in  on< 
piece  of  the  length  ot  the  houfe, 
iK  to  prevent iniercourfe between 
colony  and  colony.  But  more 
cffcatial  to  prevent  mice,  fn.;ils, 
and  other  mtrutiers.  Theie  a- 
lighting  boards  ^\rc  fometiires 
paiiitea  ol  different  colours,  to 

dircti 


30 


BEE 


dircft  each  bee  to  his  home  more  j 
readily.— A  long  fnelving  board  I 
(hould  be  placed  over  the  alight- 
ing boards,  to  Ihelter  the  bees  in 
a  rainy  time.  It  fhould  be 
twelve  inches  wide,  and  placed 
nire  inches  above  the  mouths 
of  the  hives." 

Broom,  clover,  and  muftard, 
are  faid  to  afford  bees  an  excel- 
lent pafture  ;  and  they  appear 
very  tend  of  the  flowers  of  pop- 
pies. Gardens,  and  any  places 
where  flowers  abound,  and  ef- 
pecially  where  there  is  a  fuc- 
cefTion  of  flowers  through  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  are  moft 
favourable  to  them  :  For  they 
undoubtedly  draw  the  principal 
par^of  their  honey  from  the  nec- 
tar>a  of  flowers.  Fields  ot  buck 
wheat  are  good,  as  they  continue 
in  bloom  for  a  long  time.  In 
Germany  they  move  their  bee 
hives  in  boats  to  the  neighbour- 
ing fields  of  buck  wheat. 

Bees  are  wont  to  fend  out  new 
fwarms  in  May  and  June.  Much 
has  been  Avriiten  concerning  the 
management  of  them  on  thefe 
occafions.  But  the  new  mode 
of  managing  them  renders  all 
this  unnecelTary.  It  is  this  :  Let 
the  bee  houfe  be  made  fo  tall  as 
to  admit  three  tier  of  hives,  or 
boxes,  one  above  another.  The 
hives  fhould  not  be  tall  fhaped, 
but  rather  broad  and  fliort,  tb^at 
they  may  take  up  lefs  room. 
A  hiv.e  of  fuch  dimenfions  as  to 
be  equal  to  a  cube  of  13  inches, 
%vill  be  fufficiently  capacious. 
Mr.  Tliorley  directs  that  they 
fhould  be  10  inches  deep,  and 
trom  12  to  14  inches  broad  in 
the  infide.  If  hives  be  made 
larger,  the  fwarms  will  not  mul- 
tiply fo  fall.  An  under  hive  i* 
made  with  a  round  hole  through 
the  top  of  three  inches  diameter, 
covered  with  a  Aiding  fhutter. 
^ch  hive  or  box  fiiould  have  a 


BEE 

paflage  at  the  bottom  for  the  bees 
to  pafs  in  and  out,  four  or  five 
inches  long,  and  about  one  third 
of  an  inch  deep.  One  of  thefe 
hives  fhould  be  placed  direftly 
under  an  inhabited  hive,  before 
they  are  difpofed  to  fend  out  a 
new  fwarm.  This  will  prevent 
the  going  out  of  a  fwarm,  and 
fave  trouble  and  svatching  :  For 
inftead  of  fwarming,  when  the 
upper  hive  is  full,  th£y  will  build 
and  depofit  their  honey  in  the 
one  that  is  below  :  And  w^hen 
that  is  full,  let  them  find  another 
beneath  it  ;  they  will  take  pof- 
fellion  of  the  lowermoft.  It  is 
their  manner  always  to  begin  at 
the  top,  and  build  downwards. 
For  another  method  of  manage- 
ment, fee  IVhite's  collatteral  Bee 
Bcxes. 

\\'^hen  tiie  top  hive  is  well  fill- 
ed with  honey,  it  may  be  dif- 
covcred  by  lilting  it,  or  more  ac- 
curately by  weighing  it  gently 
with  a  fleelyard,  in  a  cool  morn- 
ing, when  the  bees  are  fliff,  and 
not  apt  to  come  out. 

When  a  hi\  e  is  taken  up.  there 
is  no  need  of  murdering  the 
poor  infecrs  with  fire  and  brim- 
ftone,  as  has  been  the  ufual  prac- 
tice. Only  drive  in  the  fhutter, 
and  run  a  thin  long  knite  round, 
to  part  it  from  that  which  is  be- 
low it  ;  flip  the  hive  off  upon  a 
fmooth  piece  of  board,  or  Aide 
the  board  under,  and  carry  the 
hive  into  your  dwelling  hoafe, 
which  you  may  do  in  a  cool 
morning  without  any  danger 
from  their  flings.  Lay  the  hive 
upon  its  fide,  and  have  a  window 
of  the  room  open.  As  the  fun 
gets  up,  and  the  air  grows  warm- 
er, they  will  quit  the  hive,  and 
go  into  the  hive  next  to  the 
place  whence  they  were  taken. 
When  you  take  out  the  honey, 
which  fhould  be  done  fpeedily, 
thfi  bees  that  are  found  among 

the 


BEE 

tlie  honey,  ftiff  and  unable  to  fly, 
ihould  be  thrown  into  a  lub  ot 
Water.  They  will  foon  lecovi'i 
their  activity,  and  go  alter  their 
companions. 

Some  prafiife  feeding  bees. 
But,  favs  one,  *'  There  is  but 
little  uTe  in  it,  becaiile  thofc 
which  have  not  a  good  ftock  oi 
honey  to  ferve  them  through  the 
winter,  arc  not  fit  to  keep." — He 
adds,  "  There  arc  fome  Uocks  ot 
bees  in  the  fpring  time,  that  may 
feem  worthy  ot  our  care  to  pre- 
lerve  ;  fuch  as  have  but  httle 
honey,  and  a  good  number  ot 
bees,  by  means  of  a  cold  and  dry 
fpring,  yet  in  all  probability  may 
prove  an  excellent  flock,  and 
may  be  worth  confidcration." 

"  The  beft  method  ot  lupply- 
ing  bees  with  food,  is  by  fmall 
canes,  or  troughs  conveyed  into 
their  hives  ;  and  beginning  in 
March,  when  they  begm  to  breed 
and  fit  on  their  young,  it  mtift 
be  daily  continued,  till  the  fea- 
fon  a/fords  them  eaie  and  provi- 
fion  abroad. 

"  Honey  is  not  only  the  beft, 
but  the  inofl  natural  of  all  food, 
and  will  go  much  further  mix- 
ed well  >rith  a  moderate  quanti- 
ty of  good  (weet  wort.  Some 
prefcribe  toads  of  bread  Topped 
in  flrong  ale,  and  put  into  the 
hive,  whereof  tliey  will  not  leave 
one  crumb  remaining." 

Mr.  Thorley  advifcs  when 
flocks  of  bees  are  weak,  to  double 
them,  which  he  thinks  the  moft 
efTe^iual  way  ot  preferving  them 
in  common  hi<(<.  He  do<*s  it 
by  the  help  ot  a  fume,  or  opiate, 
wliich  will  fo  flupify  them  for  a 
time  that  ihev  may  be  handlnl 
at  plealure.  Having  done  this, 
the  queen  mull  be  leaiched  for 
and  killed.  And  examine  wlielh- 
er  the  ftork  to  which  you  intend 
to  join  the  bees  of  another,  have 
honey  enough  to  maintain  the 


B  E  E 


Si 


bees  of  both  :  It  Ihould  weigh 
20  pounds. 

**  The  narrotick,  or  ftupifying 
fume,  is  made  with  the  large 
mufhroom,  commonly  known 
by  the  name  bunt,  puckHlf,  or 
frog  chccfe.  It  is  of  a  biowri 
colour,  turns  to  powder,  and  is 
exceeding  lig)»t.  Put  one  of 
thele  pucks  into  a  large  paper  ; 

Erefs  it  therein  to  two  thirds,  or 
alt  its  fonr.er  bulk,  and  tic  it 
up  very  dole  :  Tiicn  put  it  into> 
an  oven,  alter  the  bread  has  been 
drawn,  and  let  it  remain  there  alT 
night :  When  it  is  dry  enough  to 
hold  fire,  it  is  fit  for  ufe.  The 
manner  of  ufing  it  is  thus  : 

"  Cut  off  a  piece  of  the  puck, 
as  large  as  a  hen's  egg,  and  fix  it: 
in  the  end  ot  a  fmall  Uick  flit 
tor  that  purpofe,  and  Iharpened 
at  the  other  end,  which  place  fo 
that  the  puck  may  hang  near  the' 
middle  of  an  eni])ty  hive.  This 
hive  mull  be  let  with  the  mouth- 
upwards,  near  the  flock  you  in- 
tend to  take.  This  being  done, 
fet  fire  to  the  puck,  and  imme- 
diately place  the  Hock  tf  bees 
over  it,  tying  a  cloth  around  the 
hives,  thai  no  fmoke  may  come 
forth.  In  a  minute's  time,  you 
will  hear  the  bees  fall  like  drops- 
ot  hail,  into  the  empty  hive. 
You  may  then  l>cat  the  top  ot" 
the  hive  gently  \^ith  your  hand, 
to  get  as  many  ot  them  as  you 
can  :  After  this,  loofing  the  cloth, 
lift  tiie  hive  ofl  to  a  table,  k.iock 
it  feveral  times  again  (I  the  table, 
leVcral  more  bi;es  will  tumble 
out, and  perhaps  the  queen  among 
them.  She  often  is  one  of  !h2 
lafl  that  falls.  II  fhe  is  not  there, 
fearch  for  her  atuimg  'le  main 
body  in  the  empty  '.-  .x,  fpread- 
ing  them  for  this  purpofe  on  a 
laMe. 

'*  You   mull  in   tlie 

fame  mann.'-r  w  \  .  er  h!vc, 

with  the  bses  oi  a  i*icii  ihcftf  Me- 

to 


32 


BEE 


to  be  united.  One  of  the  queens 
being  fecured,  you  mull  put  the 
bees  of  both  hives  together,  min- 
gle them  thoroughly,  and  drop 
them  among  the  combs  of  the 
hive  ^\'hich  they  are  intended  to 
inhabit.  When  they  are  all  in, 
cover  it  with  a  packing  or  coarfe 
cloth,  ■which  will  admit  air,  and 
let  them  remain  fnut  up  all  that 
night,  and  the  next  day.  You 
will  foon  be  fenfible  they  are 
awaked  from  their  fleep. 

"  The  fecond  night  after  their 
union,  in  the  dufk  of  the  even- 
ing, gently  remove  the  cloth 
from  off  the  mouth  of  the  hive, 
and  the  bees  will  immediately 
fally  forth  with  a  great  noife  : 
But  being  too  late  they  will  foon 
return.  Then  keep  them  con- 
fined for  three  or  lour  days  ;  af- 
ter which  the  door  may  be  left 
open." 

It  is  convenient  to  have  a  pane 
of  glafs  in  each  hive,  in  order  to 
watch  the  motions  ot  the  bees, 
and  to  know  by  infpeftion  when 
is  the  right  time  to  take  up  a 
hive.  The  Reverend  Mr.  White 
fays,  "  In  the  back  part  you  muft 
cut  a  hole  with  a  rabbet  in  it,  in 
which  you  are  to  fix  a  pafie  ot 
the  cleared  and  bell  crown  glafs, 
about  fi\  e  inches  in  length,  and 
three  in  breadth,  and  fafien  it 
with  putty.  Let  the  top  of  the 
glafs  be  placed  as  high  as  the 
roof  within  fide,  that  you  may 
fee  the  upper  part  ot  the  combs, 
where  the  bees  with  their  riches 
are  moflly  placed.  You  will, 
by  this  means,  be  better  able  to 
judge  of  their  ftate  and  flrength, 
than  if  your  glafs  was  fixed  in  the 
middle.  The  glafs  muft  be  cov- 
ered with  a  thin  piece  ot  board, 
by  way  of  fliutter,  which  may  be 
made  to  hang  by  a  firing,  or  turn 
upon  a  nail,  or  flide  fideways  be- 
tween two  mouldings.  Such  as 
are   defirous  of  feeing  more  oi 


BEE 

the  bees'  works,  may  make  the 
giafs  iis  large  as  the  box  will  ad- 
mit, without  weakening  it  too 
much.  Or  they  may  add  a  pane 
ct  glafs  on  the  top,  which  muft 
likewife  be  covered  with  a  fhut- 
ter,  taftened  down  with  pegs  to 
prevent  accidents. 

"  Be  careful  to  fallen  the  Ihut* 
ter  fo  clofe  to  the  glafs,  that  nd 
light  may  enter  ;  lor  the  bees 
feem  to  look  upon  fuch  light  as 
a  hole,  or  breach  in  their  houfe, 
arid  on  that  account  may  not  fo 
well  like  their  habitation." 

BEET,  Beta,  a  well  known  ef» 
culent  root. 

There  is  a  fea  beet  which  grows 
in  fait  marfhes  ;  and  a  white  beet 
cultivated  in  gardens  for  the  fake 
of  its  leaves,  which  afe  fome- 
times  ufed  in  foups.  The  root 
is  fmall,  and  commonly  hard  and 
tough. 

But  the  fort  which  is  mofl  val- 
uable is  the  red  beet,  Mith  a  large, 
pyramidal,  flelhy  root  ;  the 
leaves  oi  which  are  large,  thick 
and  juicy.  The  larger  thefe  roots 
grow,  the  more  tender  they  are  : 
And  the  deeper  their  colour,  the 
better.  The  befl  ot  red  beets 
have  reddilh  leaves.  In  fome  of 
the  varieties  the  leaves  are  all 
over  red< 

Beets  require  a  mellow  and 
warm  foil,  moderately  rich,  and 
well  pulverized  to  a  good  depth. 
For  as  they  naturally  run  deep,  in 
fliallow  ground  they  will  be  fliort, 
ftringy,  and  irregular  fliaped. 

Beets  fhould  be  fown  early. 
A  good  method  is,  to  fet  the 
feeds  in  fq\iares  of  about  eight 
or  nine  inches  in  poor  ground  ; 
in  rich  ground  they  Ihould  be  at 
leafl  a  foot  afunder.  If  a  fourth 
part  of  the  feeds  (hould  fail,  the 
crop  will  not  be  leffened. 

When  the  feeds  are  ftrong  and 
good,  they  are  apt  to  come  up 
douLJe.    in  this  cafe  they  fhould 

by 


BEE 

by  ail  means  be  fingled  while 
they  are  young.  Otherwile  it 
mav  be  expelled  that  the  roots 
will  be  final!,  and  iorin'times 
twilled  about  each  other,  rhofe 
which  are  taken  out  may  be 
tranf))lanted  ;  but  they  are  not 
fo  apt  to  make  gixxl  roots. 
Though  they  may  be  thick,  they 
will  be  apt  to  besvaruitjj?  in  leiigh. 

The  ground  nu)uld  be  hoed 
two  or  three  times,  alter  which  the 
leaves  will  fo  rover  the  ground, 
as  to  flop  the  further  growth  of 
weeds. 

The  under  leaves  may  be  brok- 
en off  towards  fall,  and  thrown 
to  the  fwinr,  which  are  very  fond 
ot  them.  This  \^ill  not  injure 
the  rt>ots  at  all  ;  tor  if  they  are 
left  on,  they  will  foon  decay. 
Taking  away  part  of  the  leaves 
will  let  in  the  (im  and  air,  whicli 
will  be  ot  advanti!^e  to  the  tools. 

The  roots  IhouM  be  taken  up 
bclore  any  (^verc  froft  comes  ; 
none  ot  the  fibrous  roots  Ihouhl 
be  tal.en  away  ;  nor  the  heads 
cut  very  clofe.  In  tliis  Ibte,  al- 
fo,  thev  (hould  be  ^boiled,  that 
*ione  ot  their  rich  juice  may  ef- 
cape. 

They  may  be  ufcfl  in  autumn, 
and  kept  go<Ml  all  winter.  But 
if  any  troit  touches  them,  though 
they  will  not  prefently  rot,  they 
will  liecome  tough,  and  unfit  for 
the  table.  And,  in  the  fpring, 
their  early  fprouting  depreciates 
them. 

A  new  fjpecicxS  of  beet  has  late- 
ly made  its  appearance  in  this 
rountry.  The  (if-rtnan  name  of 
It  '  ;  It  IS  rom- 

r:  'V  loot,  from 

ail  uicd  oi  a  good  prc- 

veiuive  ot  ,  or  fticceda- 

neum  for  grals.  Like  other  tap 
ro-rtel  planus,  it  berrrs  drniglit 
well,  and  pnxliK  es  •  •  ot 

1-ivr«.  which  the  <<•  'n*! 

'  befe  plants  have  every  ap- 
K 


B    I    R 


33 


pearancc  of  beets,  excepting  that 
the  feeds  arc  fmaller,  the  roots 
much  larger,  and  grow  chiefly 
above  the  lurtace  ot  the  grounci. 
1  en  pounds  is  the  weight  of  fomc 
that  I  have  iecx\  ;  but  in  a  rich 
foil,  lome  have  grown  to  two 
feet  in  circiunterence.  The  leaves 
may  be  frociuently  llrippcd  ofl, 
to  iced  catrh  and  fwiiur,  whidi 
docs  not  appi-ar  to  injure  the 
roots  at  all,  nut  rather  to  incrcafe 
their  growth.  They  are  lels  fit 
for  tht;  table  than  the  common 
red  beets.  Thofc  which  1  have 
feen  were  fcarcely  eatable. 

BIDKNS,  a  tool  recommend- 
ed by  Mr.  Tuli,  with  an  eye  and 
helve  like  a  hand  hoe.  Inllead 
of  a  blade,  it  has  two  prcmgs, 
two  inches,  or  two  and  a  half 
afunder,  and  (ix  inches  long. 
Reeled  at  tjic  ends.  The  ufe$  of 
it  arc,  to  take  up  weeds  ilrongly 
rooted,  and  to  loofcn  tlic  Xo'A 
among  plants,  without  wound- 
ing the  roots.  It  was  invented 
and  iifed  bv  the  Romans. 

BIRD  GRASS,  P^/z  ava- 
ria ,  f pic  alts  fublnjlo  ns.  U  fua  1 1  y 
known  in  this  country  by  the 
name  Fozul  Meadow  Grafs.  It 
acquired  this  name  by  being  fup- 
pofed  to  be  brought  to  a  piece  ot* 
meadow  in  Dedham,  by  ducks, 
and  other  wild  water  towl.  Mr. 
Roque,  an  iMijcnious  Frenchman, 
tells  us,  "  He  has  found  by  ex- 
periment, that  this  grafs  thrives 
befl  on  the  drieft  land."  But  if 
it  did  lb  in  England,  where  he 
ha«  cultivated  i;,  I  doubt  whetli-* 
cr  it  will  do  (b  in  this  country, 
where  the  heat  ot  the  fun  in 
fummer,  is  fo  much  greater.  The 
fowl  meadow,  where  its  growth, 
is  molt  natural,  is  a  low  wet  foil, 
and  fo  mny  that  carts  cannot 
well  go  on  It  :  And  from  thence 
it  has  been  propagated  in  many 
twampy  plicos.  But  Mr.  Roque 
tells  u.s,  **  it  grew  two  feet  and  a 

halt' 


34 


B  L  O 


halt  the  firft  year  in  a  dry  foil  ; 
four  feet  the  fecond  year  :  That 
atever\-  joint  it  fends  out  branch- 
es, which  will  ftnke  root  where- 
evet-  they  touch  the  ground  : 
Thai  en'  taking  a  full  grown 
plant  of  this-  grafs  out  of  the 
ground,  it  was  tound  capable  of 
being  divided  into  twenty  fmall- 
er  roots,  or  off  fets  ;  that  thefe  off 
fets,  though  taken  tluis  from  the 
root  even  in  the  beginning  of  Ju- 
ly, will  bear  feed  the  fame  year."' 

Mr.  Eliot  thinks  drained 
fwamps  are  a  very  proper  foil  for 
the  cultivation  of  this  grafs  ;  he 
allows  that  it  makes  a  good  hay, 
little  inferiour  to  Englifh  hay  ; 
and  obfer\'es,  that  it  keeps  green 
for  a  long  time,  fo  that  it  may  be 
mowed  at  ctny  time  from  July 
to  O'^tober  ;  and  that  it  is  (o 
fruitriil  as  to  produce  three  tons 
of  hav  on  an  acre. 

BLIGHT.     See  iMildew. 

BLOOD,  the  liquor  whioh 
circulates  through  the  arteries 
and  veins  of  animals.  It  confills 
of  water,  oil,  fait,  earth  and  air, 
all  which  fabftances  are  ingredi- 
ents of  the  food  for  plants.-  It 
abounds  v.-ith  oil  and-  fait  more 
than  moft  bodies  ;  therefore  it 
may  be  allowed  to  be  one  of  the 
richcll  manures  ;  and  experi- 
ments have  proved  it  to  be  fo. 
It  is  beft  to  mix  it  with  other 
fubltances  before  it  is  ufed.  If 
a  farmer  could  get  the  blood  of 
animals  in  fufficient  quantity,  he 
might  bring  his  lands  to  any  de- 
gree of  richnefs.  He  may  af- 
ford to  give  a  good  price  for  the 
filtii  at  flaughter  houfes,  as  a  large 
proportion  of  it  is  blood. — It  is 
owing,  in  great  meafure,  to  the 
blood  of  fowls,  and  other  animals, 
which  is  Ipilt  in  back  yards,  that 
what  i-i  called  door  dung  is  fo 
valuable  a  manure.  The  farmer 
fliould  take  care  to  have  all  his 
filing  done  in  places  where  the 


B  R  O 

blood  will  be  faved  for  manure. 
A  little  of  it  mixed  with  a  large 
quantity  of  dirt,  the  fcrapings  of 
a  yard,  &c.  will  make  the  whole 
a  rich  compoft. 

BOG,  a  piece.of  land  with  a» 
wet  miry  foil,  or  a  fwamp.  Some 
bogs,  when  they  have  a  fward  of 
grafs  roots,  will  fhake  and  trem- 
ble under  the  foot.  Such  land 
is  unprofitable,  or  even  a  nuifance^ 
until  it  be  drained.  But  after 
draining,  it  becomes  the  beft  of 
foil,  producing  the  greateft  of 
crops,  without  any  manure.  The 
way  to  drain  a  fwamp  effectually, 
is  to  pafs  a  ditch  through  the  mid- 
dle of  it ;  and  another  ditch  round 
the  border,  to  cut  off  the  fprings 
w^hich  come  from  the  upland. 

In  order  to  judge  whether  a 
bog  will  pay  the  expenfe  of 
draining,  the  depth  of  the  drain 
which  will  be  neceffar>'  at  the 
outlet,  and  its  length,  rauft  be 
confidered,  and  alfo  the  depth  of 
the  foil  in  the  bog.  If  the  foil 
be  very  thin,  it  will  not  be  of  fo 
much  value  when  drained.  It 
will  be  thinner  after  drying  than 
before  ,-  but  it  fliould  have  depth 
enough  for  the  deepeft  plough- 
ing, after  it  is  dried  and  fettled. 
Otherwife  the  operation  of  drain- 
ing may  as  well  be  omitted. 
See  Eiiof  on  Field  Hvjbandry. 

BROWSE,  young  fprouts 
from  wood,  twigs  ot  trees,  and 
bufhes.  In  a  new  coimtry, 
browfing  is  a  confiderable  part 
of  the  food  of  cattle.  They  will 
eat  browfc  all  parts  ot  the  year, 
unlefs  when  the  fnow  is  fo  deep 
that  they  cannot  wander  in  pur- 
fuii  of  it.  Late  in  autumn,  and 
early  in  fpring,  much  hay  may 
be  faved  by  turning  out  cattle  to 
browfe.  In  the  former  part  ot 
fummer,  when  the  young  flioots- 
are  in  the  moft  tender  ftate,  fome 
cattle  will  even  grow  fat  upon 
browfe.    Salt  hay  is  found  to 

give 


B  U  L 

give  cattle  an  extraordinary  ap- 
petite for  this  kind  ot  food. 

BUCK  WHllAT,  Poly  go. 
num,  a  dark  coloured  grain,  Ihap- 
ed  like  the  fci-J  ot  onions,  bnt 
much  larger,  and  o\  a  dark  bro\vn 
colour.  It  yields  pleutitully, 
and  is  faid  to  be  better  than  bar- 
ley tor  fattening  of  hags  and 
poultry.  It  thould  not  be  Town 
^n  this  clifmate,  till  after  the  mid- 
dle of  Mav.  One  buihel  is  e- 
nough  to  feed  an  acre,  it  fown 
broad  call  ;  lefs  than  half  that 
quantity,  if  drilled. 

In  the  Itate  of  Newyork,  farm- 
ers fow  it  with  their  winter  wheat 
about  Auguft.  It  affords  them  a 
ripe  crop  in  the  tall,  and  is  no 
«lamage  to  the  crop  ot  wheat 
which  grows  with  it,  and  fuc- 
cecds  it. — When  the  plants  are 
green,  they  are  large,  fappy  and 
tott.  European  writers,  there- 
fore, greatly  recommend  lowing 
i:  tora  green  dreffing,  and  plougli- 
ing  it  into  the  ground,  in  its  moft 
green  and  juicy  Itatc. 

BULL, the maleot  theox  kind. 

The  marks  of  a  good  one  tor 
propagation,  according  to  Mor- 
timer, arc  thefe.  Helhouldhavc 
a  quick  coinitenance,  his  tore- 
head  large  and  curled,  hrs  eyes 
black  and  large,  his  horns  l«irge, 
(traight  and  black,  his  neci: 
tlelhy,  his  belly  long  and  large, 
his  hair  fmooth  like  velvet,  tiis 
brealt  big,  his  back  ftraight  and 
flat,  his  buttocks  iquare,  his  thighs 
round,  his  legs  tlraight,  and  liis 
joints  (hort. 

One  good  bull  will  anfwer  for 
a  large  number  ot  cows.  But  to 
mend  our  breed  of  cattle,  more 
attention  fhould  be  paid  to  the 
properties  ot  bulls.  1  hofe  calves 
which  are  not  large,  or  not  well 
(haped,  fliould  he  callrated  while 
they  are  young,  that  a  mean  race 
of  cattle  may  not  be  propagated. 
Neither  fhould  tljc   pradite  of 


BUR 


35 


fuflfering  bulls  that  are  too  young, 
to  go  to  the  cows,  be  c«)ntinucci. 
For  either  the  cows,  through  the 
infutliciency  ot  the  bull,  will  go 
larrow,  which  is  a  great  lofs  to 
the  farmer,  and  a  bieach  upon 
the  daily  ;  or  at  belt,  the  calves 
will  be  t'mall,  and  fcarcely  worth 
rearing  ;  as  fomc  of  our  befl 
farmers  are  now  iully  corivinced. 
A  bull  Ihouki  be  three  years  old, 
before  he  is  ided  for  propagation. 
Croiling  the  'uv:eA  is  account- 
ed a  matter  of  confideruMe  ini- 
f)ortance.  A  bull  pjocurerl  from 
omc  place  at  a  confiderable  dif- 
tance,  is  believed  to  aiifwer  bet- 
ter than  one  that  is  home  bred. 
Gentlemen  in  Ireland  will  fomc- 
limes  give  an  enormous  price  for 
a  young  bull  from  fome  parts  ot 
England. 

BURN  BAKING,  or  bum 
beating,  often  called  dcnihiring, 
or  devonfhiring,  from  its  being 
long  pratttfed  in  Devonthire. 
The  tints  of  fv.arded  land  are  cxxi 
up  with  a  kind  of  hoe,  called  a 
beating  axe,  which, after  drying, 
are  piled  and  burnt.  I'he  uliiet 
and  burnt  foil  are  tpiead  over  the 
furface,  from  whence  the  turfs 
were  taken,  by  way  of  manure  ; 
then  nioughed  in.  and  mixed  with 
the  toil  ;  fJril  with  a  fhoal  fur- 
row, and  deeper  at  the  fecond 
ploughing. 

1  he  Marquis  ot  Toiirbilly  fays, 
"  The  paring  mattock,  or  beat- 
ing axe,  fhould  have  an  edge 
like  an  adze,  of  well  tempered 
fteel,  and  about  nine  inches  wide; 
that  the  iron  part  Ihould  be  fix 
inches  in  length,  groAving  nar- 
rower towards  the  liandic  ;  that 
the  hole  to  rcn-ive  tlic  handle 
fhould  be  two  inches  in  diame- 
ter ;  that  the  han«lle  fhould  be 
of  wood,  about  tliree  feet  long  ; 
that  the  inflrtiment  without  the 
handle  fhould  weigh  from  ten  to 
twelve   pounds  ;  that   the    turii 

raifcd 


36  BUR 

raifed  will  be  about  18  inches 
long,  a  foot  broad, and  four  inches 
thick  ;  that  they  muft  be  fet  up 
to  dry,  leaning  againfl  each  oth- 
er ;  that  when  the  feafon  is  not 
very  wet,  they  will  b>?  dry  e- 
nough  to  bum  in  about  three 
weeks  ;  that  when  dry,  they 
muft  be  piled  up  in  the  form  of- 
ovens,  the  mouths  to  the  moft 
windward  fide  ;  that  a  hole 
ihould  be  left  in  the  top  for  the 
fmoke  to  go  out  ;  that  as  foon  as 
they  are  piled,  they  muft  be  fet 
on  fire  with  fome  ftra^v  or  heath  ; 
that  if  they  burn  i-.o  faft,  earth 
muft  be  thrown  on  to  deaden  the 
flames  ;  and  that  they  will  con- 
tinue burning  fom.e  days.  When 
the  burning  is  ended,  he  ad\'ifes, 
that  the  alhes  be  piled  up  in 
round  heaps  ;  that  when  it  is 
time  to  fow  winter  grain,  the 
alhes  {hould  be  fpread,  and  the 
corn  fown  on  them,  and  then  the 
ground  ploughed  with  a  Ihoal 
furrow,  and  harro^^■ed/' 

He  fays,  "  half  the  ufual  quan- 
tity of  feed  will  be  fuflicicnt  ; 
anJ  that  it  oug-it  to  be  fo;ved  two 
weeks  later  than  other  ground." 
The  reafon  is,  becaufe  the  grain 
will  grow  rapidly,  and  be  un- 
commonly large. 

I  conceive  this  muft  be  a  good 
method  of  culture  for  our  cold 
lands,  inclining  to  moh,  which 
can  no  other  way  be  made  to 
produce  well  the  firft  year  after 
breaking  up.  But  this  method 
will  not  readily  be  adopted  in  a 
country  where  labour  is  dear. 
The  work,  however,  might  be 
greatly  diminifhed.by  paring  the 
furface  with  a  very  fharp  ironed 
plough  ;  though  in  order  to  do 
this,  the  ground  muft  have  an 
extremely  even  furface,  and  be 
free  from  ftones.  I  have  faid  fo 
much  of  this  culture,  in  hopes  of 
exciting  fome,  who  are  curious, 
to  make  trial  of  it. 


BUR 

BURNET,  Pimpindla,  a  val- 
uable f>erennial  plant,  which  has 
lately  been  brought  into  ufe  as  a 
grafs  for  feeding  cattle,  by  Mr. 
Roque,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
London.  Several  Englifh  farm- 
ers have  tcftified,  from  their  eJi- 
perience  concerning  it,  that  it 
grows  and  flomifties  well,  e\'en 
on  the  pooreft  and  drieft  of  fandy 
and  gravelly  foils  ;  that  an  acre 
will  yield  three  loads  of  hay,  by 
cutting  it  twice  in  a  year,  or 
more  than  forty  bufiiels  of  feed  ; 
that  the  feed  is  better  for  horfes 
than  oats,  and  the  ftraw,  alter  it 
is  thralhed,  equal  to  the  beft  oi. 
common  hay  ;  that  it  continues 
in  perfect  verdure,  and  even 
gro^ving  during  the  winter  ;  that 
it  affords  excellent  winter  paf- 
turc  for  cattle  and  horfes  ;  and 
that  it  makes  cows  give  an  ex- 
traordinary quantity  of  the  very 
beft  tailed  milk. 

I  have  had  a  bed  of  this  grafs 
for  two  years  paft  on  a  hungry 
fand.  It  has  grown  luxuriantly, 
the  ftems  riling  to  the  height  ol 
three  feet  ;  and  the  feeds  ripen- 
ed the  year  it  was  ft>wed,  though 
it  was  not  fowed  till  the  end  of 
May.  The  fecond  year  the  iceds 
ripened,  I  think,  in  June^  The 
fevcHty  of  our  winter  froft  nei- 
ther killed  any  of  it,  nor  fo  much 
as  altered  the  x'erdurc  of  the 
ftems  or  leaves.  Some  of  it  was 
cut  up  and  given  to  cattle, 
as  foon  as  the  fnow  w^s  off, 
which  they  ate  very  greedily. 

I  think  this  plant  bids  fair 
to  be  a  profitable  grafs  in  tliis 
country',  where  troft  occafions 
the  connning  our  ftocks  to  dry 
fodder  for  fix  or  feven  months. 
For,  on  a  pafture  of  this  grafs, 
cattle,  horfes  and  llieep,  may 
feed  till  the  ground  is  covered 
with  fnow  ;  and  again  in  the 
fpring,  as  foon  as  the  ground  is 
bare. 
■  It 


BUR 

It  is  ilfo  exct'lleiu  tor  foiling, 
or  togive^recn  toc;utIe  in  rack.*; 
and  when  it  is  made  into  luy,  the 
leaves  are  not  apt  to  c.nnible,  or 
any  j>art  ol  the  hay  to  he  waiteti. 

Thcv  who  wilh  to  propagate 
this  grafs,  may  be  aflured,  that 
there  is  not  the  ieail  diHicuUy  m 
doing  it  :  l"'«»r  it  is  not  only  a 
moft  haixly  plant,  but  I  have  not 
Jound  it  to  (k-  at  all  liable  to  he 
hurt  by  any  kindot  infecis.  The 
EngliihIarmcrsrccoiunierKi  keep- 
ing It  clear  of  weeds  dining  the 
firll  liimmer.  or  till  it  is  fo  large 
as  to  cover  the  ground.  This 
may  be  done  partly  by  harrow- 
ing :  For  as  it  is  a  lUong  tap  root- 
ed  plant,  the  teeth  of  the  harrow 
will  not  injure  the  roots  at  all. 

BURNT  CLAY,  a  inaimre 
very  proper  for  all  clofe  and  com- 
pact foils,  elpecially  ior  a  foil 
that  is  clayey,  which  it  opens, 
warms,  and  invigorates  ;  and  k> 
difpofes  fuch  lands  to  part  with 
their  vcgeutive  virtues,  oi  which 
they  are  not  wanting. 

"  1  made,"  lays  one,  "  a  num- 
ber of  clay  walls  nine  inches  i 
high,  the  fame  in  thicknefs,  and 
placed  at  the  fame  diftance  from 
each  other,  in  the  fame  parallel 
direction,  lonning  a  fquarc  ot  a- 
bout  three  yards.  Thele  vacan- 
cies I  filled  withbrulh  wood,  and 
on  that  ilirew  loine  cindeis,  or 
fmall  coal  :  Alter  which  1  cover- 
ed the  whole  fquare  with  clay  a- 
bout  three  inches  thick,  leaving 
the  ends  ol  the  tunneU  open, 
which  I  then  lighted  on  the  wind- 
ward iidc.  As  foon  as  the  (ire 
had  got  fufBcicnt  head,  1  Hopped 
tlie  mouths  of  them  ;  and  w  hen 
I  perceived  the  covering  was  al- 
moft  burnt  through,  I  had  a  fmall 
fprinkling  <>t  fmall  coal  thrown  on 
the  heap,  and  then  another  cover- 
ing ot  clay  as  thick  as  the  tormer : 
And  thus  I  went  on  till  my  he^p 
Wis  fevcn  or  eight  ieet  high.  \V  he  a 


BUR 


37 


I  found  my  fire  was  well  kindled 
.'which  W.I.S  commonly  alK)ut  the 
lime  I  put  my  iecond  coat  oii;  1 

II  fed  to  enlarge  the  bafe  ot  the 
hre,  hv  continuing  the  tunnels, 
and  adding  new  ones  to  the  fides, 
wiiich  were  filled  and  covered  as 
I  he  others,  and  then  lighted,  till 
I  made  my  fire  about  (even  yards 
Ivjuarc  :  for  I  lound  it  never 
burnt  well  in  the  middle,  if  it  wa» 
too  large  at  firll." 

'*  I  put  about  ten  cart  loads  on 
an  acre,  and  lound  it  an  adniira- 
ble  manure,  tor  either  meadow, 
pallure,  or  corn.  Tor  the  latter 
it  will  not  lad  longer  than  three 
crops,  though  longei  tur  the  two 
tormer.  And  wiiti  this  manure 
1  have  made  prodigious  improve- 
ments. But  1  do  not  belie\'e  it 
will  anfwer  ior  a  fandy  loil,  as  it 
will  render  it  Ihll  lighter.  '  I 
have  inyfelf  tried  it  upon  a  fandy 
foil  without  any  advantage. 

Mr.  Eliot  projwfes  o  method 
of  burning  clay  lomcwhat  difk-r- 
ent  from  this  and  more  liinple. 
See  /us  Ftf.lii  Huflyattdry. 

BURNT  GRAIN.  Wheat  is 
faid  to  be  burnt,  when  the  mealy 
part  of  its  kernels  is  con\eited  to 
a  black  powder,  of  the  confitl- 
enccol  lampblack.  M.  Duham- 
el  calls  this  dillcmper  ujldnf^o^ 
the  burnt  ear.  Grain  which  is 
fo  affeftcd,  ihould  not  be  ufcd 
ior  iood  without  walhing,  being 
very  unwholefome.  Grain  dil- 
tempercd  i.T  this  manner,  is  call- 
ed by  our  farmers,  fmutty  ;  but 
the. bell  modern  European  writ- 
ers choofe  to  call  it  burnt  grain ; 
and  they  affix  the  name  fmut  to 
another  dillen)per.  1  greatly  fuf- 
pett  that  the  <nigiiial  canfe  of 
fiumty  ears  and  bui  nt  grain  is  the 
iame  :  And  that  all  the  difference 
in  the  dlilempers  is,  that  in  fome 
ears  it  begins  fooner  from  fome 
IdicHt  caule,  in  others  later  by 
contagion.    Sec  ^ikuI. 


38 


BUS 


It  has  been  recommen(ied  ,in  or- 
der to  prevent  the  diftemper,  that 
■the  feed  be  fteeped  in  hot  lie  of 
M-ood  a(hes,  with  the  mixture  of 
a  Httle  Hme.  This  I  have  tried 
year  after  year,  without  the  de- 
^red  effecl. — ^Steeping  in  brine, 
and  fitting  on  the  gram  powder- 
led  quickUme,  are  better  pre- 
ventives, but  are  not  always  ef- 
leclual. 

M,  Tillet,  after  diligent  re- 
searches concerning  this  diftem- 
per,  recommends  walhing  the 
^"ced  in  water  to  clear  wheat  of 
the  black  powder,  deeping  it  in 
i)rine  of  fea  fait,  or  of  nitre  ;  or 
Sleeping  in  ftrong  alkaline  lies, 
made  or  the  afhes  of  fea  weeds, 
of  potafh  or  aflies  of  tartar  ;  or 
-jn  lies  of  common  alhes,  much 
impregnated  with  fait  and  human 
urine,  or  cow's  urine,  alkalized 
by  putrefaftion.  Of  thefe  vari- 
ous articles  thofe  may  be  ufed 
A\'hich  are  moft  eafily  obtained. 

If  the  feed  be  tinged  with  the 
black  powder,  it  (hould  be  wafh- 
ed  and  violently  agitated  in  fev- 
eral  clear  waters,  till  the  black  is 
quite  off,  and  then  fteeped.  If 
it  is  not  fpotted,  it  fhould  be 
plunged  in  a  bafket  into  ftrong 
lie  of  wood  aflies  and  lime,  as 
hot  as  a  man  can  bear  his  hand 
in  it ;  ftirring  it  well,  let  the  lie 
<irain  out.  The  feed>  thus  pre- 
pared, muft  be  fpread  upon  a 
lloor,  till  it  is  dry  enough  to  fow. 

BUSHES,  Ihrubs.  Thefe  are 
apt  to  fpring  -up  and  increafe  in 
pafture  lands,  which  have  n^ver 
been  tilled,  if  timely  care  be  not 
taken  to  deftroy  them.  Eradi- 
cating them  requires  fo  much  la- 
bour, that  farmers  are  moft  com- 
jnonly  content  with  cutting  them 
once  in  a  few  years.  But  the 
more  cuttings  they  furvive,  the 
longer  lived  they  are  apt  to  be  ; 
and  the  harder  to  Kill,  as  the  roots 
icontiaiially  gaiji  itiength.    ■ 


BUS 

Keeping  cattle  fhort  in  paftures 
will  caufe  them  to  browfe  the 
more  ;  and  this  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  fubdue  many  kinds  of 
bufties.  Thofe  which  giow  on 
high  ground  are  oftener  fubdued 
this  way  than  thofe  which  gro^7 
in  fwampy  low  lands,  the  latter 
being  lefs  palatable  to  the  cattle. 

It  has  orten  been  affert^^d,  that 
when  the  fign  is  in  the  bean,  and 
the  moon  in  her  wane,  in  June, 
July  or  Auguft,  if  buihes  are  cut 
they  will  certainly  die.  But,  by 
a  fufiicient  trial,  I  have  found 
this  to  be  a  great  mJftake.  la 
AuguS,  1782,  on  the  day  recom- 
mended, I  cut  feveral  acres  of  al- 
der bufhes.  And  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  when  the  moon  was  in 
the  next  fign,  I  cut  a  large  quan- 
tity more  ot  the  fame  kind,  and 
in  the  fame  fwarap.  The  former 
are  fprung  up  again  very  gener- 
ally, and  are  become  tall  now  in 
the  year  1789  ;  and  fo  are  the 
latter.  The  cutting  was  as  incf- 
fettual  on  the  one  day  as  on  the 
ether. 

But  it  is  undoubtedly  true,  that 
cutting  buihes  in  the  fummer 
will  do  more  towards  deftroying 
them,  than  domg  it  in  any  other 
feafon  ;  and  the  former  part  of 
fiunmer  is  a  better  time  than  the 
latter.  Other  circumftsmces  be- 
ing  equal,  the  wetteft  weather  is 
beft  for  deftroying  ftirubs  by  cut- 
ting ;  becaufe  the  fap  veffcls  of 
the  ftumps  will  continue  open 
the  longer  ;  there  will  be  the 
greater  difcharge  of  fap  through 
them,  and  the  roots  will  be  the 
more  wealiened. 

Bufhes  which  grow  in  clufters, 
as  alder,  and  fome  other  forts, 
may  be  expeditioufly  pulled  up 
by  oxen  ;  and  this  is  an  effeftu- 
al  way  to  fubdue  them.  The  ex- 
penfe  of  it  I  fuppofe  will  not  be 
more  than  that  of  cutting  them 
twice  would  amount  to. 

Elder 


CAB 

F.lder  is  a  kind  of  bu(h  which 
fprcads  fafl  in  feme  foils,  and  has 
been  accoiuitfd  harder  to  lubdue 
tJian  alinoil  any  other.  Mr.  El- 
iot fays,  "  He  inows  by  experi- 
ence, that  mowing  thcni  Hvc  times 
in  a  year  will  kill  them."  This 
has  been  proved  by  the  experi- 
ence ot  other  dinners.  The  ro(/ts 
of  the  Ihrub  oak  will  xK>t  be  kill- 
ed, but  by  digging  them  out,  or 
by  pafluring  goats  on  ihem. 

The  bufhes  iti  fwamps  are  in 
general  more  hard  to  conquer, 
than  thofc  which  grow  upon 
upland.  FK>oding  a  fwanip, 
where  it  is  praHicable,  or  can  be 
done  without  too  much  colt,  is 
perhaps  the  moll  approved  meth- 
od which  can  be  taken.  Flood- 
ing for  two  or  three  fummers. 
will  totally  deftroy  tliem,  root  : 
and  branch.-  I 

But  it  a  fwamp  cannot  convc-  i 
niently  be  flooded,  the  next  thing 
is,  to  confider  whether  it  cannot  j 
be  drained  to  advantage.     Drain- 
ing will  fo  alter   the  nature  of  , 
the  foil,  that  tl:e   ihrubs  which  , 
it    naturally     produced    before,  ■ 
will    not   be   any    longer   nour-  ' 
iflied  by  it.     Therefore  they  v/ill 
mollly  die  without  cutting,  or  it 
may  be  c\pei-tcd  that  once  cut-  ' 
ting   will    be   fufficient.     But   if 
draining  were  not  (orviccable  on  ! 
any    other  account,    perhaps    it  ' 
would  not  anfwer  to  go  to  the  I 
expcnfe  ol  it  merely  for  the  fake 
af  cLarum  a  iuatiip  of  tlie lmlli»:i. 


CABBAGi:,  ni^ljicr.,  an  cf- 
culent  plant  in  high  eilimation, 
which,  when  well  fodden,  is  a 
vexy  wholflome  food.  Many 
forts  of  cabbages  arc  culiivatecl. 
The  common  wlntc  and  red  cab- 
bages, the  favoy,  the  cauliflower, 
and  the  low  dutch  cabbages  are 
comifton  in  this  country.     The 


CAB 


39 


fas'oy,  for  keeping  in  the  winter,, 
feems  to  be  equal  to  any.  Be- 
fides  thefc,  otlier  forts  arc  culti- 
vated in  Europe,  as  tlic  borecole^ 
tlie  broccoli,  tlie  batterfea,  &.c. 

Cabbages  require  a  rich  foil, 
rather  moid  than  dry.     A  clay 
foil  well  mi;(ed   with  other  mat- 
ters,   is    very    proper   lor    thciii. 
They  are  faid  to  grow  well   iu 
drained  Iwamps  withoiu  manure. 
Hog    dung    well    rotted,    door 
dung  and  aflies,  arc  fuiiable  ma- 
I  nures     ior    them. — Each    plant 
fliould  have  at  leaft  four  feet  of 
I  ground  :    In    other    words,   the 
I  plants  fhouJflbc  twof'ietafunder. 
I  In  gardens  and  finall  yards  this 
I  is  a  good  diflancc.     But  in  fields, 
'  where  they  are  to  be  cultivated 
by  the  plouj;h,  »  greater  diflancc. 
is  noceflary.     The  rows  may  be 
three  feet  apart,  and  the  plants 
two  tcct  in  the  rows  ;  or  perhaps 
a  foot  and  a  hall  may  anfwer,  un- 
lefs  it  be  for  the  largeft  fori. 

Some  think  cabbages  will  not 
anfwer  more  than  one  year  on 
the  fame  fpot.  But  this  is  an  er- 
roneous opinion.  1  have  raifcJ 
them  ior  eighteen  years  in  the 
fame  part  of  my  garden,  being  an 
untavourable  foil,  dry  and  grav- 
elly :  And  the  croj^s  arc  Ijclter 
than  they  were  at  firft,  tb.oii;;li 
the  ground  has  been  but  litilr 
manured.  Thouj^h  cabbages  fr*em 
to  requiri  uiu>:h  nourslh.'ncnt, 
they  do  not  mipovcrifh  the  fuil. 
Thi!>  is  fo  well  known  to  Euro- 
peans, that  ttjey  call  cabbages  a 
tallow  crop,mcaning  a  crop  which 
anfwers  mllead  of  fallowing. 
1  hcv  form  fo  clofc  a  covering 
lor  tlie  Curlacc  of  the  ground,  as 
tocaufea  putrefa<:tion  of  the  foil, 
whkliincrcafes  its  fertility. 

Some  fet  TJie  feeds  wjiere  the 
cabbages  arc  to  grow.  By  this 
they  efcape  being  fli:iica  by 
franfplanting.  For  winter  cab- 
bages, the  latter  pan  oi  May  i». 

carl); 


40 


CAB 


early  enough  to  put  the  feed  in- 
to the  ground,  whether  the  plants 
are  to  be  removed  or  not.  I  have 
tried  both  way  s,  and  on  the  whole, 
I  preier  tranfplanting.  They  are 
otherwife  apt  to  be  too  tall,  and 
to  have  crooked  flems.  Wet 
%veather  is  favourable  for  tranf- 
planting them  ;  and  the  holes 
ihould  be  filled  with  water  before 
the  plants  are  fet,  unlefs  the 
g^round  be  naturally  very  moift. 
Then  the  roots  fhould  be  infert- 
ed  immediately  into  the  vrater, 
held  with  one  hand  in  the  right 
pofition,  and  fine  foil  fcattered 
in  with  the  other.  This  has  a 
better  effeft  than  pouring  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  water  on  them 
afterwards.  Suds  would  be  bet- 
ter than  clear  water  for  wetting 
the  plants. —  Covering  of  plants 
with  leaves  is  not  a  good  prac- 
tice. They  will  be  much  heated 
through  fome  forts  of  leaves,  the 
free  circulation  of  air  about  them 
will  be  prc^'ented,  and  their  per- 
fpiration  partly  obftrufled.  If  a 
hot  fun  caufe  them  to  droop,  a 
fhir,~le  ftuck  into  the  ground 
will  be  a  fufficient  (helter.  if  it 
l>e  on  the  fouth  fide  of  the  plants. 
I  commonly  allow  each  plant 
two  fhingles,  one  on  the  foutheafl 
fide,  and  one  on  the  fouthweft, 
meeting  at  the  fouth  corner. 

The  principal  things  which 
prevent  the  gro\\'th  of  cabbages, 
are,  tlie  fumble  foot,  fo  call- 
ed, grubs,  maggots  and  lice. 
Manuring  v.-ith  afnes  and  lime 
tends  to  prevent  the  firfl,  as  the 
roots  become  misihapen  by  m.cans 
of  being  M'^oundcd  by  infects,  to 
Avhich  the  hot  qualities  of  alhes 
rind  lime  are  antidotes. 

The  gnib,  or  black  worm, 
travels  in  the  night  from  plant 
to  plajit,  cats  off  the  ftalks  juft  a- 
bove  the  ground,  and  buries  it- 
felf  in  the  foil  when  the  fu«  is 
up.   To  guard  ngainft  this  worm. 


CAB 

a  little  circle  of  lime,  or  rock- 
weed  round  the  plant  isof  fervice. 

To  deftroy  lice  on  cabbages, 
they  fhould  be  wafhed  with  ftrong 
brine,  or  fea  water,  or  fmokes 
fliould  be  made  among  them  with 
ftraw,  fulphur,  tobacco,  &c.  But 
the  hard  frofls  in  autumn  do  not 
fail  to  fubdue  them.  A  moderate 
frofl  will  very  much  thin  them. 

If  cabbages  grow  near  to  a  barn 
yard,  Or  other  yard  where  cattle 
are  lodged,  the  under  leaves,, 
when  they  begin  to  decay,  may 
he  taken  off,  and  thrown  to  them. 
The  plants  will  not  be  at  all  in- 
jured, and  they  are  an  excellent 
food  for  cattle,  and  will  increafe 
the  milk  of  cows.  But  the  leaft 
decayed  of  them  Ihould  go  to  the 
cows,  left  they  give  the  milk  an 
ill  tafte.  Much  account  is  made 
of  cabbages  in  England  for  feed- 
ing cattle  in  the  winter.  But 
the  difficulty  of  preferving  them 
alters  the  cafe  with  regard  to  us. 
They  can  gather  them  there  as 
they  have  occafion  to  ufe  them, 
through  the  winter,  and  in  the 
fpring. 

Preferving  cabbages  through 
the  winter  for  the  table,  is  a  mat- 
ter of  fome  difficulty  in  this 
country.  My  method  is,  to  pull 
them  up  in  windy,  dry  weather, 
and  let  them  lie,  a  few  hours,  with 
the  roots  upvrards,  to  drain  ;  or 
hang  them  up  on  trees  or  fences 
for  this  purpofe.  The  later  they 
are  taken  up,  the  better,  while 
the  ground  continues  open.  I 
let  as  much  foil  remain  on  the 
roots  as  I  can,  and  fet  them  up- 
right together  in  a  cellar,  which 
is  fo  cold  as  to  admit  of  fome  de- 
gree of  trcft  ;  and  I  feldom  fail 
of  making  them  keep  till  April. 
In  very  warm  cellars  they  will  foon 
decay  ;  and  in  rotting  the  fmell 
becomes  extremely  difagreeable, 
and  undoubtedly  very  unwhole+ 
ferae. 

But 


C  A  L 

EuL  that  I  may  have  a  few  yet 
'*;itcr  in  the  fprin^,  I  make  a 
ticiich  in  ihechiell  laiuly  grouiul, 
'line  inches  wide,  and  oi  equal 
depth  ;  in  which  I  place  a  row 
of  cabbapes,  with  the  roots  up- 
'.vaids,  contiguous  to  each  other  ; 
fill  the  cavities  about  tlieui  with 
foine  dry  flraw  ;  and  tlten  (hovel 
thecartli  up  to  thelhilkson  each 
fide,  ahnolJ  as  high  as  the  roots, 
fhapin^  U  like  the  root  ot  a  houfi;. 
The  cabbages  will  come  out  in 
May  as  found  as  when  they  were 
put  in,  and  the  outer  gicen  leaves 
will  be  turned  quite  white.  As 
they  are  not  apt  to  Lcep  well  al- 
ter they  are  tak.cn  out,  two  or 
three  at  a  time  may  be  taken,  as 
they  are  wanted  for  ufc,  and  the 
breach  immediately  clofed  np 
with  draw  and  earth  as  belore. 

CALF,  the  young  of  a  cow, 
whether  male  or  female.  The 
method  of  managing  calves  to  ad- 
vantage is  of  no  liiiall  importance 
to  a  tarrJior  ;  for  on  the  raifing 
ol  young  flock,  his  living  and 
wealth  in  great  meafure  depend. 
When  calves  are  dcligned  for 
veal,  the>  Ihould  be  taken  from 
the  cow  the  next  day  after  they 
are  calved.  Let  them  iuck  only 
two  teats  during  the  firft  week  ; 
three  during  the  fccond  ;  and 
let  them  have  the  whole  of  the 
milk  during  the  thir  I  and  fourth 
weeks  ;  and  then  kill  them.  If 
they  have  all  the  milk  at  firft, 
they  will  grow  lo  fall  that  they 
will  foon  need  more  than  all  : 
The  natural  confcquencc  is,  that 
they  will  grow  lean,  ant!  not  be 
fit  lor  veal.  Many  kill  tiiem  at 
three  weeks  old  ;  inn  the  ved  is 
not  commonly  fo  good,  and  the 
(kins  of  calves  fo  young,  arc  of 
but  little  value. 

Whrrn  calves  are  to  he  reared, 
fomc  let  them  go  with  their  dairis 
tiji  fall.  Though  ilu»  makes  ilie 
' -ft  laiilc,  it  is  ;i.)i  beft  for  the  I 

>• 


C  A  L  4t 

owner :  It  is  too  expenfivc.  They 
may  go  with  the  cows  the  iirft 
three  or  four  days.  They  Ihould 
have  milk,  more  or  lefs,  for  about 
twelve  weeks,  'i'hey  may  be 
led  wiihlkimmcd  milk,  or  water 
porridge,  after  the  firll  fortnight  ; 
or  hay  tea  may  be  mixed  with 
their  milk;  or  their  imik  may  b« 
mixed  with  meal  and  water.  Af- 
ter a  calf  has  ft'.cked,  or  drunk 
milk,  for  the  fpace  ol  a  month, 
take  fome  of  the  frefliefl  and 
Iweeteft  hay,  and  put  little  wifps 
ol  it  into  fome  cleft  Hicks,  Uuck 
up  in  fuch  a  manner  that  he  can 
ealily  come  at  them,  and  he  will 
fooa  learn  to  eat. 

As  foon  as  the  grafs  is  grown, 
calves  fliould  be  turned  to  grafs, 
houfmg  them  a  few  nights  at  firft,, 
and  giving  them  milk  and  water, 
till  they  are  able  to  feed  thcm- 
fclves  fufticienily  with  grafs. 
Thofe  calves  are  generally  beft, 
which  are  weaned  on  grafs  :  For 
if  they  are  weaned  in  the  houfe, 
on  hay  and  wnter,  they  are  apt: 
to  grow  big  bellied. 

.Mortimer  fays,  **  The  beft 
calves  lor  bringing  up.  are  thofc 
calved  in  April,  Nlay,  and  June  : 
Becaufe  it  is  leldom  that  thofe 
wliich  conje  later  acquire  fulli- 
cierit  vigour  to  fupport  them 
during  the  inclemency  of  the  fol- 
lowing winter  ;  and  the  cold 
caufes  them  to  droon,  and  many 
ol  theta  to  die."  Nluch  oftener 
iiiay  this  be  expe^fed  la  be  the 
cafe  in  1  his  c»)untry,where  the  cold 
in  winter  is  lo  mutli  moreintenfe. 

Tlirtle  which  come  earlier  are 
preferred  in  this  country,  being 
more  hardy,  and  better  able  to 
endure  tlie  rij^our  <»f  the  firft  win- 
ter. But  tin-  coft  «»f  rearing  them 
is  greater.  All  things  confidered, 
April  may  be  as  luitable  a  tunc 
as  anv. 

"  When  calves  are  weaned, 
tUty  IhouM  n  h  Uc  lu.TercJ  to  bo 

with 


4-2 


C  A  NT 


■with  their  dams  any  more  till 
fall  :  Neither  (hould  they  be  paf- 
tured  \\'ithin  fight  or  hearing  of 
them.  It  will  caufe  thern  to  neg- 
lect their  feedinej  ;  and  they  will 
not  forget  their  lucking. 

"  At  the  ietting  in  of  cold 
nights  in  autumn,  calves  muftbe 
nightly  houfed  :  And  not  be  out 
«ariy  in  the  morning,  nor  late  in 
ihe  evenmg.  And  as  the  pinch- 
ing cold  of  winter  will  be  ex- 
tremely detrimental  to  them, 
they  Ihouid  be  kept  very  warm 
in  their  houfe,  well  fupplied  with 
water,  and  let  out  only  in  the 
warmeftdays.  A  great  deal  of  care 
is  neceflfary  to  bring  them  through 
the  tirft  wintef,  -vv'hich  is  the  moil 
dangerous  period  ot  their  lives, 
Xhey  will  acquire  fo  much 
Hrength  during  the  following 
i'ummer,  that  they  will  have  noth- 
ing to  fear  from  the  cold  of  a 
fecond winter."  Buffon'^HrJioirc 
Naturellc. 

CANKER,  "  a  difeafe  inci- 
dent to  trees,  proceeding  chiefly 
from  the  nature  of  the  foil.  It 
irrakes  the  bark  rot  and  fall  off. 
If  the  canker  be  in  a  bough,  cut 
it  off :  A  large  bough  fhould  be 
cut  off  at  fome  diflance  from  the 
body  of  the  tree,  and  a  fmall  one 
1  iofe  to  it.  But  for  over  hot, 
flrong  ground,  the  mould  is  to  be 
cooled  about  the  roots  with  pond 
mud  and  cow  dung."  Did.  of 
Arts. 

CANKER  WORM,  an  infea, 
fo  called,  I  fuppofe,  from  its  hav- 
ing much  the  fame  effetl;  upon 
apple  trees  as  canker.  This 
worm  is  produced  from  the  eggs 
ef  an  earth  coloured  bug,  ^vhich 
having  continued  under  ground 
dTiring  winter,  pafTes  up  on  the 
bodies  of  apple  trees  early  in  the 
fpring.  They  are  hatched  as 
eaily  as  the  end  of  May,  and  are 
fo  voracious,  that  in  a  few  weeks 
they  deflroy  all  the  leaves  of  a 


C  KU 

tree,  prevent  its  bearing  for  that 
year,  and  the  next,  and  giVe  if 
the  appearance  of  its  having  been 
burnt.  As  the  perfpiration  of 
trees  is  flopped  by  die  lofs  of 
their  leaves,  they  ficken  and  die, 
in  a  few  years. 

The  wonns  let  therafelves 
down  by  threads  in  queffof  prey, 
like  fpiders  ;  by  means  of  which, 
the  wind  blows  them*  from  tree' 
^o  tree  ;  fo  that  in  a  clofe  orch- 
ard, not  one  tree  will  efcape 
them.  But  trees  which  ftand 
fingly  are  feldomerinfeffed  with 
thele  inietf  s.  As  they  are  the  mofl 
pernicious  kind  of  infects  with 
which  Newengland  is  now  in- 
fefted,  if  any  perfon  could  invent 
fome  eafy,  cheap,  and  effeflual 
method  of  fubduirig  them,  he 
would  merit  the  thanks  of  the 
publick,  and  more  efpecially  of 
every  owner  of  an  orchard. 

Several  methods  have  been 
tried,  with  fome  degree  of  fuc- 
cefs  :  1.  Tarring.  A  flrip  of 
canvas,  or  linen,  is  put  round  the 
body  of  a  tree,  before  the  ground 
is  open  in  the  fpring,  and  well 
fmeared  with  tar.  The  females, 
in  attempting  to  pafs  dver  it. 
If  ick  faff  and  perifli.  But  unlefs 
the  tarring  be  renewed  every  day, 
it  will  become  hard,  and  permit 
the  infefts  to  pafs  fafely  over  it. 
And  renewing  the  tar  in  feafon 
is  too  apt  to  be  neglefted,  through 
hurry  of  bufinefs  and  forgetful- 
nefs.  If  birdlime  were  to  be 
had,  it  might  anfwer  the  purpofe' 
better,  as  its  tenacity  will  contin- 
ue for  fome  time.  2.  Some  tie 
ffraw  round  the  bodies  of  the 
trees.  This  ferves  to  entangle 
and  retard  the  ihfe6fs,  and  pre- 
vents the  afcent  of  many  of  them. 
But  they  are  fo  amazingly  pro- 
linck,  that  if  ever  fo  few  of  them 
g«t  up,  a  tree  is-  greatly  damag- 
ed, at  leafl  for  an  enfuing  feafon- 
or  two. 

The 


CAN 

The  pafturiug  of  fwinc  in  an 
orchard,  where  it  ca  i-v:oiivcnjcnt- 
ly  be  done,  I  luppjfe  to  be  an 
excellent  method.  With  ihcir 
fnouts  and  their  tet't,  they  uill 
dellroy  many  ol  the  inletts,  be- 
fore they  conic  out  ot  the  ground, 
or  while  they  are  coming  out. 
And  I  have  never  known  any 
orchard,  cmiilanily  ufcd  as  a  hog 
paHurc,  wholly  dellroy ed,  or  e- 
ven  made  wholly  untruittul  by 
thefe  worms.  But  this  method 
cannot  always  be  taken  ;  and  it 
it  could,  1  do  not  liippole  it  would 
be  quite  cllet:t.nal.  When  the 
trees  arc  younj?,  the  fwinc  will  he 
apt  to  injure  them  by  tearing  tlie 
bark. 

There  are  feveral  experiments 
I  could  wilh  to  have  tried,  for 
lubduing  thcfc  infecls  :  Such  as 
burning    brimftone     under    the 
trees  in  a  calm  time  ; — or  piling 
dry   alhes,   or  dry    loole    land,  ! 
round  the  roots  of  trees  in  the  i 
ipring    ; — or     throwing     pow-  | 
dered  quicklime,  or  loot,   over 
the  trees  when  they   are  wet  ; — 
or  fprinkling  them,  about  the  be-  | 
ginning  ol  June,  with  iea  water,  : 
or  water  in  which   wormwood,  ; 
or  walnut  leaves,  have  been  boil-  ; 
ed  ; — or  wiili  an  iniuhon  ol  el- 
4er,  from  which  I  Ihould  enter-  i 
tain  fomc  hope  of  fucccfs.    The  i 
liquid  maf  be  cafily  applied  to  ] 
all  the  parts  of  a  tree  by  a  large  | 
wooden  fyringc,  or  fquirt.  j 

I  fhould  fuppoie  that  the  bcft  j 
time  tor  making  trial  ot  thefe  ■ 
methods  would  be  loon  alter  the  I 
worms  arc  hatched  :  For  at  that  | 
ftage  oi  their  exiftencc  they  are  ; 
icndei,  and  the  more  ealLly  kill-  j 
«d.  Somctiniet  a  frolt  happen-  I 
ing  at  this  leafon  has  dcilroyed 
ihem.  Tlus  I  am  told  was  the  i 
cafe  in  fome  pLce«  in  liic  ycir 

But  as  tarring  the  trees  is  die 
^ok  irotiijote  flwt  vrc  yiet  know 


CAN 


4S 


of,  and  as  many  perfons  ot  expe- 
rience believe  it  is  pollible  that 
the  infecis  may  be  thus  quite  pre- 
vented palling  up  the  trees,  I  Ihall 
here  fjive  directions  how  to  per- 
form It  in  the  moil  etFettual  man- 
jier. 

In  the  firft  place.  It  is  ncceira- 
ry  tt)  begin  the  opeiatiiin  very 
early  in  the  year.  Not  obferv- 
ing  this  caution,  has  occahoned 
the  want  ol  lucccls  which  winy 
ha\e  complainc  1  ol  :  For  it  is 
certain  that  the  Imgs  will  Ixgin 
to  nafs  up  af.  loon  as  the  ground 
is  lo  much  thav.ed,  thai  they  can 
extricate  tiiemfelvcs  from  the 
foil  ;  which  is,  in  f<ime  years,  hs 
early  as  February.  'Iherelote.  fo 
make  lure  work,  it  is  bcft  to  be- 
gin as  foon  as  the  giound  is  bare 
of  fnow  in  that  montli,  that  iJie 
iirll  thawing  ol  the  giound  may 
,  not  happen  betore  the  trees  aro 
prepared  ;  for,  beginning  alter 
ever  fo  few  of  the  infeMs  are 
gone  up,  tlie  labour  will  all  be 
loli. 

Another  thing  to  be  obfervcd 
Ls,  to  fill  th?  cre\  ices  of  the  bark 
with  clay  morter,  before  the  flrip 
ot  linen  or  canvas  is  put  on,  that 
the  infcHs  may  not  find  any  p^C- 
fages  for  them  under  it. 

Having  put  on  the  Urip,  which 
fliould  be  at  leaft  three  inches 
wide,  dri-'wn  it  clofe.  and  ftrong- 
ly  fallened  the  ends  together,  a 
thumb  rope  ot  lov/  Ihor.ld  be  tied 
round  the  tree,  cJofe  to  the  low- 
ei-  edge  ot  the  flrip.  The  dcfign 
ol  doiug  this  is,  that  the  tar  may 
not  diip,  nor  run  down  on  the 
bark  of  the  tree,  which  would 
injure  it 

When  all  the  trees  of  an  orch- 
ard are  thus  picpaicd,  let  'he 
llrips  be  plentilully  fmeared  with 
cold  tar,  put  on  with  a  hrulh. 
Perhaps  tar  mixed  with  a  fmall 
proportion  ol  fiih  oil  would  he 
iltll  better.    It  would  not  itard. 

CM 


44  C  A  N 

en  fo  foon  as  tar  alone.  And 
oil  is  known  to  repel  moil  kinds 
ot  infects.  The  fmeanng  (hould 
be  renewed  once  a  day  without 
Jail.  The  heft  time  is  foon  alter 
funfet  ;  becaufe  the  infefts  are 
wont  to  pafs  up  in  the  evening, 
and  the  tar  will  not  harden  fo 
much  in  the  night  as  in  the  day, 
becaufe  of  the  dampnefs  of  the 
air.  The  daily  talk  mull  be  re- 
newed, and  performed  witii  the 
greatell  care,  till  the  latter  end 
of  May,  or  till  the  time  when 
the  hatching  of  the  worms  is 
commonly  over,  which  will  be 
earlier  or  later,  according  to  the 
difference  oi  climate. 

Another  mode  ot  tarring,  and 
which  bids  tair  to  be  preien^ed 
to  the  foregoing,  is  as  follows. 
Take  two  pj-etty  wide  pieces  oi 
board,  plain  them,  make-feraicir- 
cular  notches  in  each,  fittmg 
them  to  the  ftem,  or  body  of  the 
tree,  and  fallen  tliem  fecurely 
together  at  the  ends,  fo  that  the 
molt  violent  winds  and  llcums 
may  not  difplace  nor  Ihr  them. 
The  crevices  betwlit  the  boards 
and  the  tree  may  be  eahly  flop- 
ped with  rags,  or  tow.  Then 
fmear  the  under  fides  of  the 
boards  with  tar.  The  tar,  being 
defended  from  the  dirett  rays  ot 
the  fun,  wili  hold  its  tenacity  the 
lorger  ;  and,  therefore,  will  not 
need  to  be  fo  frequently  renew- 
ed. And  tJie  trees  may  be  more 
fecured  in  this  way  irom  tiie 
dripping  of  the  tar,  as  a  margin 
of  two  or  three  inches,  next  to 
tire  tree,  may  be  lett  unfmeared. 

If  the  trees  are  fmall,  the  Hems 
may  be  encircled  with  cartridge 
paper,  in  the  lhap>e  of  an  invert- 
ed funnel.  The  outfide  of  the 
paper  Ihould  be  well  fmeared 
with  filh  oil.  The  ipfects  will 
proceed  to  the  brim  of  the  paper, 
but  will  not  be  able  to  pafs  it  ; 
us  the  oil  will  hang  on  that  pan. 


CAR 

I      Another  expedient,  much  rec- 

;  ommended,  is,,  to  put  a  firip  ot 

;  raw  Iheep  or  lamb  fkin  round  the 

,  body  ot  each  tree,  the  wool  out- 

i  wards.    It  is  alfcrted,  that,  though 

;  the  inle6ts  can  pafs  over  hair  and 

'  llraw,  they  cannot  pafs  over  the 

i  wool.     But,  to  reijder  this  the 

!  more  efiefctuai,  it  will  be  proper 

i  to  op,en  the  fibres  of  the  wool 

i  now  and  then,  with  a  coarfe  comb. 

j      When  it  fo  happens  that  aha 

worms  are  permitted  to  prevail 

in  an  orchard  for  two  or  three 

j  years,  the  limbs  will  be  fo  corrupt- 

I  ed,  that  the  trees  are  not  ypt  to 

j  recover    their    fruittuJneis,    al- 

I  though  the  afccnt  ot  the  worms 

fhouid  be  afterwards  prevented. 

In  fuch  a  cafe,  it  is  advilable  to 

cut  oft  all  the  limbs  from  the  trees, 

near  to  the  flock  where  they  are 

produced,  that  fo  the  tops  may 

be    wholly    renewed    by    frcfh 

Ihoots,  as  they  will  be  in  a  few 

years. 

It  is  not  lefs  than  about  fifty 
veai's,  fince  this  infect  began  its 
depredations  in  Newengland,  in 
the  pans  which  had  been  longefl 
cultivated.  But  perhaps  there  is 
fome  leafon  to  hope  that  Provi- 
dence is  about  to  extirpate  them  : 
For  a  kind  of  Utile  birds  has  late- 
ly made  its  appearance  in  fome 
pans  of  the  country,  which  feeds 
upon  the  canker  worms.  Should 
thefe  birds  ha\e  a  rapid  increafc, 
the  infects  will  be  thinned,  {o  as 
to  be  lels  fonnidable,  if  not 
wholly  deflroyed. 

CARRIAGE,  a  general  name 
of  carts,  V.  aggons,  iieds,  and  oth- 
er vehicles,  employed  in  ca:Ty- 
ing  loads,  Thofe  which  are  de- 
figned  for  riding,  are  called 
nleafure  carriages. 

CARROT,  Daucus,  i  weil 
known  and  ufciul  root  tor  iood. 
The  feeds  are  carminative  a»id 
diuretick,  and  the  root  is  ufetui 
to  abate  themaiigizity  ot  cancers, 
A  landy 


CAR 

A  r.mdy  foil  is  very  piopcf  for 
carrots  ;  but  tliey  do  very  well 
m  gravelly,  and  even  in  loamy 
ioils,  when  made  nclj  .md  I<k>I- 
eiicd  to  a  luHicient  depth.  I'hc 
Jargfft  I  h.rvf  ever  i  oiled  has 
been  in  gr.tvel.  The  ground 
Ihmjldbv"  i)lo:i;^hrd,  or  dug,  more 
than  twelve  inches  deep,  aiid 
Ave  11  pulwrized. 

I  have  found  by  lon<»  experi- 
ence that  caiTots  Ihould  be  low- 
ed early.     The  lall  weik  in  A- 
pril  IS  late  enough,  when  uitend- 
eJ    lor    feeding    ot    cattle  ;  and 
they  may  l)e  fowed  earlier,  it  the 
ground  be  in  gCK^d  order,  and  lo 
<lry  as  to  be  made  light  and  ioofe. 
The  earliell   fown    will   be  the 
largell,  and,  in  the  northern  pans 
oi  this  country,  nearlv  as  tenvler 
and  good  tilled  as  it   fown  later. 
A   fmall   quantity   ot   dreihng 
will  be  futficient  tor  them.     But 
whatever  manure  is  ufcd,  itlLould 
be  well   rotted,  and  made  hue,  j 
or    putrefy   very    foon    in    the  i 
ground  ;  otherwife  the -little  ob- 
iUcles  in  it,  will  caufe  the  roots  ! 
to  divide,  and  become   torked.  I 
I  have  known  carrots,  manured  ; 
with  old   hog  dung,  grow  to  a  i 
furprifing  bignefs.     But  if  a  large  j 
quantity  of  this  ilrcmg  manure  , 
be  ufed,  they  will  grow  lo  tall  ; 
as  to  burd  open.     It  is  a  crop  . 
that   bears   drought    well,   as   it  ] 
draws  its  principal  nourilhinent  ' 
!rom  a  ronfiderable  depth.     N».>r  , 
is  the  ground  apt  to  be  cxhaulled  ; 
by  continued  crops.  j 

Carrotj  may  be  fown  pretty  ! 
thick.  AS  they  are  remarkalde  tor  ; 
growing  better  in  a  crowded  fit-  ! 
itatioM  tfun  almoit  any  other  ! 
ktnd  oi  roots.  And  it  is  eafy  tu  | 
thin  then  at  any  time  when  it  is  ' 
thought  propei,  as  they  are  fo  1 
ihaped  as  to  i<jnie  up  cafilv,  in  a  ' 
light  lo:l. 

ia  the  garden  I  {o\n  them  in  ' 
4UiU.<i  ftr  hi  tie  liinows,  made  an  ' 


CAR 


45 


ipi  1'.  deep  with  the  head  of  a  rake, 
lioni  9  to  12  iiithcs  apart,  acrofs 
t)eds  lour  toot  wide.  This  pre- 
vents treading  the  ground  hard 
loo  near  to  the  roots  ;  greatly 
taciluafcs  clearing  thcmot  weeds 
with  a  hoc.  and  keeping  the  e-irtii 
l«K)le  to  a  fuHuient  depth.  I  «lo 
not  thin  them  much,  till  I  begin 
to  pull  them  tor  ufe,  about  the 
b'*ginning  of  July  ;  tiom  wtiich 
time  I  pull  them,  not  only  lor 
the  table,  but  to  teed  fwine,  as 
that  fort  of  animals  are  io  fond 
of  them,  that  they  will  greedily 
devour  both  roots  and  tops. — 
The  Ipaces  between  the  bed^  may 
be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  by  turn- 
ing over  the  foil  with  a  narrow 
fpade,  once  or  twice  in  May  and 
June.  It  will  not  only  fubdiie 
the  weeds,  but  incre4fe  the  pal- 
tiiie  ot  the  neaiefl  plants. 

But  the  field  culture  of  this 
root  begins  to  prevail  in  the  coun- 
try :  As  carrots  are  found  to  he 
valuable,  tor  feeding  not  only 
fwine,  but  horfes  and  c?.ttle,  and 
tor  tdttening  them.  But  to  fat- 
ten fwine  on  them,  they  Ihould 
be  boiled,  or  parl>jiled.  They 
are  fo  ealily  cultivated,  and  lo 
hardy,  that  they  may  be  railed  ia 
Heidi  to  great  advantage.  They 
will  gr<Jw  well  in  a  foil  tJiat  k 
but  moderately  rich,  if  it  bi- 
ploughed  deep,  and  made  mel- 
low. And  there  is  no  difhculty 
in  keeping  than  throut^h  the 
winter,  in  good  order  lor  teeding 
cattle.  The  ground  Ihould  be 
ploughed  in  the  tall  preceding, 
and  ploughed  very  deep.  If  the 
plough  do  not  g<»  deep  enough 
at  onxe, it  Ihould  be  trench  plough- 
ed ;  ttiat  is,  the  plougli  llioiild 
pafs  twice  m  the  tiirrow.  And 
it  fome  ui  the  earth,  which  was 
never  betore  llirred,  Ihould  be 
thrown  up  in  the  furiace.  it  will 
be  no  damage,  provided  it  be 
fuch  earth   as  crumbles  calily, 

mi 


46 


CAR 


and  does  not  remain  in  lumps. 
aher  the  winter  frofls  ha\'e  afted 
upon  it. 

It"  the  land  incline  to  much 
wetnefs,  it  fhould  be  water  tur- 
Towed,  after  the  autumnal  plough- 
ing, that  fo  it  may  be  dry,  and  fit 
to  be  plouglied  again  very  early 
in  the  fpring.  It  muft  be  well 
harrowed  before  fo\ving,  firfl 
with  a  heavy  harrow,  and  aiter- 
vards  with  a  lighter  one,  with 
fliorter  teeiii  placed  near  togeth- 
er. Alter  the  feed  is  fov/n,  the 
ground  fhould  be  raked.  When 
fown  in  the  broad  call  method, 
they  fhould  iland  fo  far  apart  af- 
ter thinning,  as  to  have  each  half 
a  foot  of  foil.  There  will  be  no 
danger  in  thinning  them  early, 
as  they  are  a  plant  which  is  fel- 
dom  diminifhed  by  infecls. 

After  the  firfl  hoeing,  the  Eu- 
ropean farmers  harrow  them.  It 
is  faid  not  one  in  fifty  will  be 
(deflroyed  by  the  operation.  It 
will  loofen  the  foil,  and  greatly 
forward  their  growth.  But  it 
will  be  advifable  to  go  among 
them  after  harrowing,  and  un- 
cover thofe  which  are  buried  un- 
der heaps  of  mould.  A  Mr.  Bil- 
ling, in  England,  one  year,  fow- 
ed  thirty  acres  of  carrots,  and 
had  an  extraordinary  crop.  Some 
of  the  beft  of  the  land  yielded 
him  twenty  four  cart  loads  per 
acre.  If  his  cart  contained  40 
hufliels,  which  is  a  common  fize 
in  this  countr}',  he  had  960  bufh- 
els  from  an  acre.  And  this  is 
not  a  greater  crop,  than  a  gentle- 
man at  Newbury'  had  lafl  year, 
unlefs  I  am  mifmfonned.  And 
lately  at  or  near  Philadelphia  a 
thouland  bulhels  have  been  raif- 
ed  on  an  acre. 

Mr.  Billing  had  510  loads  of 
carrots  on  30  acres,  which  he 
thinks  equal  in  ufe  and  effe6i  to 
near  1000  loads  of  turnips,  or 
diree  hundred  loads  of  hay.     If 


CAR 

fo,  he  had  as  good  a  crop  as  tea 
loads  of  hay  per  acre  would  have 
been.  But  the  half  of  this  quan- 
tity is  feldom  if  ever  obtained  in 
hay  ;  or  if  it  were,  it  mufl  be  ve- 
r>'  coarfe,  and  not  near  fo  valua- 
ble as  hay  in  general. 

This  ^rmer  found,  that  his 
carrots  anfwered  extremely  well, 
not  only  for  fattening  fwine,  but 
bullocks  ;  and  for  feeding  milch 
cows,  fheep  and  horfes  ;  and  that 
the  land  was  left  in  a  better  con- 
dition for  a  fucceeding  crop, 
than  land  after  a  crop  of  turnips. 

It  is  with  pleafure  that  I  find 
the  attention  of  fome  of  my 
countrymen  turned  to  the  field 
culture  of  tliis  excellent  root. 
They  who  have  but  little  land 
may  probably  enable  themfelves 
to  keep  coufiderable  flocks  by 
means  of  it. 

This  root  has  gr-eatly  the  ad- 
vantage of  turnips,  not  only  in 
its  being  a  richer  and  more  nour- 
ifhing  food,  and  in  yielding  a 
larger  produce,  but  alfo  in  its 
being  never,  or  very  feldom,  an- 
noyed or  hurt  by  infecls.  This 
crop,  rightly  managed,  I  have 
never  kno'.\-n  to  fail,  as  it  is  well 
known  the  other  often  does. 

The  drill  method,  fowing  on 
narrow  ridges,  raifed  by  the  cul- 
tivator, is  preferred  by  fome,  and 
is  that  which  I  ufe.  But  the  la- 
bour %\'ill  perhaps  be  increafed  a 
little.  The  feeds  will  do  beil 
fown  by  hand,  as  their  fliape  will 
not  well  admit  of  their  being 
diailed.  To  prepare  them  for 
fowing  at  ail,  they  fhould  be  well 
rubbed,  and  paffed  through  a  fieve. 
The  firfl  hoeing  of  carrots  in 
rows  mufl  be  alfo  by  hand  ;  a^ 
which  hoeing  they  fhould  be 
thinned  to  one  or  two  inches 
afunder,  if  large  ones  aie  defired. 
The  after  hoeings  may  be  expe-. 
ditioufly  done  by  the  horfe  hoe 
and  cultivator  alternately.    It  is 


CAR 

ftot  amifs,  if  thev  grow  large 
and  rank,  when  they  arc  chief- 
ly defigiied  as  tcR)d  ior  cattle, 
though  fmall  fized  ones  arc  pre- 
ferred tor  the  tabic.  For  this  ale 
they  need  not  be  thinned  to  more 
than  halt  an  inch  aliiiidcr  in  the 
rows  :  And  perhaps  not  fo  much 
in  good  ground.  I'he  way  to 
keep  carrots  good  tor  eating 
through  the  winter,  is  to  bury 
them  in  a  dry  fand  of  the  yel- 
h)w  kind  from  pits.  Or,  it  ihcy 
are  put  into  cafks,  covering  them 
with  trelh  turfs  may  be  futhcient. 

I  will  conclude  this  article 
with  an  extratt  troin  a  writer  in 
the  Scots  Fdrmer.  "  Let  the 
fpirited  farmer,"  lays  he,  "  ap- 
ply much  of  his  land  to  the  cul- 
ture of  carrots  ;  for  he  will  find 
no  article  half  fo  profitable  in  his 
whole  farm,  as  this,  well  conduc- 
ed. Few  men  will  bellow  atten- 
tion or  expenfe  enough  to  culti- 
vate this  plant  on  a  large*  fcaie, 
notwithftanding  the  undoubted 
profit  attending  it.  A  fpirited 
fanner,  that  has  money  in  his 
pocket,  will  introduce  carrots  in- 
ttead  of  turnips.  He  Ihould, 
when  his  foil  is  proper,  totally 
fubllitute  rhcm  in  the  room  ot 
turnips  ;  for  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  fay,  that  one  luli-crop  of 
carrots  will  pay  better  than  ten 
of  turnips."  Whether  this  writer 
is  not  rather  too  fanguine  I  will 
not  undertake  to  lay.  But  trom 
long  experience  I  niuth  prctir 
them  to  turnips  on  the  whole. 

CART,  a  wheel  carriag<r,  of 
clTential  importance  to  the  tarm- 
er,  to  carry  his  manures,  remove 
Ituff  for  fences,  get  in  his  crops, 
&c.  Horfc  carts  arc  loineiimcs 
afcd  ;  but  ox  carts  generally.  Ol 
the  latter  fonie  are  Ihon,  loine 
long.  The  Ihori  cart  is  eight 
feet  long,  four  feet  wide,  and 
two  feet  high.  The  long  cart  is 
aicd  for  carting  hay,  draw,  and 


CAT 


i1 


other  bulky  matters  ;  therefore 
it  is  made  fmm  ten  to  twelve  feet, 
or  more,  in  length,  tour  feet  irr 
breadth  ;  and  inllead  ot  fides  it 
has  only  long,  Iharp  pointed 
rtakes.  In  lomc  parts  of  the 
country  they  lengthen  out  a  (hort 
cart,  with  what  are  called  ladders, 
when  they  cart  hay.  But  this  i» 
riot  a  good  prartice.  The  load 
litv;  higher  th;«u  in  a  long  cart, 
and  is  more  liable  to  be  overfet. 

The  greateft  excellencies  of  a 
cart,  arc  lightnefs,  llrcngth,  and 
durablenefs.  Therefore,  it  is  ve- 
ry proper  to  conftruH  carts  ot 
alh  timber.  But  as  white  oak  is 
not  fo  apt  to  decay,  the  princi- 
pal parts  are  commonly  made  of 
that. — A  cart  (liould  be  kept  un- 
der Ihclter  when  it  is  not  in  ufe. 
It  will  lalt  the  longer. 

The  axle,  and  wheels,  flioultl 
be  of  the  tougheft  of  oak.— 
Wheels  to  be  ufed  on  a  farm  on- 
Iv,  need  not  he  Ihod  with  iron. 
A  wooden  rim,  well  made,  will 
lalt  feveral  years,  and  is  ealily 
renewed,  ana  it  will  do  Icis  in- 
jury to  the  grals  grounds  in  pall'- 
ine  over  them.  J'he  lofter  the 
loil  it,  the  wider  the  rim  of  a 
wheel  Ifioiild  be.  Some  have 
the  rims  a  loot  wide,  to  cart  up- 
on marfhes. 

CATKRPILLAR,  a  wonu 
that  teeds  on  leaves  and  fruits. 
I'liele  infeHs  differ  in  colour  and 
fizc  according  to  their  lituation, 
and  acconlmg  to  the  <litferent 
matters  on  wiiith  they  feed. 
The  principal  inconvenience  t.he 
larmcr  mens  with  trom  cater- 
pillars, is  the  d  image  tliey  do  to 
his  orchard.  A  hairy  kirrd  of 
ratorpillars  build  their  nefts  oa 
apple  trees  in  May,  and  arc  gone 
cntirejy  in  June,  about  the  !um- 
T!:er  lolfiice.  But  they  teed  fo 
indullrioully  on  the  leaves,  as  to 
deltrov  a  great  part  of  ihem,  it 
thev   he  no:   tioiclv   prc\c:ucd- 

As 


4B 


CAT 


As  they  are  far  lefs  mifchievous 
tlian  I  he  canker  worm,  fo  they  are 
more  eafily  fubdued.  Some  de- 
Itroy  them  by  firing  gunpowdei* 
at  their  nefts.  The  fame  may  be 
effefted  with  a  match  of  brira- 
Itone  on  the  end  of  a  pole.  Some 
{ay  thcfe  and  all  other  infects  on 
trees  may  be  eafily  deftroycd 
with  quicicfilver.  See  the  Arti- 
cle Oiackfilvcr. 

I  have  an  orchard,  which  has 
been  always  much  annoyed  by 
cateiTjillars.  But  ir-  the  fpring 
of  the  prefent  year,  I  hung  rock 
weed  in  the  crotches  of  the  trees, 
and  not  one  neft  that  I  can  find 
has  fince  been  formed  upon  them, 
1  have  made  only  this  one  ex- 
periment with  rock  weed  ;  but  I 
am  apt  to  believe  it  will  always 
be  attended  with  fuccefs.  They 
whofe  fituation  is  remote  from 
the  {cz..  muff  have  other  methods 
of  deilroying  thefe  infects,  or  of 
preventing  their  multiplication. 
Woollen  rags  fteeped  in  old  urine 
may  be  equally  efficacious. 

Since  1  wrote  the  above,  I 
have  once  more  fuccefsfully  de- 
fended the  trees  in  my  orchard 
from  the  ravages  of  the  caterpil- 
lar, by  the  application  of  rock 
weed.  The  rock  weed  ihould 
be  applied  pretty  early  in  the 
Ipring  ;  the  beginning  of  April 
is  a  proper  feaibn.  The  drip- 
ping from  this  fait  plant  is  un- 
doubtedly ferviceable  alfo  to  the 
roots  of  the  trees  ;  and  prevents 
the  afcent  of  the  black  lice  and 
feveral  other  fpecies  of  infects. 

Nefls  which  have  been  neglect- 
ed till  the  inr(5cb  have  iorlaken 
them  fhould  be  deftroyed  ;  be- 
caufe  they  contain  the  feeds  ot 
fwarrcs  in  the  coming  year.  A 
neft  Will  be  found  to  contain 
feveral  of  their  chrj'fales. 

CATTLE,  a  name  applied  to 
all  quadrupeds,  which  are  tifed 
\oi  tiiiicg  of  ground,  and  for  the 


CAT 

food  of  man.  The  name  cdffi- 
prehcnds,aLlear[,aI]  the  bos  kind, 
befidcs  fheep  and  goats.  Euro- 
peans fometimes  diflinguifli  cat- 
tle into  laige  and  fmall  ;  and 
black  cattle  is  a  name  they  ver^" 
frequently  give  to  the  ox  kind. 
I  fhail  fpeak  here  only  of  black 
cattle,  including  bulls,  oxen, 
Heers,  cows,  and  heifers. 

As  foon  as  a  calf  is  wear>ed,  it 
fiiould  run  in  the  beft  of  pafture 
till  autumn,  and  be  carehilly 
tended,  kept  warm,  and  live  up- 
on the  befl  of  fodder,  through 
the  firft  winter.  AftcrAvards  it 
will  become  fo  hardy  as  to  re- 
quire lefs  care.  But  cattle  fhould 
be  frequently  looked  to  and  ex* 
amined  ;  that  fo,  if  they  be  over- 
taken with  any  ficknefs,  hurt,  or 
lamenefs,  fuitable  remedies  may 
be  feafonably  applied.  And  ia 
order  to  do  this,  they  fhould  be 
accuftomed  to  come  home,  and  be 
fhut  up  in  the  yard  every  night. 
By  this  method,  a  farmer  will* 
favc  a  much  larger  quantity  of 
dung.  And,  in  cafe  of  an  un- 
commonly cold  ftorm,  the  cattle 
may  be  houfed  with  very  little, 
trouble,  as  the  yard  is  contigu- 
ous to  their  houfe. 

Cattle,  from  one  year  old  to 
three,  wiilufiially  get  a  living  in 
fummer,  and  even  thrive,  upgn 
the  commons,  or  in  the  meanell, 
and  mcft  bulhy  paflures.  And 
in  winter  the  pooreft  fodder  will 
keep  them  alive.  And,  as  our 
farmers  know  thefe  things,  they 
are  ver\'  apt  to  treat  their  young 
cattle  ia  tliis  manner.  Thofe 
which  are  io  treated,  may  often- 
times become  as  hardy  cattle  as 
any  ;  but  they  will  be  fmall,  and 
therefore  not  fo  profitable.  Farm- 
ers in  general  are  too  ambitious 
to  keep  a  large  flock  of  cattle  : 
A  neceffary  confequence  of  which 
is,  that  they  are  pinched  in  tlieir 
food,  aad  never  come  to  tiieir, 

full 


CAT 

full  growth.  Another  ill  confe- 
qurnce  is,  their  growing  unruly 
and  mifchicvous  through  hunger, 
learning  to  leap  over  fences,  or 
break  through  them. 

It  wouhl  ccrtainfy  be  more 
conducive  to  the  intoreft  of  fann- 
ers, to  keep  {mailer  ftocks  of  cat- 
tle fhan  moll  ot  them  do  :  Kor 
then  they  would  be  able  to  feed 
them  to  the  lull.  Their  oxen 
would  be  much  larger  and  fl  rong- 
er  than  they  are,  and  their  cows 
would  give  plenty  of  milk,  and 
bring  larger  caKes  :  Not  to  fay 
how  much  they  would  iave  in 
taxes,  by  reducmg  their  number 
•f  rateable  cattle. 

Farmers  ihouid  allow  their 
young  flock  a  pretty  good  paf- 
turc.  This  would  keep  them  out 
ot  mifchiel,  prevent  their  learn- 
ing bad  tricks,  and  prevent  ma-  \ 
ny  ill  accidents  which  beta!  them.  | 
And  it  would  be  no  Imall  advan- 
tage always  to  know  where  to 
find  them.  But,  in  the  common 
method  of  treating  them,  it  is  too 
common  a  cafe  lor  them  to  flrag- 
gle  fo  tar  troin  houic,  that  the 
owner  entirely  lofes  them  ;  or 
elfe  lj>cnds  as  much  time  as  they 
are  worth  in  feeking  after  them. 

II  a  young  Hock  were  well  ted 
M  all  Icafons,  the  heifers  would 
commonly  have  calves  at  two 
years  old,  which  is  no  fmall  ad- 
vantage, and  (leers  would  be  fit 
tor  labour  earlier  in  proportion. 
And  when  they  come  t<r  be 
killed  off,  the  quaiuity  »)t  beef 
would  make  amends  tor  their  be- 
ing fo  led  as  to  be  well  grown, 
U  thet.Mmer's  view  in  increaling 
his  llock,  be  to  make  as  much 
dung  as  polfible,  he  Ihouid  be 
reminded  ot  what  he  ought  to 
fcnow  already,  that  the  ttung  of 
a  fmall  ilock  will  lie  equal  to 
tJrai  ot  a  large  one,  it  it  r«»nlumr 
the  fame  quanuty  of  toddcr.  It 
a  laroicr  make  tins  objection  tu 

c 


CAT 


49 


r 

n 


afluring  his  yoimg  ftock,  that 
lis  farm  is  not  large  enough  to 
admit  ot  it  ;  he  may  find  an  an- 
fwer,  by  turning  to  the  article, 
Moutn<f  GrounJs,  where  dimin- 
ifhing  tneir  number  of  acrer,  and 
increafing  that  of  pafliiie  ground, 
IS  recommended,  and  fufficient 
reafons  adigned. 

In  the  winter,  cattle  fhould  be 
houfed,  to  defend  them  from  the 
inclemencies  of  the  weather. 
For  though  nature  fiirnifhcs  them 
with  a  thicker  covering  of  hair 
in  winter  than  in  fummer,  the 
difference  is  not  near  fo  great  as 
that  ot  the  weather  in  this  climate. 
Working  oxen, and  milch  cows, 
will  fuffer  more  than  the  reft  by- 
lying  abroad.  It  the  farmer  can-i 
not  conveniently  houfe  all  his 
cattle,  thofe  fhould  be  left  out; 
which  arc  between  the  age  of  one 
and  three  years.  And  thofe  that 
He  out  f}u)uld  have  a  thed,  o[x.'n. 
only  to  the  fouth  and  well,  to 
fhehcr  themfelves  under  iii 
floriny  weather. 

The  injuries  which  cattle  re- 
ceive from  one  another,  when 
they  are  lodged  together  in  a 
yard,  is  an  additional  reafon  for 
tying  fhein  up  in  the  barn.  To 
whicii  it  may  be  added,  that  a 
great  part  of  the  fodder  given 
them  is  walled,  even  when  it  is 
given  them  in  racks  ;  much 
more,  when  it  is  thrown  upon 
the  ground.  They  trample  it 
into  the  dung  with  their  feet, 
which  is  no  iiu  «)nr!dera!)le  lofs. 

Catth.'  will  bear  to  be  cold 
nnich  better  than  to  he  wet.  If 
they  t^  left  out  in  «old  ftonns  of 
raiu,  it  pinclies  therA  exceeding- 
ly ;  fo  thai  they  will^not  look  fu 
well  again  tor  ieveral  days  after 
it.  The  fides  of  tUe  hoofe  where 
ihcy  are  lod(»ed.  need  not  be  ve- 
ry tight.  It  niight  Ik:  apt  to 
make  them  too  tender,  li  will 
ccrtdi:2ly  abate  tlic  Irclkiicis  ot 

the 


5P 


CAT 


the  air  they  breathe  in,  and  hurt  j 
Uie  agreeable  flavour  ot  their  tod-  j 
tier.  But  the  covering  ot  their 
houfe  {hpuld  be  perfeftly  tight. 
]SJo  window  fhould  be  open, 
rlirough  which  fnow  or  rain  may 
diiwe  in  upon  them.  The  floor 
they  He  on  fliould  have  a  gentle 
defccnt  backward,  that  they  may 
be  wetted  as  little  as  poffible  by 
their  Itale  ;  and  they  fhould  al- 
-ivays  have  llra\\-  or  litter  under 
them,  not  only  to  folten  their 
lodging,  but  to  lay  them  the 
more  warm  and  dry,  and  abforb 
the  wetnefs. — The  better  they 
are  littered,  the  more  manure 
will  the  owner  make  tor  his  farm. 
This  is  an  objeft  ot"  high  im- 
portance. 

It  would  be  a  good  method  for 
cattle  that  are  tied  up,  to  fodder 
them  in  racks.  They  would  not 
be  fo  apt  to  rob  one  another  ; 
nor  to  get  their  fodder  under 
their  feet  ;  nor  to  render  it  un- 
palatable by  their  breathing  up- 
on it. 

\Vhere  fait  hay  can  be  had, 
cattle  fliould  now  and  then  be 
treated  with  a  little  of  it.  It  will 
fo  increafe  their  appetite,  that 
tliey  will  eat  poor  meadow  hay, 
and  ftraw  with  it,  or  after  it. 
But  farmers,  who  are  far  trom  the 
fea,  and  not  furnilhed  with  fait 
hay,  fhould  now  and  then  iprinkle 
fome  of  their  meaneft  todder 
with  fait  dilfolved  in  water,  ^^'hich 
will  anfwer  the  fame  valuable 
purpofe.  And-  at  no  feafon  of 
the  year  fhould  cattle  be  kept, 
for  any  long  time,  without  Hilt. 
They  are  greedy  after  it,  and  it 
conduces  to  keep  them  in  health. 

As  to  fummer  feeding,  it  is  not 
fit  that  a  whole  ftock  go  proraif- 
cuoufly  ia  the  fame  pafture. 
Some  would  be  overmuch  fed, 
and  fome  not  enough.  A  farm- 
er's paftme  grounds  fhould  be 
jHade  into  a  number  of  feparate 


C  II  A 

inclofures  ;  the  greater  the  num- 
ber the  better.  Milch  kine  and  cat- 
tle fattening  for  flaughter  fhould 
have  the  firft  of  the  feed  in  each 
inclofure  ;  then  working  oxen  ; 
afterwards,  young  flock,  horfes 
and  fheep.  When  each  kind 
have  had  their  turn,  for  two  ci* 
three  days,  or  perhaps  a  week, 
the  apartment  may  be  fhut  up, 
till  it  be  fufficiently  grown  for  the 
milch  cows. — By  fuch  a  rotation 
much  may  be  laved  ;  but  little 
of  the  grafs  will  be  wafted  by- 
trampling  ;  and  what  one  fort 
leaves  another  will  eat  ;  fo  that 
none  of  the  grafs  will  be  lofl. 

Oxen  fhould  not  live  to  be 
more  than  eight  years  old,  nor 
cows  more  than  ten  or  eleven. 
When  they  are  kept  longer,  they 
do  not  fatten  fo  eafily  ;  and  the 
beef  is  not  fo  good.  Cattle  to 
be  fattened  fhould  have  the  befl: 
ot  pafture  during  the  whole  grafs 
feafon,  or  they  will  not  be  fat  fo 
early  as  December  ;  and  they 
fhould  lofe  a  little  blood,  when 
they  are  firft  turned  to  grafs.  In 
autumn,  when  grafs  grows  fhort, 
or  is  corrupted  by  trofts,  their 
fattening  fliould  be  promoted  by 
feeding  them  morning  and  even- 
ing with  the  ftalks  of  Indian  corn, 
punipions,  potatoes,  or  carrots  ; 
and  efpccially  with  ears  of  corn, 
it  the  owner  can  afford  it.  In- 
dian meal  is  fuppofed  to  be  ftill 
better  to  complete  their  fattening. 
Oil  cakes  from  the  linfeed  mills 
are  much  recommended  in  En- 
glifh  books,  as  conducing  to  the 
fpeedy  fattening  of  cattle. 

CHANGE  of  CROPS,  a 
method  ot  cultivating  different 
forts  of  vegetables  in  fuccefTion, 
on  the  fame  piece  ot  ground, 
with  a  view  to  make  tillage  lands 
more  profitable  in  the  long  run  ; 
and,  at  the  fame  time,  to  pre- 
vent exhaiifting  them  of  their 
flrength. 

Thofe 


C  H  A 

Tliofe  who  believe  that  the 
tood  ot  different  pl.mts  is  difK-r- 
cnt,  cannot  but  look  on  the 
changing  oi  crops  as  a  maticr 
ot  cllentiaJ  importance.  For,  on 
their  hypotheiis,  land  which  is 
worn  out  with  one  l»)rt  ot  vege- 
tables, may  be  in  good  onlcr  to 
produce  a  large  crop  of  another 
fort.  But  there  are  other  reafons 
tor  the  changing  of  crops,  which 
are  more  fubltantidl,  being  found- 
ed in  undoubted  fa^t,  and  prov- 
ed by  experience. 

Some  plants  are  known  to  im- 
poverith  land  much  falter  than 
others  :  Such  as  Indian  corn, 
•flax,  hemp,  &c.  And  it  would 
not  "be  a  prudent  meiliod  to 
fcourgc  a  piece  of  land  with  fuch 
crops,  year  attcr  year,  till  its 
ftrength  were  all  exhaulled.  For 
•it  has  been  juftly  obferved,  that 
it  is  eaficr  and  cheaper  to  keep 
land  in  heart,  tlum  to  rcllorc  it 
after  it  is  worn  out.  It  is  advil- 
able,  therelorc,  in  genenii,  to  take 
but  one  crop  ol  tlax  Irom  a  piece 
ot  land  ;  and  not  more  tlian  tw^ 
ot  Indian  corn,  in  fuccefTion  ; 
nor  indeed  more  than  one,  un- 
lefs  abundance  of  manure  be  ap- 
plied. 

Again,  fome  plants  take  -the 
principal  part  ot  their  nourilh- 
ment  near  the  furface  of  the  fjil, 
and  others  draw  it  from  a  grent- 
cr  deptli  :  And  a  regard  mull  bo 
had  to  this  in  choofing  a  roution 
of  crops.  For  it  will  be  found 
that  after  land  has  been  much 
worn  by  plants,  the  roots  of 
which  chiefly  confilt  ot  either 
long  or  Ihort  lateral  hbrcs,  it  will 
be  in  good  order  to  produce 
plants  which  arc  tap  rooted. 
Clover,  tor  inftance,  will  grow 
rank  and  good,  on  a  fpoi  wliich 
will  not  anlwer  tor  wheat,  bii  ley, 
or  oats.  T-he  clover  will  dr.iv 
its  principal  nourithment  trom 
(hofe  parts  of  the  fo'.l,  to  which  the 


C  H  A  51 

roots  ot  i^receding  crops  have 
not  reached.  And  if  grounJi 
have  been  dunged  for  feveial 
years,  iJie  nutriine  particles  o( 
the  \uuig  may  have  jKiieirated 
deeper  into  the  foil  tl-.jn  «i:v 
roijts  have  reached,  lii  a  loofe 
landy  lt>il,  ufcd  for  guin,  this 
will  often  be  the  cafe  :  So  that 

KHit  ot  the  manure  laitt-on  it  will 
e  entirely  loll,  uulels  a  crop  of 
tap  rooted  plants  (hould  over- 
take it  in  its  Jefcent. 

Pi  eventing  the  prevalence  of 
weeds  is  another  good  reafon  fop 
the  changing  of  crops.  Weeds 
will  fo  incivafe,  efpecially  in  old 
farms,  as  almofl  to  fpt)il  a  crop, 
uulefs  a  hoed  crop  iniei-vene  to 
ciieck  them  once  in  two  or  ihrrc 
vears.  And  a  green  hoed  cr^p 
helps  to  prepare  land  for  pto<lur- 
irig  other  crops,  by  einichitig  it. 
'J'iie  weeds,  which  are  feveral 
tune*;  cut  to  pieces,  and  hoed  in- 
to the  foil,  during  a  fiimmcr,  an- 
fwer  much  the  lame  end  as  green 
drefTings  :  And  by  kecpinj;  the 
foil  loofe,  the  ei^richiu.';  parUcles 
floating  in  the  atmor]>lier(',  arc 
plentitully  imbibed.  See  iioia- 
iion  pf  Crops. 

Alii),  a  change  of  crops,  judi- 
cioufly  manage<i,  fuperfedes  (!ic 
necelluy  of  tallowing,  which  \^ 
no  ftnall  a<l\  antage.  luftead  ot 
an  expenfne  relhngof  the  foil, 
durii.-g  a  year  of  t.illow,  land 
may  yield  an  unintermitiint? 
profit  to  the  owner.  Wheat 
land,  for  inftance,  may  be  re- 
cruited, and  cleared  o{  its  weeds, 
by  a  crop  ot  beans,  or  potatoes, 
as  etfehually  as  by  fallowing. 
It  fuch  a  crop  fhould  only  pay 
the  colt  ot  c-uhnie,  it  may  be 
conhdeied  as  j^ain. 

What  part  icularroutincof  crops 
is  befl,  IS  not  eafy  to  deicrmitie. 
(rrccn  anJ  white  crops,  alter- 
natclv,are  in  general  recommend- 
ed.    I  fuppolc  ouc  couifc  mav 

W 


52 


C  H  A 


be  beft  in  one  county,  and  an- 
other in  another.  In  the  cx)un- 
ty  of  Brifiol,  Manachufctts,  it  is 
called  good  hulbandry,  to  plant 
Indian  corn  the  firit  year  after 
ground  is  broken  up  ;  to  fow 
rye,  wheat,  oats,  or  barley,  the 
fecond  year  ;  and  lay  it  down 
with  clover.  After  two  or  three 
crops  of  clover  are  taken  off,  the 
jand  is  broken  up  again,  and 
jnanaged  as  before. 

But  in  the  counties  of  Cum- 
berland and  Lincoln,  in  the  fame 
commonwealth, this  courfe  would 
not  anfwer  fo  well.  Indian  corn 
is  not  found  to  be  the  inofi  benefi- 
cial crop  for  the  firft  year,  in  this 
climate.  It  will  be  backward, 
and  in  danger  of  not  ripening 
well,  tmlefs  it  be  on  a  fandy  fpot, 
with  a  fouthern  cxpofure.  And 
when  land  is  broken  up,  it  will 
not  be  fubdued  enough  to  lay 
Hown  for  grafs  fo  foon  as  the 
third  year,  on  account  of  the 
toughnefs  of  the  fward.  But 
when  laid  down,  it  may  lie  fix 
or  feven years,  before  it  will  need 
breaking  up  again  ;  for  the  lands 
are  fo  natural  to  grafs,  that  the 
crops  will  contiiuie  to  be  good. 

An  eligible  courfe  ol  crops  in 
thefe  northern  counties  may  he, 
peafc,  oats,  or  potatoes,  the  firfi 
year  ;  Indian  corn,  much  dung- 
ed, the  fecond  ;  barley  or  rye, 
the  third  ;  and  the  fourth,  hcrdf- 
grafs  and  clover  mixcd^  and  fo 
on  to  the  tenth.  As  tiie  clover 
diminilhes,  the  hcrdlgrafs  will 
increafe,  which  is  a  more  vahia- 
i)le  grafs  for  iodder.  But  every 
judicious  farmer  jnufl  judge  tor 
himfelf  in  thefe  n^atters.  Soils 
differ  fo  greatly,  even  in  fields 
which  lie  contiguous,  tliat  the 
coiufe  oi  crops  which  is  fuit- 
able  for  one,  would  be  unfuit- 
able  for  another. — Change  of 
crops  is  no  new  dv&.rine  among 
Ifarmers. 


C  H  A 

"Repeated  obfervations  con- 
vinced the  Romans,  that  befides. 
the  alternate  refting  of  the  land, 
wheat  may,  as  Pliny  obferves,  be 
fown  after  lupines,  vetcfies,  beans, 
or  any  other  plant  which  has  the 
(juality  of  fertilizing  and-enrich- 
ing  the  foil. — A  judicious  change 
of  crops  is  of  great  importance 
in  the  common  tillage  hulband- 
ry, as  it  enables  the  farmers  to 
fave  the  expenfe  and  lofs  of  a  crop, 
in  the  iallow  year  ;  and  to  con- 
quer his  great  enemies,  the  weeds, 
by  attacking  them  at  different 
feafons  of  the  year,  and  in  dif- 
ferent periods  of  their  growth  ; 
cfpecially  when  the  intermedi- 
ate crops  are  hoed,  as  thofe  of 
peafe  and  bean's  ;  for  the  repeat- 
ed hoeings,  not  only  dellroy  the 
weeds,  but  alfo  very  much  en- 
rich the  land.  The  benefit  of 
changing  crops  appears  to  arife 
from  thefe  circumllances,  rather 
than  from  any  different  food  that 
the  feveral  crops  are  fuppofed 
to  extra6l  from  the  foil."  Com- 
plefe  Farmer. 

CHAxNGE  of  SEEDS,  taking 
feeds  to  fow,  from  diffeient  coun- 
tries, climates,  fields,  or  foils. 
This  is  a  matter  of  great  import- 
ance in  agriculture,  which  has 
been  too  little  attended  to  by 
fanners  in  this  country.  All 
feeds,  which  are  not  natural  to 
the  foil  and  climate,  will  degen- 
erate, grow  gradually  worfe  and 
worle,  till  they  are  naturalized  ; 
and  then  remain  at  a  ftand,  as 
Mr.  Dixfon  has  juflly  obferved. 
But  thofe  plants,  which  are  the 
natural  gro\vth  of  the  country, 
are. not  liable  to  grow  worfe.  If 
fo,  all  forts  of  plants  ere  now 
would  have  been  reduced  to 
nothing.  llie  belt  countries 
and  foils  to  procure  feeds  from 
for  fowing,  are  thofe  to  which 
they  are  natural.  Eor  if  we  take 
ifkcm  from  anv  other  place,  they 

will 


C  H  A 

viU  be  fuch  as  have  alrcuiv  ui- 
Rua  to  degenerate  ;  lo  that  wc 
Ihall  not  have  them  in  perle/-iion. 

We  eaniiot  avoid  lowing  more 
or  lefs  ot  tlu;  feeds  ot  weeds  with 
all  kinds  ot  grain,  indcfs  we  loend 
too  much  time  in  cleaning  tneni. 
Therefore,  when  we  fow  grain 
l»iied  on  the  fpot,  we  Ihall  una- 
voidably low  the  feeds  ot  weeds 
which  are  natural  to  the  Ipot, 
and  they  will  mightily  incrcafe. 
But  when  we  fow  grain,  wiiich  is 
not  raifed  in  the  lame  country, 
or  in  the  fame  kind  ot  foil,  the 
feeds  of  weeds  which  are  Town 
with  it,  will  not  be  fo  likely  to 
thrive  tall,  and  become  troublc- 
fomc.  This  may  be  allowed  to 
be  one  advantage  in  changing 
feeds  ;  and  a  good  rcafon  lor 
changing  them  yearly. 

As  animals,  particularly  fliccp, 
and  lomc  other  kinds,  are  known 
to  be  improved  by  removing 
them  from  one  country  to  anoth- 
er, fo  feeds  brought  trom  didant 
countries  have  ottcn  been  found 
to  produce  plants  more  healthy, 
and  of  a  larger  fize,  than  feeds  of 
our  own  growth.  The  Siberian 
wheat,  which  was  fent  into  this 
country  about  the  beginning  of 
the  late  war,  was  a  proot  ot  tiie 
truth  of  this  obfervation.  Vot  five 
or  fix  years,  it  produced  fo  mucli 
better  crops  than  our  own  Iced 
uhcat,that  every  tarmcr  was  eager 
toobtain  fomeolit ;  andfomegave 
double  price  tor  it.  It  was  al  firii 
perte6Uy  tree  from  fmut,  and 
trom  blight,  and  toiiuuonly  pro- 
«luced  thirty  told,  in  land  which 
was  ftiitahlc  for  it. — And  the  true 
rcalon  of  its  degenerating  here 
fo  loon  as  it  did,  I  imagine  niiglit 
be,  its  having  been  fowed  in  Ln- 
gland  la  climate  not  natural  to 
it^  tor  fomc  years  before  it  came 
to  us  :  So  liiat  it  had  begun  t«) 
degenerate  bclore  we  iceciv- 
ed  it. 


C  U  A  j3 

v^omc  feeds  will  anfwcr  well, 
when  carried  trom  a  fouthern  to 
a  noithcrn  climate.  Perhaps  all 
thofc  forts  will,  which  arc  lo 
quick  in  their  growth,  that  their 
plants  come  to  maturity  very  ear- 
ly ;  fuch  as  flax,  turnips,  and 
many  other  forts. 

By  feveral  experiments,  I  have 
convinced  myfelf  that  tlic  feed 
ot  flax,  carried  as  much  as  a  hun- 
dred miles  to  the  northward,  will 
anfwer  a  very  good  purpole. 
J'hc  crops  have  fometimes  been 
almoll  double  in  \alue.  I  fup- 
pofc  the  people  of  Ireland  have 
long  been  convinced  ot  tlie  util- 
ity of  this  changing  of  fl.ix  ("eed  ; 
which  has  made  them  lb  fond  of 
procuring  it  trom  America,  and 
other  places.  American  feed 
anfwers  extreincly  well  on  their 
high,  dry  lands. 

As  to  turnips,  the  befl  and 
largeft  that  I  ever  raifed,  were 
from  feeds  brought  from  Phila- 
delphia. But  the  feeds  of  plants, 
which  fcarcely  come  to  maturi- 
ty before  the  onfet  of  autunmal 
frofls,  Ihould  never  be  removed 
from  fouth  to  n«)rth.  The  lalf 
year,  I  procured  feeds  of  fquatli- 
cs  from  the  weilerji  i Hands  ;  and 
they  brought  no  fruit  to  matu- 
rity. 

Wheat  and  rye  fbouid  be  ripe, 
not  only  before  the  approach  t)f 
tjcdty  nights,  but  even  before  the 
chilly  nights  which  happen  about 
the  end  of  July,  tor  the  cold- 
uefs  will  he  apt  to  reiard  the  at- 
cent  of  the  lap  in  ihctc  plants, 
and  prevent  the  filling  of  the 
grain.  Winter  rye  trom  tlir 
county  of  Bun  liable,  was  onrr 
fowed  in  the  C(»uirty  of  Cumber- 
berland,  Mallachufetts.  It  ripen- 
ed later,  on  acccuim  ot  the  imall 
difference  of  latitude,  and  was  lo 
blighted  a^  not  to  produce  halt 
a  crop.  But  bringing  grai.n  from 
(he  Honhward,  will  always  be  a 

good 


54 


C  H  A 


good  change.  It  will  ripen  ear- 
lier, in  proportion  to  thediftance, 
and  efcape  the  chilly  nights  I 
have  mentioned.  But  I  Ihould 
not  be  fond  of  bringing  wheat 
or  rye  from  a  place  -very  far  dif- 
tant,  unlefs  I  could  have  it 
yearly  ;  becaj.ife  I  imagine  that 
the  greater  the  change  of  climate 
is,  which  feeds  undergo,  the  more 
rapidly  they  will  degenerate. 

Seeds  may  be  removed,  as  I 
have  found,  from  a  northern  fit- 
uation  too  far  to  the  fouthward. 
I  have  known  feed  of  Indian  corn 
carried  as  much  as  two  whole 
degrees  fouth  from  its  native 
place,  which  was  fo  much  fcorch- 
ed  by  the  greater  heat  of  the  fun 
as  to  produce  little  or  nothing. 
So  that  care  muft  be  taken  to 
make  changes  within  rjeaionable 
bounds. 

If  a  farmer  have  not  opportu- 
nity to  procure  feeds  from  dif- 
tant  places,  let  him  at  leall  pro- 
cure them  from  neighbouring 
fields,  rather  than  from  his  own. 
for  if  confiderable  changes  are 
as  highly  advantageous,  as  they 
are  generally  allowed  to  be,  it 
iollov/s  that  fmall  changes  will 
be  expecf  ed  to  ha\"e  fome  degree 
of  advantage. 

Any  one,  whofe  farm  has  vari- 
ous kinds  of  foil  in  the  different 
parts  of  it,  may  eafily  make 
changes  of  feed  which  will  be 
ufeful.  The  Englifh  farmers 
think  it  belt  to  take  feed  wheat 
from  a  ftrong  clay  land,  v/hatev- 
er  kind  of  foil  they  are  gomg  to 
fow  it  upon.  They  choofe  alfo 
TO  take  from  a  field  which  has 
been  changed  the  preceding  year. 
And  they  will  never  take  for 
feed,  wheat  that  grew  on  a  fandy 
foil.  It  is  a  proverb  with  them, 
th^i/and  isa  change  for  no  land. 
The  reafonablenefs  of  thefe  opin- 
ions I  know  not  how  to  invelti- 
gate  ;  but  if  tliey  have  fouHded 


C  H  A 

them  upon  a  long  courfe  of  ex- 
periments, they  are  not  to  be 
flighted. 

CHARCOAL,  wood  charred, 
or  burnt  with  a  flow,  fmothered 
fire.  The  making  of  charcoal  is 
a  bufinefs  moftly  performed  by 
farmers.  And  in  clearing  new 
lands,  making  their  wood  into 
coals  is  better  than  burning  it  to 
wafte,  unlefs  the  diilance  of  a 
market  for  coals  be  too  great. 
One  cord  of  wood  will  make  for- 
ty bulhels  of  coals  :  And  thofe 
farmers  who  are  not  diftant  from 
populous  towns,  or  who  are  near 
iron  works,  may  turn  their  coals 
to  confiderable  profit. 

I  have  long  obferved,  that 
where  coal  kilns  have  been  burnt, 
the  ground  has  difcovered  a  re- 
mai-kable  fertility  tor  many  years 
after  ;  and  more  efpecially  when 
it  has  been  naturally  a  cold  and 
wet  foil.  The  duff  of  the  coals 
and  that  of  the  burnt  turf,  have 
confpired  to  produce  this  effeft. 
Hence  I  have  concluded  that 
fmall  coals,  or  the  dull  from  coal 
kilns,  fpread  over  four  meadow 
lands,  would  anfwer  the  end  of  a 
good  manure.  Being  extremely 
porous,  the  pieces  ot  coal  imbibe 
much  of  the  fuperfkious  water, 
as  Avell  as  increafe  the  heat  on 
the  furface,  as  all  black  fubftances 
do.  And  when  the  weather  be- 
comes dry,  they  difcharge  the 
moifture,  partly  into  the  foil  when 
it  glows  dry  enough  to  attraft  it, 
and  partly  into  the  air,  by  the 
action  of  the  fun  upon  it.  Au- 
tumn is,  on  feveral  accounts,  the 
heft  feafon  tor  laying  on  coal 
duft  ;  and  I  v/ould  recommend 
it  to  all  who  have  bottoms  of 
kilns,  to  make  this  ufe  of  the  duff. 

I  have  been  confirmed  in  my 
opinion,  by  reading  in  the  Com- 
plete Farmer  as  follows :  "  The 
duft  of  charcoal  has  been  found, 
by  repeated  experience,  to  be  of 

sreat 


C  H  £ 

jjpai  benefit  to  land,  efpecially 
tt)  Inch  as  is  Aifl  aiiil  luur.  It  is 
lo  be  ulccl  ill  tbc  lamr  niamiiT  as 
loot  and  wood  alhi's." 

CHARi.OCK.  Sin^tpi,  a  well 
known  a;id  troublcloiHC  weed. 
It  is  known  alio  by  the  names 
chadlock,  catlock.  carlock,  and 
white  rape.  It  is  fiinilar  to  r.ul- 
'\i\^.  The  young  plants  fo  near- 
ly refenible  turnips,  that  they  arc 
Icarccly  dillinguilhablc,  unlcfs  it 
be  by  the  tallc.  Mortimer  men- 
tions a  field  of  barley,  mowed 
when  the  charlock  was  inbloflbm, 
which  took  of!  only  the  tops  of 
the  blades  of  barley  ;  and  which 
gave  the  barley  an  opportunity 
to  get  above  the  weeds,  and  fo 
it  produced  a  good  crop.  He 
fuppofes  cow  dung  increafes  it 
more  than  any  otlier  manure  : 
Anii  recorAmen<ls  feeding  fal- 
lows with  fhecp  when  they  arc 
iniefted  with  this  weed.  It  is 
well  known  that  fheep  will  eat 
this  weed  rather  than  turnips. 
Ihe  feeds  will  live  in  the  earth 
many  years,  and  afterwards  veg- 
etate by  means  of  tillage. 

Grain  fhouhl  be  (own  thick, 
where  tliere  is  danger  ol  its  be- 
ing injured  by  charlock,  fb  thni 
the  crop  may  overtop  the  wecHs. 
Barley  fowTi  thick  Will  certainly 
profpcr  in  fuch  a  lituation. 

CrlEKSE,  a  fort  of  food  made 
of  milk,  purged  ol  the  fcrum,  or 
whey,  and  dried  for  ufe. 

Some  cheefes  are  wholly  made 
of  unfkimmcd  milk,  which  arc 
•ailed  new  milk  cheefes,  although 
part  of  the  milk  be  kept  over 
night,  or  longer.  Thcfe  chceles, 
as  any  one  would  exp'jft,  arc  the 
fattcff,  and  moif  valuable. 

Anotlicr  fort  are  called  tv.o 
meal  cheefes,  Ixring  made  of  the 
morning's  milk  uafkimmed,  to- 
gether with  the  evening's  milk 
fkimined.  Thele,  when  well 
ni«Je,   without   the   mixture   of 


C  II  E  J5 

any  four  milk,  are  not  much  in- 
feriour  in  quality  to  new  milk 
cheefes. 

Ihe  third  fort  of  rjjfcfes  .ire 
wholly  made  of  milk  deprived  of 
its  (ream.  I'his  kind  is  tough, 
and  hard  to  digelf  ;  and  confam 
ing  only  the  glutino)i>  part  oif 
the  milk,  it  affords  liitle  noiuilli- 
ment,  and  is  fcarcely  worth  m4tk« 
1115. 

The  method  of  making  chcefe, 
ill  Yorklhiie  in  Krhglaml,  is  as  fol- 
h)ws.— "  If  your  milk  b«i  not  jiiffc 
come  from  the  cows,  make  it  bl<)Oft 
warm,  turn  it  int )  a  clean  vefTel 
for  the  purpofe,  and  put  in  the 
rennet  ;  be  furc  to  give  it  nd 
more  than  what  \sill  make  it 
come  lightly.  After  it  comes, 
ftir  it  with  yiMir  hand,  till  it  be 
gathered,  and  parted  from  the 
whey.  Then  take  the  curd  up 
in  a  ffrainer,  and  work  it  with 
your  hanWs,  till  you  get  as  much 
of  the  wiicy  from  it  as  poflible  : 
Then  lay  it  in  a  clean  linen 
cloth,  and  put  it  into  the  hoop  : 
After  it  is  lightfy  covered  with 
the  cloth,  put  it  into  the  prefs  : 
Let  it  (fiind  in  the  \nr.ls  two 
hours  ;  take  it  out,  and  the  cloth 
from  it.  and  rub  it  over  with  h'ne 
fail  :  Put  it  in  a  dry  cloth,  and 
prels  it  eif^ht  hours  :  Then  put 
It  in  another  cloth,  and  let  it  re- 
main in  the  prels  till  your  next 
cheefe  be  reiidy.  VVhen  yo'j- 
take  It  out,  rub  it  well  with  fait, 
and  wrap  the  round  ring  of  the 
cfietfe  with  a  garter  made  oi  lin- 
en yarn,  and  pm  it  at  the  cttd^ 
which  keeps  tiicchccie  in  a  j;t)od 
fhajie  :  Then  let  it  lie  in  brine 
twenty  four  hours.  Add  a  little 
fait  to  your  brine  ryrry  time  yoii 
put  in  a  new  chee!e.  When 
you  hnd  the  hrine  turning  unfa- 
voury,  make  new  brine  ;  and 
turn  the  chcefe  in  the  brine  vat 
twirc  in  twenty  Inur  in-uis,  al- 
wavs  rubbing  a   iiitic  fall  on  the 


56 


CHE 


top  of  it  when  it  is  turned.  Wlien 
you  take  it  out  of  the  brine,  dry 
it  with  a  cloth  ;  and  turn  it  eve- 
ry day  on  the  ftielf  for  two 
months.  The  fhe!f  fliould  be  a 
Httle  wider  than  the  cheefes,  and 
the  garters  fliould  continue  round 
them  five  or  fix  days." 

A  dairy  woman  in  ray  neigh- 
bourhood, whofe  cheefe  is  mofl 
excellent,  is  nearly  in  the  York- 
shire prattice.  But  lefl  the  fait 
thould  not  penetrate  the  whole 
of  the  cheefe  equally  in  every 
part,  fhe  fprinkles  a  little  fine 
fait  on  the  curd,  when  fhe  breaks 
it,  perhaps  as  much  as  an  ounce 
to  a  cheefe  of  fifteen  pounds 
weight ;  and  her  cheefes  never 
appear  to  be  too  much  faked. 

Tiiis  may  be  partly  owing  to 
another  improvement  in  her 
method.  To  the  brine,  in  which 
ihe  lays  a  cheefe  after  it  is  preff- 
cd,  (he  allows  as  much  nitre  as 
will  lie  on  a  fliilling.  She  has 
fo'und,  by  long  experience,  that 
tlie  nitre  not  only  gives  a  reddifh 
caff  to  the  rind  of  the  cheefe,  but 
makes  it  more  tender  alter  it  is 
thoroughly  dried.  It  alfo  pre- 
vents tiie  cracking  of  the  rind, 
which  is  a  matter  of  much  confe- 
qi>^nce.  At  the  fame  time  it 
prevents  the  diffention  of  the 
cheefe  by  wind,  makes  it  mellow 
and  fo ft  throughout,  and  improves 
the  tafte. 

But  it  is  in  vain  to  attempt  the 
making  of  good  cheefe,  unlefs 
the  rennet  be  uncorrupted,  and 
perfectly  fweet.  See  the  Article 
Rennet. 

In  this  country',  where  the 
fummers  are  hot,  and  flies  a- 
bound,  cheefes  are  otten  deftroy- 
ed,  or  greatly  damaged,  by  mag- 
gots. To  prevent  this,  every 
precaution  ougfit  to  be  taken  to 
prevent  fly  blows  getting  into  a 
ehccfe  while  it  is  making.  For 
it  is  ccrtaia  that  cheefes  will  fome- 


C  H  U 

times  prove  maggotty,  which 
could  not  have  been  fly  blown 
after  they  were  made.  To 
prevent  this  evil,  the  milking 
paih,  the  cheefe  tub,  &c.  fhould 
be  kept  in  dark  places  till  the 
moment  they  are  ufed,  after  be- 
ing dried  before  a  hot  fire.  And 
if  the  milk  ftand  any  time,  or 
more  than  during  one  night,  the 
room  it  ftands  in  fhould  be  dark : 
Becaufe  flies  are  not  apt  to  lay 
their  eggs  in  dark  places. 

After  cheefes  are  made,  they 
will  fometimes  have  little  flaws 
in  them,  or  cracks  in  dr}'ing, 
which  the  flies  will  be  fond  of 
depofiting  their  eggs  in.  To 
prevent  this,  the  cheefes  fhould 
be  fmeared  with  a  little  tar  mix- 
ed with  fait  butter :  Or  the  cracks 
may  be  filled  with  a  fott  pafte  of 
flour  as  often  as  they  appear. 

But  all  this  precaution  will  be 
apt  to  prove  infufScient,  unlefs 
the  cheefes  be  dried  in  a  dark 
room.  As  flies  do  not  frequent 
dark  places,  cheefes  dried  in  a 
dark  room  i^y  be  full  oi  cracks, 
and  yet  efcape  maggots. 

Some  perfons  choofe  to  medi- 
cate their  cheefes  with  the  juice 
of  fome  wholefome  plant,  as  fage, 
baum,  mint,  tanfy,  }>ennyroyal, 
&c.  which  they  put  into  the 
curd.  But  I  think  this  is  no  re- 
al improvement.  To  give  cheefe 
the  hue  of  that  which  is  made 
in  Glocefterfhire  in  England,  a 
little  of  the  annotto  may  be  put 
into  the  milk. 

CHICK  WEED,  the  famear 
alfine,  a  tender  creeping  weed, 
often  troublefome  in  old  gardens, 
and  which  grows  luxuriantly  in 
fhady  places.  Swine  will  teed 
upon  it  when  they  are  hungrj'. 

CHURN,  a  wooden  veffel,  in 
which  butter  is  produced  by 
churning.  It  is  broad  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  naiTOW  at  the  top,  to 
prevent  the  contents  from  com- 
ing 


C  II   I 

•■.i;  oitt  at  tlic  top  (lining  ilit  ^i^- 
naiioti.  But  the  IhajH"  docs  not 
pcrteilly  anfu'ci  this  rlcfign. 

Churns  aiccomnionly  made  of 
pine.  But  vhen  ihoy  arc  now, 
they  give  the  butter  a  tanx  ot 
the  wood  ;  f(»  th.«t  oak  is  gener- 
ally prcferied.  1  he  hoops  are 
of  afh,  and  fliould  be  made  very 
fmooth  and  regular,  that  the  vcl- 
fcl  may  be  cafiiy  cleaned  and 
kept  fwcct. 

Bin  on  great  farms,  and  where 
the  dairies  aic  large,  the  barrel 
churn  is  to  be  preferred.  Its 
name  gives  the  idea  of  its  ihapc  ; 
and  wnen  it  equals  a  barrel  in 
fi^e  it  can  be  eafily  managed. 
On  each  head  of  it  is  an  iron 
fpindle,  and  on  each  fpindle  a 
winch,  by  which  the  veHel  is 
turned  on  a  horfe  made  lor  the 
purpofe.  A  much  greater  quan- 
tity ol  cream,  or  milk,  may  be 
churned  in  this  than  in  the  com- 
mon churn  ;  and  the  labour  is 
caiier.  There  are  two  boards  with- 
in this  churn  on  each  hdc  of  tiie 
centre,  like  fhelves,  which  lerve 
to  agitate  the  cream. 

The  aperture  in  the  barrel 
rhurn  ought  to  be  five  or  fix 
inches  fquare,  to  whicha  flopper 
mull  be  exadly  Htted,  which 
mull  be  kept  in  its  place  by  a 
bar  ol  iron  acrufs  it,  held  faff  by 
ilaples. 

CHURNING,    the    mofion 

"vhich  is  given  to  cream  or  milk, 

I  a  churn,  in  order  to  feparatc 

the  butter.     In  common  churns, 

this  work  is  very  l.il)orious, though 

it  tails  to  the  lot  of  the  weaker  lex 

moll    commonly  to  perforni  it. 

But  the  li'  .be  lightened 

by   a  Ipr.  placed   over 

head,  in  tia:  Ij.'.ie  manner  as  that 

i  A  turnei's  latjie,  to  the  loofe 

'id   ol    which   the   HafT  ol    the 

Inirn   is  ucd.      This   pole    \viil 

pull    up    the    da(h   after   every 

flrokc  i  whicii,    whoa   done  bv 

>l 


C  I  D 


57 


hand,  a  the  hcavicfl  part  of  the 
work. 

CIDER  ,a  palatable  and  whole- 
fome  drink,  conlilling  of  the 
juice  of  apples.— The  juice  of 
Iweet  apples  contains  more  fpirit 
than  that  of  four  ones,  and  there- 
lore  is  ot  more  value. 

1  he  more  palatable  the  apples 
are,  other  things  being  equal,  the 
more  pleafant  will  the  cider  be, 
when  new,  which  is  made  of 
them.  But  it  is  believed  by- 
tome,  that  a  mi.xture  of  difTercnt 
forts  makes  the  bed  cider  ;  info- 
much  that  a  number  of  poor 
forts  together  will  do  better  than 
one  good  fort  by  itfelf.  But  dif- 
ferent forts,  which  are  made  to- 
gether into  cider,  thould  by  all 
means  be  nearly  of  equal  ripc- 
nefs  ;  otherwife  the  juice  will 
not  agree  in  lermeniing.  Ap- 
ples tliould  be  Ibrted  according 
to  their  different  degrees  of  mcU 
lownefs  and  ripenefs.  The  ap- 
ples which  are  firll  ripe  may  be 
ground  in  Septeinher,  the  next 
in  Ottober,  and  the  lall  in  No- 
vember. The  firfl  Ibrt  muff  be 
lor  immediate  nie,  unlcfs  it  be 
preferved  longer  by  means  of 
boiling:  The  lall  will  be  proper 
to  keep  the  longcft.  The  mod 
craljbed  apples  make  the  moft 
durable  ci<ler. 

It  feeins  to  be  the  general  o- 
pinion  ot  writers  on  tliis  fubje6f, 
that  apples  fhould  lie  and  fweat 
in  a  heap,  fomc  days,  or  weeks, 
before  they  are  ground  :  The 
chief  advantage  of  which  I  lup- 
pofe  to  he  their  becoming  fofter, 
and  more  ealy  to  be  leduced  to 
Inch  a  fincneis,  by  grinding,  that 
all  the  juice  may  be  exprelled. 
But  it  apples  when  gathered  are 
lo  ripe  as  to  Le  juft  begiiming  to 
rot,  the  thorter  time  ot  fweating 
they  have  tlie  better:  For  in  a 
large  hean  the  lotting  will  foon 
bcjjm'ai'.J  r.'.;'id!>  inercafc  ;  and 

live 


/:.8 


C  I  I> 


the  cider  made  of  apples  partly 
rotten  will  be  weak,  and  have  a 
dilagreeable  talle. 

The  management  of  cider,  af- 
ter it  is  made,  is  of  the  greateft 
importance.  It  fhould  be  flrain- 
ed  through  a  fieve,  to  feparate 
tlie  liquor  as  much  as  poflible 
from  the  palp  of  the  apples,  and 
from  dl  the  rubbilh  mixed  with 
it.  Some  flrain  it  through  fand ; 
but  this  robs  the  cider  of  its  rich- 
ell  particles.  And  the  fooner  it 
is  put  into  a  cool  cellar,  the  bet- 
ter, as  it  will  tend  to  prevent  a  too 
hady  fermentation, 'which  fhould. 
always  be  guarded  againft. 

If  a  hole  be  dug  in  the  ground, 
fo  near  to  a  cider  prefs  that  the 
cider  may  run  into  a  ftrong  cafic 
placed  in  it  ;.this  is  no  bad  meth- 
od of  preferving  cider  in  a  fweet 
ifate  ;  the  callc  may  be  bunged 
up  tightly,  and  the  hole  covered 
with  boards,  and  earth  over  them. 
The  ft^rmentation  will  be  fo  fmall 
that  the  liquor  will  be  very  fweet 
in  the  fpring  following,  as  has 
been  proved  by  experiment^.— 
But  I  am  fufpicious  of  its  ter- 
xneming  too  rapidly,  after  it  is 
tTiken  out,  unlefs  it  be  fined,  and 
then  racked  off  without  delay, 
and  after^/ards  kept  in  a  very  cooi 
cellar. 

"  An  experiment,,  fays  a  valu- 
able correfpondent,  in  the  coun- 
ty of  Suffolk,  was  made  in  the 
year  1764.  Some  iron  bound 
calks  of  cider  were  placed  in  a 
cellar  \\hich  was  always  fo  full 
of  cold  fpring  v^ter,  as  to  keep 
the  cafks  conftantly  covered,  with 
the  water  running  upon  them 
continually.  As  the  water  was 
at  all  times  equally  cold,  it  kept 
the  cider  not  only  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  air,  but  alfo  from 
all  thofe  changes  which  can  raife 
frets  and  fermentations  in  liquor. 
In  which  place  it  continued  trom 
O6lober  to  May  tbllowing.    It 


e  I  D 

I  was  then  drawn  off  into  barrels^ 
and  was  pronounced  to  be  the 
befl  of  cider,  by  very  good 
judges." 

He  adds,  "  In  this  manner  the 
famous  Faler«ian  wine,  fo  often, 
mentioned^  by  the  Latin  poet 
Horace,  was  kept,  being  funk  ia 
the  riven  Tyber,  which  wafhed 
the  walls  of  Rome." 

If  cider  were  firfl  purged  of  its 
fa?ces  by  fermentation,  racking 
and  fining,  putting  it  thus  under 
water,  I  think,  would  render  it  a. 
very  durable  liquor,  if  not  un- 
changeable till  its  removal.  And 
it  need  not  be  removed  long  be- 
fore it  is  ufed. 

Much  cider  is  fpoiled  by  its 
being  put  into  bad  cafks.  New 
ones  are  generally  the  beft.  But 
even  thefe  fhould  not  be  trufted, 
without  fcalding  them  with  water 
in  which  fome  fait  has  been 
boiled^ 

When  a  cafk  has  get  a  putrid 
t^nt  it  fliould  be  unheaded,  eve- 
ry part  of  the  infide  well  fcraped, . 
and  a  fire  made  in  it. 

To  prevent  cafks  becoming, 
foul  and  unfit  for  ufe,  they  fhould 
as  foon  as  they  are  empty  be 
wafhed  clean,  fcalded,  and  a  lit- 
tle brimflone  burnt  in  them,  and 
then  flopped  very  tight,  that  no 
air  may  enter  them. 

Some  fay  the  lees  may  be  left 
in  a  cafk,  without  any  danger  of 
giving  it  an  ill  fcent,  and  that 
for  a  long  time,  if  it  be  tightly 
flopped.  But  I  prefer  the  above, 
method. 

The  calks  in  which  cider  is 
kept  fhould  be  well  hooped. 
Old  Vr'ooden  hoops  fhould  not  be 
trulted,  unlefs  they  will  bear  a 
fmart  driving.  They  may  look 
found,  when  they  are  fo  decayed 
as  to  be  eafily  burft  afunder.  If 
a  caflc  be  muily,  by  means  of  re- 
maining too  long  empty  and  foul, 
in  the  cellar,  it  may  be  cleared  • 


C  I  D 

oT  its  muftincfs  by  burning  a  few 
matches  of  brinmonc  within  the 
bung  hole.  But  cafks,  which 
have  had  pricked  cider,  or 
vinegar,  in  them,  (hould  not  be 
ufed  any  more  for  cider.  A 
fmall  degree  of  nuiftiriefs  may 
be  cured  by  a  dccottion  of  fwcet 
fern.  It  Inould  be  poured  hot 
into  the  calk,  and  wcH  agitated, 
that  it  may  equally  affctt  every 
part  of  the  inner  furface. 

They   who   wilh   to   prc^er^'e 
their  cider  in  a  very  fwcet  and 
mild  flate,  (hould  manage  it  in 
the  following  manner  :  "  After 
ftraining,   let  it  ftand  a  day  or 
two  in  an  open  tun,  covered  on- 
ly with  a  cloth  or  boards,  to  keep 
crat  tiie  dufl,  that  the  more  grofs 
parts  may  fubfide.     Then  draw 
It  off  into  velFels,  wherein  it  k 
intended  to  be  kept,  obfervingto 
leave  an  eighth  part  of  tliem  emp- 
ty.    Set    thefe   vellels   in    your 
coldefl   cellars,   with   the   bung 
open,   or   co^'cred   only   with  a 
loofc  cover,  both  that  the  vola- 
tile fleams  may  have  fircc  vent, 
and  that  the  mull  may  be  kept 
cool  :  Otherwife  it  is  apt  to  fer- 
ment  too    much.     Having   fer- 
mented in  this  manner  for  fif- 
teen or  twenty  days,  the  velfel 
may  be  flopped  up  clofe  ;  and  in 
two  or  three  months    time,  the 
cider  will   be    fit    for  drinking. 
But  if  you  expe6l  cider  in  per- 
feHion,   fo  as  to  flower  in  the 
gl-i.^s,  it  muft  be  glued,  as  they 
call  it,  and  drawn  off  mto  bottles, 
alter  it  has  been  a  (hort  time  in 
the  cafk.     Glueing  is  done   by 
pouring  into  each   vefTel  a  pint 
of  the  infufion  of  fixty  or  fcven- 
ty  grains  of  the  moft  tranfparent 
ifiuglafs,  or  filh  glue,  imported 
from  Archangel,  in  a  little  whue 
wine   and  river   or   rain   waur, 
Itirred  well  together,  after  being 
■flrained  through  a   linen  cloth, 
\V'hcn  this  vilcous  fubftancc  js 


c  I  n 


59 


put  into  the  calk,  it  fprcads  itfclf 
[  ovei;  the  furface  like  a  net,  and 
carries  all  the  dregs  to  the  bot- 
torn  with  it."     /);,7.  of  Art j. 
I      Cider  (hould  not  be  too  often 
1  drawn  from  the   lees  ;  for  each 
'  time    it   will    lofe    r<*me  of   its 
flrength.     The   firit   r.icking,  in 
;  December,    ma^'  often   be  fufi^.- 
cient  :  If  not,  it  Ihould  be  r.ick- 
ed  again  in  March.     And  to  pre- 
vent  its   fretting  or  fermenting 
at  other   times,   care   fhotild   be 
taken  at  every  racking  to  Itum 
the   cafk  well  with   matches  of 
brimftone.     This    is    found    to 
conduce  more  to  keeping  liquors 
in  a  good  (late,  titaR  anv  thine: 
elfe. 

Te  mate  matches  for  this  pur- 
pofe,  take  flrips  of  old  canvas  or 
linen,  fix  or  leven  inches  long, 
and  nearly  as  wide  as  the  bung 
hole  ;  anfl  dip  them  half  their 
length  in  melted  brimflone. 
Burn  one  of  tlu-fe  matches  in  the 
barrel  to  be  filled,  put  in  two  or 
three  pailluls  of  the  cider,  then 
burn  aiKnher,  flop  up  the  cafk, 
and  roll  or  fhakc  it  well  for  a 
few  minutes  ;  fill  up  the  calk, 
and  bung  it  tightly  ;  for  there 
will  be  no  tlrtiigerof  airy  fermen- 
tation that  will  injure  the  cafk. 

It  new  cider  be  treated  in  thi.s 
manner  when  it  comes  from  the 
prefs,  it  wiM  not  need  racking 
till  Febniary  or  March. 

The  above  method  isdoiibtlefs 
good.  But  "I  have  found  it  an- 
jwer  well,  to  do  nothing  to  cider 
till  March,  or  the  beginning  of 
April,  except  giving  a  cafk  a 
fmall  vent  hole,  and  keeping  it 
open  till  the  hi  ft  lermentation  is 
over  ;  then  draw  it  oR"  into  good 
cafks  ;  and  then  fine  it  with 
fkimmed  milk,  eggs  broke  up 
with  the  fhelh.  or  molafTes.  A 
quart  of  molalles  will  give  a  fine 
coh^ur  to  a  barrel  of  cider,  as 
well  as  carry  all  the  lees  to  the 
bottom. 


Co 


C  I  D 


bottom.  But  left  it  (houlci  in- 
cline the  liquor  to  prick,  I  put 
in,  at  the  lame  time,  a  quart  ot 
rum  or  brandy  ;  and  it  feldom 
lails  of  keeping  well  to  the  end 
of  fummer. — But  cellars  fhould 
have  neither  doors  nor  windows 
kept  open  in  fummer,  where  ci- 
der is  kept.  And  the  calks 
Ihould  ftand  fteady,  and  never 
be  fhaken,  fo  as  to  difturb  the 
fediment. 

Thofe  who  choofe  to  boil  their 
cider,  muft  do  it  as  foon  as  it  runs 
from  the  prefs.  Some  boil  it, 
till  it  is  reduced  to  one  half. 
But  much  of  the  fineft  fpirit  e- 
vaporates  ;  and  though  it  will  be 
made  a  good  deal  flronger  by 
boiling,  it  becomes  a  harlh,  heady 
and  unpleafant  liquor. 

The  befl  method  of  reducing 
the  quantity  without  wafte,  if 
llrong  cider  be  thought defnable, 
is  by  freezing.  A  ftrong  calk, 
two  thirds  filled,  may  be  expofed 
to  the  greateft  cold  ot  December 
and  January  ;  and  then  the  fluid 
part  drawn  out  from  the  fur- 
rounding  ice.  The  liquor  will 
be  ftrong,  pleafant  and  whole- 
fome,  after  mellowing  by  age  ; 
and  be  tree  trom  that  tang  ot 
the  kettle,  which  renders  boiled 
cider  unpleafant,  and  unwholc- 
fonie. 

The  bell  way  is,  to  give  cider 
no  more  boiling  than  is  neceffa- 
ry  to  purity  it  ;  that  is,  to  boil  it 
no  longer  than  the  fcum  contin- 
ues riling  upon  it.  And  the 
fcumming  muff  be  continued  fo 
long  as  it  continues  boiling. 

Boiling  in  brafs  kettles,  even 
for  a  fhort  time,  gives  cider  a 
difagreeable  tafle,  and  renders 
it  unwholefome.  I  Ihould  pre- 
fer iron  kettles  tor  this  ufe  rather 
than  any  other,  in  full  confidence 
that  if  particles  of  iron  fliould  be 
plentitully  mixed  with  the  liquor, 
they  would  have  a  falutary  effect. 


C  I  D 

rather  than   the  contrary.     But> 
this  will  make  it  a  black  liquor. 

When  cider  is  in  danger  of 
pricking,  almoft  any  alkalious 
fubftance  will  prevent  it.  But 
fuch  fub fiances  fliould  be  ufed 
cautioufly,  either  in  a  fmall 
quantity,  or  juft  before  the  liquor 
is  ufed. 

Two  or  three  fpoonfuls  of 
ginger  in  a  cafk  ot  cider  will  cor- 
reft  its  windinefs,  and  make  it 
more  palatable.  Honey  and  fpice* 
will  mend  cider  that  is  two  vap- 
id and  flat.  But  medicating  it 
with  raifins  and  currents,  often 
occafions  cider  to  turn  four,  un- 
lefs  prevented  by  the  addition  of 
fpirit. 

CIDERKIN,  the  Englifli 
name  ot  what  we  call  water  ci- 
der. The  torementioned  cor- 
refpondent  very  judicioufly  rccr 
ommends  the  Englilh  method 
ot  making  it,  which  he  reprefents 
as  follows  :  ''  When  the  cider 
cheefe  has  been  prefTed  till  it 
will  run  no  longer,  remove  the 
pomace  into  the  trough  at  even- 
ing, ^nd  throw  a  fufRcient  quan- 
tity of  hot  water  upon  it  ;  let  it 
lie  all  night,  and  in  the  morning 
make  a  new  cheefe  ot  it,  and 
prefs  out  the  liquor."'  If  the 
pomace  was  ground  over  again, 
the  ciderkin  would  be  llronger. 
But  there  is  danger  ot  its  becom- 
ing piicked  during  this  opera- 
tion, unlefs  the  weather  is  very 
cool.  If  the  attempt  is  made  in 
a  warm  feafon,  cold  water  Ihould 
be  ufed.  And  in  any  feafon, 
though  hot  water  will  make  the 
ciderkin  the  flronger,  it  will 
have  a  bitterifh  tafle,  which  will 
not  be  agreeable  to  every  palate. 

This,  he  fays,  will  be  fit  for 
drinking  in  June  or  July,  as  free 
from  change  as  cider  commonly 
is  in  February  or  March.  But 
I  fliould  think  it  more  fafc- 
to  ufe  it  eaiiier,  left  it  fhould  be 
fpoiled 


C  I  D 

fpoileil  for  want  of  flrenjjtli  lul- 
hciciu  to  picldvc  it  ;  but  tlic 
bell  inctliod  ol  keeping  it  is  to 
bottle  it. 

But  the  bell  way  ot  niatidging 
citlerkin  is,  to  take  it  (iiiettly 
from  the  prels,  ^ive  it  a  heating, 
or  a  gentle  boil,  and  take  ofl  tlio 
fcuni.  1  his  greatly  prevents 
fermentation,  and  piepares  it  lor 
long  keeping.  From  my  own 
experience  I  can  tellily  the  ex- 
cellent quality  ot  boiietl  water 
cider,  when  it  has  been  made  in 
the  common  way  ;  efoecially 
when  it  has  been  bottled  in  the 
latter  part  ot  winter,  or  begin- 
ning of  fpring.  So  that  1  can 
give  Inll  credence  to  his  aller- 
tion,  "  That  in  the  hottcll  part 
ol  the  following  fununer,  it  will 
be  one  ot  the  pleafantcll  of 
liquors,  that  can  be  procured 
fiom  any  country  :  And  that  it 
might  make  a  very  good  export 
to  the  Well  Indies  ;  there  being 
HO  danger  of  the  burlliiig  of  the 
bottles,  as  there  is  when  cider 
has  a  lironger  body." 

When  apples  are  not  plenty  it 
is  good  economy  to  iiicreale  the 
quantity  of  good  drink,  by  the 
jnaking  of  ciderkin.  A  cliccfe  of 
middling  fi/e  will  yield  at  leal! 
one  baiTcl  ol  cideikin. 

When  cider  needs  lermenting, 
Mr.  Chapman  dirccls,  "  To  one 
hoglhead  ot  cider,  take  three 
pints  of  folid  yell,  the  mildell 
you  can  get  :  If  rough,  walh  it 
III  warm  water,  and  let  it  Hand 
till  it  is  cold.  Pour  the  water 
from  it,  and  put  it  in  a  pail  or 
can  ;  put  to  it  as  much  jalap  as 
will  lie  on  a  fix  pence,  beat  them 
well  together  with  a  whifk,  then 
apply  lome  of  tlie  cider  to  it  by 
degrees,  till  your  can  is  lull. 
Tut  it  all  into  the  cider,  and  llir 
it  well  together.  When  the  fer- 
ment comes  on,  clean  the  hung 
hole  every  luoruuig,  and  keep 


C   I   D 


61 


filling  the  veflrl  up.  The  ter- 
uient,  tor  the  fii  It  H\eor  fix  days, 
will  be  black  and  llifl  ;  let  it 
Hand  till  it  teruieiits  white,  as  it 
will  in  lourteen  or  hlieen  days  ; 
at  wliK  h  time  Hop  ilu-  leiineiit  ; 
oiheiwile  it  will  impair  iK 
Ureiigth. 

"  Jo  Hop  this  ferment  he  di- 
rects to  I aek  it  into  a  clean  calk, 
and  when  near  full  to  put  in  tluee 
pounds  «)l  coarle  red  Ivoiuitif' 
land,  and  llii  it  well  together, an«I. 
till  it  within  a  gallon.  Lci  it 
(land  five  or  fix  hours,  then  pour 
on  it  foltly  a  gallon  ot  Liiglilh 
Ipirit,  bung  it  up  dole,  but  leave 
out  the  vent  peg  a  day  or  two. 
Then  jull  put  it  in  the  hole  and 
dole  it  by  degrees.  If  the  cider 
be  llroiig,  the  longer  you  keep 
it  the  better  will  be  the  body. 
It  may  lie  in  this  flate  a  year. 
If  it  be  not  then  bright  and 
clean,  torce  it." 

The  torcing  he  recommends 
is  this  :  "  Take  a  gallon  of  i>er- 
ry  or  flale  beer  :  Put  to  it  an 
ounce  ot  ilinglafs,  and  let  it  llecp 
three  or  tour  days.  Keep  wlulk- 
ing  it.  When  it  comes  lo  a  ililT 
jelly,  beat  it  well  in  your  can 
with  a  wliilk,  and  mix  cider  with 
it  till  you  have  made  the  gallon 
lour  :  Then  put  two  pounds  of 
brick  rul)biiigs  to  it,  llir  it  with 
two  gallons  more  of  the  cider 
added,  and  apply  it  to  the  hogf- 
head.  Stir  it  well,  and  Hop  it 
clofe.  'i'hc  next  day  give  it 
vent,  and  it  willbeHneandoright. 

"  To  cure  acid  cider  he  diiects 
to  the  ufeoi  weak  alkalies,  cliaik, 
oyller  and  fcollop  Ihelis,  egg 
Ijiells  and  alaballer,  calcined. 
But  when  a  hoglhead  is  loon  to 
be  drunk,  fait  ol  tartar,  or  fait  of 
wormwood  with  milk  and  ilin- 

"  To  cure  oily  cider — one 
ounce  fait  ot  tartar,  and  two  aiul 
a  lull  ot  iwcet  <p:iit  ot  uitre  in 


62 


C  I  D 


a  gallon  of  milk — for  a   hogf- 
head. 

"  To  cure  ropy  cider^— fix 
pounds  powdered  alum,  ftirred 
in  well  ;  then  rack  the  cider, 
and  torce  it. 

"  To  cure  ill  flavoured  cider — 
ferment  it  with  yell  and  jalap — 
flop  it  after  iour  days — and  ap- 
ply a  pound  of  fweet  fpirit  of 
nitre  to  a  hogfhead. 

"  To  colourcidcr — twopounds 
of  fugar  burnt  black,  diiToIved  in 
two  quarts  of  boiling  water. 
Half  a  pint  of  this  will  colour  a 
hogihead  ;  add  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce  of  alum  to  fet  the  colour." 

To  meliorate  common  cider, 
and  render  it  as  ffrong  and  pleaf- 
ant  as  wine,  the  addition  ot  hon- 
ey, or  clarified  fugar,  with  the 
diftilled  fpirit  of  cider,  will  do 
■v\'onders  ;  making  it  equal  to 
Trench  wines.  This  is  the  more 
•^vorthy  to  be  attended  to,as  the  lees 
of  cider  and  pomace  from  which 
cider  has  been  made,  by  diflilla- 
tion  may  be  made  to  yield  a  fui- 
ficient  quantity  of  cider  brandy, 
to  make  all  our  cider  as  ftrong 
as  fome  wines.  But  if  theie 
were  not  fufficient,  cider  that  is 
too  four  for  drinking,  provided 
it  he  not  vinegar,  will  make  a 
good  brandy,  and  yield  more  fpir- 
it than  that  which  is  pleafanter. 

The  reader  may  find  particu- 
lar directions  concerning  this 
■mltter,  in  Tracls  on  pradical  Ag- 
-iculture,  by  B.  JFeJion,  Efq. 

The  method  of  a  gentleman  in 
the  county  of  ElTex,  whole  cider 
2S  become  famous  for  its  extraor- 
dinary quality,  is  as  follows  : 

"  Gather  the  apples  dry  \ 
Koufe  them  in  an  airy  apart- 
ment :  Spread  them  not  more 
than  two  feet  thick  :  It  the  weath- 
er prove  warm,  turn  them  once 
or  twice  :  If  they  begin  to  rot, 
grind  them  in  a  cool  day.  But 
%\\z  'onger  apples  are  kept  in  a 


C  L  A 

found  flatc  before  grinding,  tlie 
greater  certainty  of  having  good 
cider. — Put  the  liquor  from  the 
prefs  into  vats  containing  at  leaft 
three  or  four  barrels,  with  a  tap 
fixed  near  the  bottom.  Cover  it 
clofe,  and  let  it  remain  till  the 
firft  fermentation  is  over,  which 
is  known  by  a  white  froth  coming 
up  through  the  dark  fcum  on  the 
top.  Then  draw  off  the  liquor 
into  calks  perfectly  fweet,  and 
Hummed  with  matches  of  brim- 
Hone  :  And  put  two  gills  of  brandy 
in  each  barrel.  Stop  the  barrels 
fo  tightly  that  no  air  can  get  in. 
In  Alarch  draw  off  the  cider  a- 
gain  into  ftummed  cafks,  with 
brandy  as  before. 

"  lo  refine,  and  give  a  deep 
amber  colour,  take  the  whites  of 
fix  eggs,  with  a  handful  of  fine 
beach  fand  waflied  clean  :  Stir 
them  well  together.  Take  one 
quart  of  molalfes,  boiled  down 
to  a  candy  :  Cool  it  by  pouring 
in  cider,  and  put  this,  together 
with  the  eggs  and  fand,  into  a 
barrel  of  cuter. — When  cider  is 
thus  managed,  it  will  keep  good 
for  vears." 

CIVES,  or  CKIVES,  a  pe- 
rennial  fpecies  of  onion,  of  a  ve- 
ry fmall  fize,  feldom  growing  a 
foot  high.  The  roots  are  birt 
little  bulbous,  and  they  grow  in 
tufts.  The  way  to  make  them 
increafe  faft  is,  to  divide  the  tufts 
into  fmall  parcels. 

Another  kind  are  called  French 
cives.  Their  increafe  is  more 
rapid.  Both  kinds  are  up  early 
in  fpring,  and  are  much  ufed  in 
fallads. 

CLAY,  a  ponderous  kind  of 
earth,. confining  of  fine  particles, 
firmly  cohering  when  dr>'  ;  and 
when  wet  viicid  and  tenacious. 
It  is  of  various  colours  in  differ- 
ent countries.  But  in  this  coun- 
try it  is  moftly  either  a  dull  blue, 
or  of  the  colour  of  alhes.  In 
Novafcotia, 


C  L  A 

Kovafcotia,  the  clay  is  of  tlie 
colour  of  a  well  burnt  bric^. 

CLAY  SOIL,  land  which  con- 
fifls  almoll  wholly  of  clay,  wiih 
perhaps  a  thin  {"uilace  of  dark 
mould  over  it,  made  by  fubitances 
which  have  confunicd  upon  it. 
This  kind  of  (oil  abounds  in  the 
northtraftern  territories  ol  Maila- 
chufetts. 

Clayey  lands  are  apt  to  be  ve- 
ry barren  in  their  natural  Hate, 
unlefs  when  a  funinicr  is  fo  di- 
vided betwixt  rain  and  funlhine, 
that  they  are  kept  on  a  medium 
continually  betwixt  drought  and 
vctnefs,  which  feldom  or  never 
happens.  In  a  wet  feafon,  plants 
growing  on  luch  a  loilare  drown- 
ed, as  the  clolcnefs  of  the  clay 
will  not  fuflfer  the  water  to  foak 
into  the  ground  :  And  in  a  dry 
feafon,  the  groiuid  becomes  fo 
folid  that  the  roots  ol  plants  can- 
not penetrate  it,  fome  few  ftrong 
feeders  excepted. 

This  kind  ol  earth,  however, 
is  thought  to  contain  more  of  the 
food  of  olants  than  almoil  any 
other.  But  fomeiliing  needs  to 
be  done  to  bring  it  into  action. 
The  European  tarmers  think 
their  clay  foils  the  richeft,  and 
moil  valuable  ot  their  land.  But 
many  ol  our  farmers  defpife 
them,  for  want  of  knowing  what 
methods  to  take  to  render  them 

{►rofitablc  i  or  through  fear  of  liie 
abour,  or  expenfc,  of  doing  it. 
Some  of  tiiefe  loils,  without 
much  alteration,  will  bear  good 
crops  of  grafs,  il  care  only  be 
taken  not  to  feed  them  clofe  in 
autumn,  nor  to  let  cattlein  upon- 
them  in  the  fnring.  But  the 
farmer,  who  wiUicsto  keep  them 
in  tillage,  mull  alter  them  by 
the  admixture  of  fuch  fubftances 
as  may  ferve  to  open  the  foil, 
and  break  the  cohelion  of  its  par- 
ticles. When  this  is  once  ac- 
compliibcJ,  the  Und  will  become 


C  L  A 


^3 


hfghly  valuable  ;  holding  th» 
manure  to  admiration,  and  never 
returning  to  its  prifline  Itatc. 

Dung  IS  helpful  towards  open- 
ing a  clayey  foil,  by  the  ferment- 
ation it  raifes,  as  well  as  by  the 
mixture  of  its  earthy,  faline  and 
oily  particK'S.  But  dtTng  of  it- 
lelf  will  not  be  fufhcieni,  unlefs 
it  were  laid  on  more  plentifully 
than  farmers  can  well  afford.  A 
mixture  ot  dung  and  fand  is 
found  to  be  a  much  better  drelT- 
ing  for  this  fort  of  land,  than 
dnn^  alone.  And  if  fand  be  not 
too  far  diftant,  it  would  be  advif- 
able  to  put  on  a  layer  of  it  two 
or  three  inches  thick.  Beach 
fand  is  preferable  to  any  other, 
as  the  fahnefs  of  it  will  help  to 
make  the  groimd  fruitful.  But 
pit  fand  will  do  very  well  ;  or 
rather,  that  which  has  been  wafh- 
ed  down  to  low  places  in  the 
roads. 

In  places  where  fand  is  not  to 
be  had,  the  ground  may  be  loof- 
ened  with  other  fubftanccs.  Grav- 
el, or  light  loam,  from  neighbour- 
ing fpots,.may  be  carted  upon  it ; 
dud  from  faw  pits,  chips  and  rub- 
bilh  from  the  liack  yards  of  houfes, 
ftraw  and  Itubble,  fwamp  mud, 
the  bark  ot  trees  and  rotten  wood, 
or  burnt  clay.  I  have  known  a 
clayey  fpot  made  very  fruitful, 
merely  by  the  remains  of  a  rot- 
ten log  fence,  when  mixed  witli 
the  foil. 

When  a  clay  foil  is  fanded,or 
any  other  thing  laid  on  to  open 
it,  it  will  take  fcveral  plouglungs 
and  hariowiiigs  to  mix  it,  fo  as- 
to  bring  the  land  to  a  good  con- 
firtence.  As  the  exnenfe  of 
mixing  it  at  once  would  be  too 
great,  it  is  better  to  ufe  it  for  two 
or  three  years  iifter,  tor  the  grow- 
ing of  fuch  tillage  crops  as  arc 
moll  fui table  to  a  c  layey  foil,  fuch 
as  bailey,  flax,  ike.  The  foil 
will  gro^v  batCT  vear  after  vear, 

■  till 


Ci 


C  L  A 


till  the  fand,  &c.  is  thoroughly 
mixed  with  the  foil  ;  after  which 
it  will  be  fruitful  forever  without 
large  drefhngs.  Hoed  crops  will 
mix  it  fooner  than  any  other 
method,  and  without  any  expenfe. 

A  fmall  (juantity  of  dung,  each 
year  that  it  bears  a  hoed,  or  a 
greencrop,  will  be  proper  :  And 
the  moft  fuitable  dungs  are  thofe 
of  horfes  and  flieep,  pigeons  and 
other  fowls,  which  by  their  heat 
will  correft  the  natural  coldnefs 
of  the  foil. — Folding  with  fheep 
has  an  excellent  effeft  on  this 
kind  of  land. 

Such  a  ftifF  foil  is  alfo  mend- 
ed by  frequent  ploughings.  The 
Europeans  allow  three  plough- 
ings previous  to  feeding,  to  be 
enough  for  a  free  foil  ;  but  to  a 
clayey  foil  they  give  four  or  five. 
The  oftener  it  is  ftirred  with  the 
plough,  the  more  the  cohefion 
of  the  particles  is  broken,  and 
the  more  eafily  the  roots  oi  plants 
can  penetrate  it  in  fearch  ior 
their  food.  But  it  never  fhould 
be  ploughed  when  it  is  fo  wet  as 
to  potch  with  the  feet  of  the  cat- 
tle, or  to  run  like  mortar.  In 
this  condition,  the  more  it  is 
worked  the  ftiffer  it  will  become. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  it  is 
very  dry,  it  cannot  well  be 
ploughed,  by  reafon  of  its  hard- 
nefs.  Suitable  feafons  fhould 
be  embraced,  for  ploughing  it, 
•when  it  is  neither  too  wet  nor 
too  dry.  At  the  firft  ploughing 
it  comes  up  in  large  clods  ;  but 
the  oftener  it  is  ploughed  in  fit 
times,  the  fmaller  the  clods  will 
be,  and  the  more  fine  mould  will 
be  among  them. 

Expofing  the  clods  to  the  fun 
and  air  has  fome  tendency  to 
mellow  the  foil  :  But  a  winter 
furrov/  is  of  very  great  advantage. 
The  frofl:  does  much  towards 
breaking  the  cohefion,  as  I  have 
found  by  experience. 


CLE 

Clay  foils,  after  all  the  melio" 
ration  that  can  be  given  them, 
will  be  more  fuitable  for  fome 
plants  than  for  others.  Thofe 
plants  in  general  which  require 
a  great  degree  of  heat,  or  a  long 
fummer,  are  not  fo  well  adapted 
to  be  cultivated  in  a  clayey  foil, 
fuch  as  Indian  corn,  tobacco, 
&c.  But  it  may  be  made  to 
produce  good  crops  of  wheat, 
grafs,  barley,  oats,  flax,  cabbage, 
&c.  No  good  eating  potatoes  or 
carrots  are  ever  produced  in  fuch 
a  foil. 

Fruit  trees,  in  general,  and  I 
think  all  forts,  excepting  pear 
trees,  anfwer  but  poorly  in  a  clay- 
ey foil,  how  much  foever  the 
furface  may  have  been  mixt  with 
other  fubflances.  The  roots  of 
trees  will  need  to  draw  fome  of 
their  nourifhment  from  a  part  of 
the  foil  below  that  which  has 
been  meliorated  by  mixing  ;  but 
the  compaftnefs  of  it  will  fcarce- 
ly  fuffer  them  to  penetrate  it. 

Fallowing  and  green  dreUing 
may  help  to  pulverize  a  clay  foil ; 
and  fowing  it  frequently  with 
peafe  is  recommended.  Any 
crop  that  forms  a  clofe  cover  for 
the  furiace  caufes  the  foil  to  pu- 
trefy, breaks  the  cohefion  of  its 
particles,  and  prevents  the  ground 
from  hardening  by  the  influence 
of  the  fun. 

If  a  clay  foil  lie  fo  flat  that 
water  flands  on  it  fome  part  of 
the  year,  it  cannot  be  brought  to  a 
good  con fiflence  without  plough- 
ing in  ridges,  and  water  furrow- 
ing. The  ridges  may  be  wider 
or  narrower,  according  to  the 
degree  of  wetnefs  to  which  it  i?? 
fubjett.  Sometimes  deep  drains 
will  be  neceffary  to  give  it  the 
needful  degree  of  drynefs. 

CLEAflING  of  LAND,  an 
operation  often  neceffary  to  be 
performed  in  this  new  country, 
eljpeciuUy    in  the    molt  inland 

parts. 


CLE 

parts.  Lands  which  were  before 
ill  a  Date  ot  nature,  are  laid  tube 
cleared,  when  they  are  l\)  treetl 
from  their  natural  jjrowth,  as  to 
become  fit  tor  tillage,  mowing, 
Or  pallure. 

In  thole  part<  ot  the  country 
where  wood  is  t)t  little  or  no  val- 
ue, the  method  ot  clearing  up- 
land  is  as   tollow.s  : — The  trees 
arc  tolled  in  one  of  tlie  (lUTinier 
months  ;  the  earlier  in  tummer 
the  l>etter,  as  thef  will   have  a 
longer  time  to  dry,  and  as  the 
iliunj>s  will  be  lefs  apt  to  fprout. 
'I'tje  trees  he  till  the  tol lowing 
fpring  ;  when  the   limbs  which 
do  not  lie  very  near  to  the  ground 
lhi)uld  be  chopped  off,  that  they 
may  burn  the  better.     Fire  mull 
be  put  to  them  in  the  d\\vi\  part 
of  the  month  of  May  ;  or  if  the 
whole  ot  May  prove  wet,  it  may 
be  done  to  advantage  in  the  be- 
;;inning    of    June.      Only    the 
bodies  of  the  trees  will  remain 
after  burning,  and  fomc  of  them 
Will  be  burnt  to  pieces.     Then 
they  are  to  be  cut  into  pieces  near-  < 
ly  of  one  length,  drawn  togeth-  j 
rr  by  oxen,  piled  in  chde  heaps,  I 
jiw\  burnt  ;  only  referving  fuit- 
able  trees,  whicli  will  be  needed  i 
for  the  fencing.     The  heating  ot  , 
the    foil   fo   deftroys   the   green  | 
rt)ots  ;  and  the  allies,  made  by 
burning,  are  (o  beneficial  a  ma- 
nure to  the  land,  that  it  will  pro-  ' 
duce  a  good  crop  ot  Indian  corn, 
or  wheat,  the  fame  year,  with.out'. 

i)loughing,  hocing,  oV  manuring.  ' 
ndJan  corn  is  mofl  ci)mn)onIy  i 
liie  fii  ft  crop  ;  and  it  will  bear  a 
good  crop  of  winter  rye  the  fec- 
und  year,   it    the   feeU   be   only  ■ 
hacked  in  with  hoes  iii  Septem- 
ber, bofoie   the   Indian   corn   is  i 
harveltcd.     After  which,  if  grafs  j 
fee. Is  be  thn)wn  in  with  the  rye,  | 
the  lujid  will  be  fit  for  pTlliirage,  ; 
it    not   lor   movving.    The   few  , 
Iprouts  wluch  Ipiiii^  up  from  the  r 

I 


C  L  t  65 

flumps  in  tl;e  firfl  fummcr,  fliould 
be  pulled  tdi.  and  the  ground  is 
quite  fululued.  But  if  wheat  or 
rye  be  the  firfl  crop,  the  groimd 
mufl  be  well  harrowed  ;  once 
betoic  fowing,  and  once  after. 
And  it  often  happens  that  the 
firtt  and  fecond  crops  pay  the 
farmer  wt-II  for  all  the  labour  of 
clearing  and  tenting.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  fometimfcs  the  firfl  crop 
will  do  it. 

The  invention  of  tliis  kind  of 
culture  has  been  of  edcntial  ad- 
vantage to  the  poorer  fort  of 
people  :  And  it  has  been  condu- 
cive to  bringing  forward  rapid 
fettlements  in  our  new  towns 
and  plantations.  A  farm  may- 
be thus  begun  in  the  wildcrne/s 
with  little  or  no  flock. 

But  thofc  pcrfons  who  are  a- 
ble  to  do  it  had  better  ploug+i 
and  harrow  their  ground  after 
burning,  before  they  feed  it. 
The  alhes  will  thus  be  well  mix- 
ed with  the  foil  ;  and  the  land 
has  always  been  found  to  retain 
its  fertility  the  longer,  when  fa 
manag-ed. 

If  new  land  lie  in  fuch  a  fitu- 
ation,  that  the  natural  growth 
may  turn  to  better  account, 
whether  tor  timber  or  fire  wood, 
fencing  or  charcoal,  it  will  be  an 
unpardonable  walte  to  burn  the 
wood  on  the  ground.  But  if  the 
trees  be  taken  off,  the  land  muft 
be  ploughed  alter  clearing,  or 
it  will  not  produce  a  cropot  any 
kind.  And  fonie  warm  kind  of 
manure  will  be  needful,  if  Indian 
corn  is  planted  on  it.  This  is 
the  cafe  at  Icall  in  the  moft  north- 
erly parts  ot  N'ewcngldnd.  Buc 
rye  will  anfwcr  extremely  well 
withottt  manure. 

When  new  lands  arc  deftitute 
of  trees,  and  co-  cred  with  oaL 
fhrul)s,  the  clearing  is  more  ex- 
pcnfive,  and  the  lirfl  crops  not 
lb  proiiiuble.  Bui  fuch  Iaitd» 
flioukl 


66 


e  L  I 


fliould  not  remain  urirabdiicd,  as, 
ifl  their  prcfent  flate,  they  are 
^uite  unprofitable,  and  a  nui- 
lance.  The  bufhes  (hould  be 
cut  M-ith  ftub  fithes  or  axes,  pil- 
ed in  heaps,  and  btu-nr.  After 
\)iiiich  the  roots  ir.ay  be  fubdued 
by  goats  ;  or  ploughed  up  with 
a  flrong  team,  the  plough  being 
proportionably  llrong.  Someol 
ihofe  rpots  will  require  a  team 
oi  50  oxen  to  plough  them.  Af- 
ter ploughing,  the  roots  muft  be 
ukcn  out  with  a  flrong  narrow 
iioe,  wi*h  a  good  Iharp  edge. 

Other  methods  muft  be  uken 
for  fubduing  low  fwampy  lands. 
See  the  articles  Bog,  £i(/fu~s. 
Draining. 

CLIMATE,  a  word  ufed  by 
Geographers,  to  denote  a  fpace 
on  the  earth  contamed  between 
two  parallels  oi  latitude,  fo  far 
riiftant  from  the  next  climate, 
mat  the  length  of  the  longeil  dar 
in  one,  difiers  hali  an  hour  irom 
that  in  the  other.  But  the  Avord 
is  often  ufed  lefs  accurately,  10 
iignify  a  region,  or  large  tratt  of 
land,  or  a  diftincl  country. 

A  farmer  muft  pay  due  atten- 
tion to  the  climate,  in  which  he 
is  fituated,  or  he  will  not  carry 
on  agricuhure  to  advantage*  He 
muft  govern  all  his  fchemes  of 
management  by  the  peculiarities 
of  the  climate  :  Becaufe  that 
which  proves  fuccefsiol'  in  one, 
will  not  do  fo  in  another. 

•'  The  climate,"  fays  Mr.Dick- 
fon,  '■  determines  the  times  of 
ploughing  and  fowing  ;  it  di- 
rects our  choice  in  tiie  kind  of 
plants  to  be  cultivated  ;  it  regu- 
lates the  whole  economy  of  the 
iarra,  and  informs  the  hufljand- 
mai:s  ho>v-  to  appoint  the  order  oi 
the  different  kinds  of  labour  nec- 
elfary,  fo  as  he  may  be  always 
-.ifetully  employed.  Nothing  has 
more  effeftoally  retaided  the 
progrefs  of  agriculture,  thaii  the 


C  L  O 

,  attempts  that  have  been  made  tcr 
I  introduce  general  fchemes,  with- 
j  out  any  regard  to  the  climate. 
j  A  lover  of  agriculture,  captivat- 
ed with  a  fcheme  of  huft)andry- 
I  which  he  has  obfcrved  in  Flan- 
ders, or  in  fome  of  the  foutliem 
counties    of    England,   without 
anr  proper  preparation,  attempts 
to  pu:  this  Icheme  in  practice  in 
one  ct  the  fhires  of  ScotJaiid,  not- 
withftanding  trie  great  difference 
ot  climate.     This  attempt  proves 
unfuccefsful,  as  it  is  natural  to* 
expeft.  where  circumftances  are 
(o  different.    No   perfon   is  few 
foolifii   as   to   fuppofe,   that  all 
kinds  of  plants  can  be  cultis'ated 
with  equal  fuccefs  in  all  climates : 
It  is  even  %-aia  to  imagine  that 
they  can  be  cultivated  with  e- 
qual  fuccefs  in  all  parts  ©f  this 
ifland.  or   in  all  places  in   the 
fame  latitude.    A  very  fmall  dif- 
tance   fometimes   makes  a  ver>^ 
great  difference  in   climate,   in 
the   degrees   oi  heat   and    cold, 
and  in  the  quantity  of  rain  that 
falls.'^ 

CLOG,  a  wooden  inftrument, 
fafiened  to  the  neck  or  leg  of  a 
beaft,  to  prevent  his  leaping  over, 
or  breaking  fences.  The  beft 
clog  for  the  fetlock  of  a  horfe,  is 
made  oi  one  piece  of  tough  wood 
bent  over  at  one  end.  Into  a 
notch,  near  this  end.  a  leathern 
llrap,  nailed  to  the  long  pan  of 
the  clog,  is  fdpped  over  the  end. 
It  may  be  put  on,  or  taken  off, 
ia  an  inftant. 

CLOVER,  Trtfohum  pra. 
itn/t,  a  fpecies  of  trefoil,  efteem- 
ed  as  an  excellent  grafs  for  the 
ieeding  of  cattle,  both  green  and 
dried.  The  hay  made  of  clover 
is  more  fuitable  for  horfes  than 
any  other  that  this  countni'  af- 
fords. Hcrfcs  kept  on  it  will 
fatten,  even  in  the  moft  unfa- 
vovirable  feafon  of  the  year.  It 
anAv^ers  well  ^vhea  ufed  as  foil- 


c  t  o 

ing,  or  eaten  out  of  racks  with- 
out drying. 

Green  clover  i?  known  to  be 
^ooH  tecdmg  tor  Iwlne.  -Keep- 
ing them  in  pafturcs,  where  there 
IS  plenty  oi  tliis  gr'.r-,  will  make 
them  grow  faft,  and  latten  (o  as 
toalmoU  become  Ht  for  the  kriitc. 
But  when  they  go  in  paftures 
they  ihculd  have  rings  m  their 
nofes.  Otherwife  they  will  root 
out  the  clover. 

Red  and  white  clover  arc  the 
only  forts  known  and  eftcemed 
in  this  country  ;  as  to  the  wild 
fort,  or  \'ariety,  wii!\  a  rough 
leaf,  it  is  of  no  confequcnce.  It  k 
the  red  clover  that  is  ot  moll  im- 
portance for  mowing.  The  white 
IS  generally  too  fmall  and  fliort, 
anlefs  when  it  is  drawn  to  a 
greater  height  by  being  mixed 
with  other  gralfes. 

Many  farmers,  in  (lead  of  Tow- 
ing ch'an  feed  of  clover,  content 
themfelves  with  fowing  chaff  and 
duft  from  the  floors  of  their  barns. 
This  is  a  flovenly  and  uncertain 
method,  oftentimes  attended  with 
.great  lofs.  Fowls  are  ufually  ad- 
mitted into  barns  ;  and  when 
this  is  the  cafe,  none  can  tell 
how  much,  or  how  little  of  the 
hay  feed  remains  among  the dufi: 
So  that  the  farmer  who  fows  it, 
may  either  over  feed  his  land  ; 
or,  which  is  a  more  common 
cafe,  not  feed  it  half  enough.  A 
confequence  of  which  laft  will 
be,  that  he  will  have  no  good  crop 
of  hay  from  his  fowmjj.  He 
muii  either  plough  up  his  land 
again,  for  the  mere  purpofc  of 
feeding  it  with  grafs,  or  lot  it  lie 
ufelefs   till   the   grafs   gradually 

Sets  in  ;  either  oi  which  expe- 
ients  will  be  attended  wirli  in- 
convenience and  lofs.— 1  am  a- 
n-are  that  farmrrs,  efpeciaily 
thofe  in  the  ivdthcrn  parts  (»♦ 
Newengland,  wiii  . 
grafs  do  not  gn  i-::^ 


C  L  Cf 


"V 


it  will  the  fecond.  But  tliey 
(hould  confidcr  that  the  lofs  ot 
the  fiifl  year's  crop  is  confidcra- 
ble.  Not  only  lo,  but  it  is  loi-' 
ing  the  beft  crop  that  is  to"  bt* 
expected  from  a  clover  lay  ;  and 
the  land  will  become  bound  and 
weedy,  before  u  is  filiod  with 
grals  roots  ;  f.>  that  uo  Iw^c  crop 
will  be  had  tioiii  it  aftvrwardis, 
nor  any  clean  or  unnii.\cd  crop, 
from  which  it  wiil  anlwer  to 
take  clean  feed. 

The  quantity  of  ciovcr  feel 
proper  for  an  acre  is  about  tell 
pounds,  or  fome  fay  Ids.  The 
price  of  a  pound  is  from  eight 
pence  to  oiu*  fhillinj^.  1  lie*  coif 
of  the  feed  need  not  terrify  a 
fanner  ;  bcc.ui.'i-  !'.c  will  bemortt 
than  paid  doubJe  lor  the  feed,  by 
the  advantage  the  firft  ycar'^ 
crop  will  rccei^-c  from  a  good 
feeding  of  the  ground. 

It  is  no  fmall  recommenflation 
of  this  giaf:".,  that  it  is  adapted  to 
a  foil,  that  is  fuitablc  for  Karce- 
ly  any  other  graifos,  -whic!!  arc 
cultivated  in  tiiis  country' ;  to  a 
foil  that  is  dry,  light  and  L.ndy. 
It  does  well  a  Ho  oi\  gravel  and 
loam.  A  v.ct  fori  is  not  good 
for  this  grafs,  efpeciaily  if  watei 
and  ice  apiM!jr  }>n  it  in  the*  win- 
ter, or  fpnng.  In  rr-fecfflrought, 
it  is  lucky  for  fai-mers  to  have 
fome  of  their  mowing  lands  in 
this  grafs  :  It  bears  drought  bet- 
ter than  molt  other  gratfes,  a'; 
might  be  cxpeclcd  for  two  rea- 
fons— becaule  it  is  fo  early  as  t«* 
be  grown  up  to  maturity,  beforr 
the  hotteft  part  of  funimer,  when 
tlic  fevereft  dfoiight<;  molf  com- 
monly happ^-n  ;  and  becaule  the 
plants,  being  tap  rooted,  draw 
great  pan  of  tluir  nourilhmcnt 
from  a  depth,  where  the  foil  is 
not  much  affctfed  with  an  early 
drought. 

I    !'■''•  V  ■  -'riicnd 

..  ...    .  .    .,        V  r  tlie 

grau". 


68 


C  L  O 


grain  is  up.  and  harro'.ving  it  in  ; 
and  they  tell  us  the  harrowing 
will  not  damage  the  corn,  but 
rather  be  a  fer^'ice  to  it,  when  it  is 
eitherfpringorwintergrain.  That 
it  fhould  be  fowed  in  the  fpring 
is  granted,  unlefs  it  be  in  coun- 
tries where  there  are  no  fevere 
winter  frofts.  The  young  plants, 
■which  come  up  in  the  tall,  can- 
not bear  the  froft  fo  well  as  tbofe 
which  have  had  a  whole  fummer 
to  bring  them  on  towards  matUT 
lily.  Their  reafon  for  not  fow- 
ing  it  at  the  fa-ne  time  as  the 
grain  it  grows  with,  is  an  appre- 
hended danger  ot  its  growing  fo 
fall  as  to  obitrucrt  the  growth  of 
the  gram.  But  I  have  never 
found  this  to  be  the  cafe  in  tact. 

Mr.  tliot  recommends  a  dif- 
ferent method,  which  is  plough- 
ing in  the  feed  ;  which,  he  thinks, 
and  not  without  reafon,  will 
caufe  it  to  bear  drought  the  bet- 
tf^r,  and  become  the  more  ftrong- 
ly  rooted.  I  believe  I  may  add, 
that  it  will  be  more  likely  to  ef- 
cape  in  the  hbih  of  winter,  which 
are  fo  intenfe  in  this  country,  as 
tiften  to  kili  almoU  whole  fields 
o{  clover. 

Peat  alhes  are  faid  to  be  a  ve- 
ry proper  drelFing  for  clover 
grounds. — But  this  grafs  anfwers 
lo  well  in  this  country  without 
rnanure,  that  the  farmers  choofe 
to  fet  apart  the  whole  oi  the  ma- 
nure that  they  can  get  for  other 
purpofes. 

Some  think  clover  is  {o  far 
from  needing  any  manure,  that 
it  will  recruit  lands  which  are 
worn  out.  That  it  will  do  it 
more  than  other  graffes  I  cannot 
yet  fee  any  reafon  to  believe.  It 
will  bear  no  crop  worth  mowing, 
on  lands  which  are  quite  exhaust- 
ed. But  it  is  probable  it  may 
produce  good  crops,  on  lands 
\vhich  are  much  impoverilhed 
pear    the    furface,    by    bearing 


C    L   O 

pJants  with  fhort,  fibrou';,  cr  hor* 
izontal  roots  ;  becaufe  clover 
fends  its  main  roots  to  a  great 
depth.  And  while  a  field  lies 
feveral  years  in  clover,  the  foil 
near  tlie  furface  may  be  confider- 
ably  recruited.  But  whether 
the  land  on  the  whole  will  be  in 
better  heart,  ziutr  feveral  heavy 
crops  of  clover  are  taken  from 
it,  and  no  manure  laid  on,  feems 
rather  doubtful. 

Writers  on  agriculture  feem, 
however,  to  be  agreed,  that  a  clo, 
ver  lay  is  proper  for  the  culture 
of  wlieat.  The  rotting  of  its 
large  roots  and  flalks  may  an-r 
fwer  as  a  good  manure,  no  ways 
adapted  to  diftemper  the  wheat, 
as  fome  other  manures  are  thought 
to  be. 

Some  fKilful  farmers  infifl 
much  on  the  propriety  of  fow- 
ing  clover  feed  with  barley.  I 
fu'ppofe  it  will  anfwer  well  with 
!  ajmoff  any  grain  that  we  call  En- 
gl ifh.  But  with  a  crop  of  peafe, 
or  with  any  other  crop  that  forms 
a  clofe  (hade  to  the  foil,  it  will 
not  anfwer.  Tlie  young  plants 
muft  have  fome  advantage  of  the 
iun  and  air,  or  they  will  not  live. 
And  if  it  be  fown  with  flax,  at 
leaft  in  foroe  loofe  foils,  the  pull- 
ing ot  the  flax  will  be  apt  to  e- 
radicate  much  of  the  clover. — 
Crops  which  lodge  are  alfo  de- 
ll ructive  to  the  young  clover,  by 
forrning  fo  clofe  a  cover  as  to 
ftifle  it.  Therefore,  when  clo- 
ver {ced  is  fown,  either  with 
barley  or  flax,  the  ground  fhouid 
be  rather  under  than  over  feeded, 
to  prevent  lodging. 

Clover  being  an  early  grafi,  it 
is  commonly  fit  to  cut  in  June. 
When  halt  the  heads  are  turned 
from  red  to  brown,  and  on  the 
decay,  it  is-  the  right  time  to 
mow  it.  But  if  the  {^ed  is  to  be 
faved  for  ufe.  it  mufl  fland  till  it 
is  all  ^ead  ripe,  both  heads  and 

l>9lks. 


C  L-  O 

fia;k.<;.  It  rcquiirs  more  care  to 
m.ikc  clover  into  buy  than  tnofl 
otIicT  j?r^lles.  'LUai  which  is 
mowcfl  in  a  rKornmg  ihould  he 
(ipreaH.  turnefl.  and  T\krd  uy  be- 
fore night.  1  he  next  day,  it  the 
weather  he  fair,  it  niuft  be  open- 
ed, ftirred  once  or  twice,  and 
rocked  up  aj^ain.  Then,  after 
IweatinR  a  day  or  two,  it  may  b<» 
put  into  the  barn.  K^nk.  clover 
requirc>  much  more  diym;;  than 
that  which  is  <»f  a  moderate 
growth.  And  tl»e  hay  is  not  fo 
good. 

In  tlie  nioft  fouthcrly  parts  of 
Newengland,  land  in  ^ood  heart 
will  bear  two  creeps  of  clover  in 
a  year.  Mr.  tliot,  therefore,  rec- 
ommends lavinc;  the  iecond  crop 
for  feed,  the  nrff  crop  having 
been  mowed  early.  But  two 
crops  are  not  to  be  obtained  in 
the  northern  pans  of  this  coun- 
try.  And,  it  they  were,  fo  fre- 
quent a  cutting  would  be  apt  to 
make  the  roots  Ihortcr  lived.  It 
is  advifable  to  pafture  it  in  May, 
and  then  let  it  grow  for  feed.  It 
is  bed  to  cut  clover  for  feed 
on  land  that  is  foon  to  be  broken 
up  :  Becaufe  a  crop  of  Cced 
weakens  the  roots  much  more 
than  a  crop  of  hay  ;  and  it  is 
doubtful  whether  it  will  f)ear 
any  confiderable  crop  aitenvards. 
Indeed,  no  crop  of  clover  is  of 
an^  RTeat  importance  ft>r  hay, 
after  the  ferond  year.  For  it  is 
a  biennial  plant. 

The  white  clover,  vuij;jriy 
called  honeyfuckle,  is  an  excel- 
lent grafs,  and  fcems  ver>'  natur- 
al to  this  country  :  But  when 
fown  by  itfelf,  it  does  not  grow 
tall  enough  for  mowing.  It  is 
good  i(ir  feeding  in  paflures. 
during  the  lore  part  of  fummer, 
at  which  time  it  often  appears  m 
;;reat  plenty. 

The  hop  clover  is  new  in  rliis 
country,  but  fcems  to  appear  not 


COL 


6) 


very  promifing.  It  is  faid  to 
flourifh  on  tise  nioft  barren  fands, 
and  continue  long  in  any  foil. 
It  is  of  two .  kinds,  large  and 
iniail,  and  the  heads  are  yellow. 
1  once  fowed  a  fmall  bed  of  iu 
It  did  not  profper,  being  almofl 
wholly  deftroycd  by  the  follow- 
ing winter. 

1  he  l'.urope;<n  farmers  arr 
cautious  ot  turning  neat  cattle  in 
to  feed  m  a  field  of  lii>jiri-int 
giren  clover,  for  fear  of  their  he- 
ing  Jicvfri  with  it.  as  it  is  called, 
or  i'o  fwelled  by  eating  it  greedi- 
ly, as  to  be  kiU:?d  by  it.  But 
this  is  an  inconvenience,  which  I 
have  never  known  to  take  place 
in  this  country'.  1  he  way  to 
fave  the  lite  of  hoven  bcalfs,  is, 
to  flab  them  between  the  hip  and 
the  Ihort  ribs,  where  the  {welling 
nfcs  highell.  It  is  performed 
with  a  narrow,  (harp  pointed 
knife,  which  makes  an  orifice  in 
the  maw,  and  lets  out  the  air  that 
oppreffes.  7  he  wound  foon  heals 
ot  itfell. 

COLE  SEED,  Brajua  Rnpr. 
"  This  plant,  which  is  generally 
known  by  the  title  of  rape,  or 
cole  feed,  is  much  cultivated  in 
the  iflc  of  Ely,  and  fome  other 
parts  of  England,  for  its  feed, 
from  which  the  rape  oil  is  drawn; 
and  it  hath  been  alii)  cultivated 
of  late  years,  in  other  places,  for 
feeding  of  cattle,  to  great  advan- 
tage. 

"The cole  feed,  when  cultivat- 
ed for  feeding  of  cattle,  fliould  be 
fown  about  the  middle  of  Jui]e. 
I  he  ground  Ihould  be  prepared 
for  it  in  the  fame  manner  as  for 
turnips.  The  quantity  of  feeds 
for  an  acre  of  land  is  from  fix  to 
ciglit  pouutlt,  and  as  the  pri  :e  of 
feed  is  not  great,  it  is  better  to 
allow  eight  pcninds  ;  for  if  he 
plants  are  t<»<>  dole  in  any  part, 
they  may  becafily  thinned,  when 
tiic  ground  is  hoed  ;  which  mull 

bo 


yO 


COL 


be  performed  in  the  lame  naan- 
iier  as  is  praftifed  tor  turnips, 
with  this  difference  only,  oi 
leaving  thefe  much  nearer  to- 
gether ;  for  as  they  have  fibrous 
roots  and  flender  llalks,  fo  they 
do  not  require  near  fo  much 
room.  Thefe  plants  fiiouJd  have 
a  fecond  hoeing,  about  five  or 
lix  weeks  after  the  firft,  which, 
it  well  performed  in  dry  weath- 
er, will  entirely  defiroy  the 
weeds,  fo  that  they  will  require 
1:0  farther  culture. 

"  Where  there  is  not  an  im- 
mediate want  cf  food,  thefe 
plants  had  better  be  kept  as  a 
referve  for  hard  weather,  or 
fpring  feed,  when  there  may  be 
a  fcarcity  of  other  green  iood. 
If  the  heads  are  cut  off,  arKi  die 
llalks  left  in  the  ground,  they 
will  Ihoot  again  early  in  the 
jpring,  and  produce  a  good  fec- 
ond  crop  in  April,  whidi  may 
be  either  fed  off,  or  permitted  to 
run  to  feeds,  as  is  the  pra6lice 
where  this  is  cultivated  tor  the 
feeds  :  But  if  the  firll  is  fed 
down,  there  ihoiild  be  care  taken 
that  the  cattle  do  not  dellroy  the 
ilems,  or  pull  them  out  ot  the 
ground.  As  this  plant  is  fo  hardy 
as  not  to  be  deftroyed  by  froft, 
£0  it  is  of  great  fervice  in  hard 
winters  for  feeding  of  ev/es  ;  for 
\vhen  the  ground  is  fo  hard  fro- 
zcn  as  that  turnips  cannot  be 
taken  up,  thefe  plants  may  be 
cut  off.  for  a  conflant  fupply. 
This  v,ill  affoid  late  tood  after 
the  turnips  are  run  to  teed  ;  and 
if  tt  is  afterwards  permitted  to 
iland  for  feed,  one  acre  will  pro- 
duce as  much  as.  at  a  moderate 
computation,  will  fell  tor  fiv<e 
pounds  clear  of  charges."  Gar- 
dener's  Didionary. 

The  Rev.  Mr.  Eliot,  who 
made  fome  trial  of  this  plant,  is 
doubttul  whether  it  svil!  anf'.ver 
for  winter  feeding  in  this  coun- 


C  O  M 

try,  becaufe  of  the  feverity  of 
our  frofls.  But  the  above  authoi 
adds — "  The  curled  colewort,  or 
Siberian  borecole,  is  now  more 
generally  efleemed  than  the  for- 
mer, being  extreme  hardy,  fo  it  is 
never  injured  by  cold,  but  is  al- 
ways fwceter  in  fevere  winters, 
than  in  mild  feafoRS." — A  gen- 
tleman informs  me,  that,  in  Bof- 
ton,  Newengland,  he  has  made 
trial  ot  this  plant,  and  found  that 
the  winter  did  not  injure  it.  It 
is  fit  for  the  table  from  Decem- 
ber to  April. 

I  myfelf  made  trial  of  three 
kinds  of  borecole  the  laft  yeai-, 
in  the  latitude  of  44.  It  grew 
ver^'  well  till  winter  ;  but  not 
one  plant  in  fifty  had  any  life  in 
it  in  the  following  fpring.  The 
forts  were  the  green,  the  white, 
and  the  red.  But  it  is  probable 
that  in  fome  parts  ot  Newen- 
gland, and  in  warm  fituations, 
this  plant  may  be  cultivated  with 
advantage  ;  though  not  in  fields^ 
1  think  it  mav  in  gardens. 

COMPOST,  a  mixture  of  va- 
rious manures  and  foils,  to  be 
laid  on  land  to  promote  vegeta- 
tion. 

Compofts  ought  to  be  differ- 
ent, according  to  the  different 
foils  on  which  they  are  to  be 
laid.  A  foil  that  is  light  and 
loofe  requires  a  compoit  that  is 
heavy,  or  one  which  has  a  large 
proportion  of  the  mud  of  deep 
ditches,  fwamps,  or  ponds»  and 
cow  dung.  But  clayey  and 
heavy  lands  require  a  compoft, 
in  which  fomething  that  is  light 
and  warm  predominates,  as  lime, 
the  dung  of  hcrfes  ^nd  ftieep, 
&c. 

Compoffs  may  be  made  of 
common  earth,  turfs,  the  dirt  of 
ftreets,  ftraw.  mud  ;  together 
with  dung,  lime,  marie,  aflies, 
weeds,  fait,  or  oily  fubftances, 
and  any  kind  of  animal  or  vege- 
table 


COP 

CibU?  matters.  They  ihould  be 
well  mixed,  and  lie  one  year, 
one  fummer  »t  ieall,  in  hc«ips, 
and  be  fcvcral  timci  lliovclcd  o- 
y.^,  .,,  '  ^oniute  fcriiieiit<uiun  and 
'>n,  and  to  dcUroy  all 
.ill  i<.(.i. -.  ot  weeds. 

They  thouid  be  kept,  if  prafti- 
cable,  in  a  temperate  degree  of 
m  nllure.  If  they  lie  too  wet, 
they  will  turn  four,  and  not  pu- 
trefy :  It  too  dry,  there  will  be 
no  fermentation  at  all. 

Comports  are  ellcemcd  better 
than  dune  for  the  drelTing  of 
land  for  w-hcat.  as  there  is  not  (o 
much  danger  of  diffempering  the 
grain,  nor  of  incrcafing  the 
growth  of  weeds,  nor  of  propa- 
gating infcfls. 

A  compoft  of  clay,  turf,  ditch 
earth,  witn  lime,  foot,  or  afhes, 
is  an  excellent  drelTmg  for  grafs 
lands.     The  time  to  lay  it  on  is 
in  autumn.     Nerther  would  it  be  i 
amifs  to  do  it  in  liie  fpring  ;  on-  1 
ly  at  carting  it  on  would  be  apt  ' 
to  injure  the  furface  when  it  is  ! 
wet  and  foft.     See  Dunghill.        j 
COPSE,    Of    COPPICE,    a: 
piece  of  underwood.     "  When  ' 
a  copfe  is  intended  to  be  raifed  1 
fro.n  mail  or  feed,  the  ground  is  | 
ploughed  in  the  fame  manner  as  ; 
for  corn  ;  and,  either  in  autumn  • 
or  in  fpring,  giKxl  /lore  of  fuch 
marts,   nuts,   feeds,  berries,  &c.  \ 
are  to  be   fown   with   the  grafs,  ! 
which  crop  is  to  be  cut,  and  then  \ 
the  land   laid  for  wood,     liiey 
may  alfo  be  planted  about   au-  ' 
tumn  with  young  fcts,  or  plants,  ' 
in  rows  about  ten  or  fifteen  feet  \ 
diAance.     If  the  copfes  happen 
to  grow  ihirv,    the  bc-rt  way   of  . 
thick?  m  is,  to  lay  fome 

of  the  or  laye.sof  th'- 

trees,  ih^t  J  c  !jti:reft  to  the  i 
places,  on  t!ie  ground,  or  a  ! 
m  the  ground.    Tlicfc,  detaincil 
with   hooks,   and   covered  %m:1i 
ti^^    mould,    at    a    compc'.ent  ' 


COR 


7« 


depth,  Will  produce  a  world  of 
fuckers,  and  tlucken  a  co]>fc 
fpccdilv . "     Did.  of  Arts. 

CORN,  the  farinaceous  feeds 
of  certain  vegetables,  of  whicfi 
bread  is  ma»le.  But  the  name  is 
lifually  applied,  not  only  to  the 
feeds,  but  to  plants  whub  pro- 
duce tliem. 

As  thefe  feeds  are  various,  tlvc 
idea  commonly  aflixed  lo  tbc 
word  corn,  differs  in  different 
countries,  according  as  one  or 
another  fort  is  moll  cultivatcd. 
In  this  country  it  is  chiefly  ap- 
plied to  maize,  or  Indian  corn- 
But  in  Europe  it  is  a  general 
I  name  of  grain,  including  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  rice,  buck, 
wheat,  ii:c. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  wiflied  that 
feveral  Rinds  cf  corn  were  raifed 
in  greater  plenty,  in  tlic  norther- 
ly  parts   of   Ncwengland  ;   that 
we  might  no  longer  depend  up- 
on imponation  forthofc  necella- 
ry  articles,  while  wc  are  fo  poor- 
ly able  to  make  lemitiances  for 
them   in   our   own  produce.     I 
am  perluaded,  the  fame  quantity 
of  labour,  which  is  ufed  for  this, 
purpoie,  and  on  a  leis  quantity 
of  foil,  if  wifely  applied,  would 
produce   the  happy  effett.     Ni> 
fort  of  corn  fhoiiid  be  fown  on 
a  foil  which  is  naturally  unfuit- 
able  for  ii.     Mai/e,  for  inllance, 
not   on   cl.iy,    nor  wheat    upoa 
fand,  or  gravel.     Neither  fhould 
attempts  be  made  to  raife  grain 
without  luflicicni   tillage  ;    that 
fo  what  is  done  may  not  be  la- 
bour thrown  away.     It  is  ridicu- 
lous, in  ordinary  cafes,  to  liopc 
Un  a  large  crcp  of  grain   fro;u 
one  ploughinj;  ;    or  to  imagine 
th^t  the  <;r,iiii  will  be  plump  ^nd 
:l  i'j  fufferrd.  to  be 
weeds.     In  the  old- 
It  couMti'.c*,  farmers  do  not  fow 
wheat,  nor    Icaiccly   dnv   i,t'  ■•.^ 
grsit^   till    after    two 

r'  •  , 


72 


C  O  W 


ploLighings  :  And  tliey  make  as 
much  account  of  weeding  their 
grain,  in  fome  places,  as  we  do 
of  weeding  our  gardens. 

The  more  tillage  is  given  to 
land,  the  lefs  maj}ure  is  needed  : 
And  the  increai'e  of  crops  would 
richly  pay  for  the  extra  tillage. 
The  cofl  of  fecond  and  third 
ploughings  is  but  little,  as  it  miiy 
be  performed  with  one  horfe,  or 
a  fmall  yoke  of  oxen. 

The  only  grain,  to  which  w-e 
afford  near,  enough  tillage  is  In- 
dian corn  :  But  even  to  this 
more  might  be  profitably  appli- 
ed. They  who  hand  hoe  it 
without  ploughing  are  no  fmall 
lofers  by  that  management.  See 
more  concerning  corn,  under 
W/ieaf,  Rye,  Barley,  &c. 

COULTER,  an  important 
part  of  a  plough.     See  Plough. 

COW,  "  the  female  of  the  ox 
kind.  The  marks  of  a  good 
•cow,  according  to  fome,  are 
thefe  :  The  forehead  broad,  the 
eyes  black,  the  horns  large  and 
clean,  the  neck  long  and  flraight, 
the  belly  large  and  deep,  the 
thighs  thick,  the  legs  round  with 
Ihort  joints,  and  the  feet  broad 
and  thick. — Red  cows  are  faid 
to  give  the  bell  milk,  and  black 
ones  to  bring  the  bed  calves. 
But  the  cow  that  gives  milk 
longeif  is  the  moll  beneficial  for 
breeding  and  profit,  efpecially 
where  one  only  is  kept.  Juit 
before  calving,  cows  fhould  be 
very  well  fed  ;  and  if  they  calve 
\^  winter,  their  drink  fhould  be 
a  little  warmed,  a  day  and  a 
night  after  their  calving."  Did. 
of  Arts. 

I  may  add  here,  if  the  cleaning 
of  a  cow  after  calving  be  delay- 
ed, it  may  be  promoted  by  giv- 
ing her  a  pail  of  warm  water 
vrith  iome  afhes  in  it. 

Cows  fhould  be  milked  regu- 
larly, morning  and  evening,  and 


C  (5  W 

always  at  the  fame  hours,  a^ 
nearly  as  may  be.  At  fix  in  the 
morning,  and  fix  at  night,  is  a 
good  general  rule,  as  the  times 
of  milking  will  be  equidiftant 
from  each  other.  But  if  they 
are  milked  three  times  a  day,  as 
a  modern  writer  on  hufbandry 
recommends,  it  may  be  done  zrt 
five,  one  and  eight.  He  believes 
that  if  they  afe  full  fed,  they  will 
give  half  as  much  again  milk,  if 
milked  thrice  as  if  only  twice. 
At  the  fame  time,  it  would  pre- 
vent a  too  great  diflention  of 
their  bags,  to  which  our  beft  cows 
aie  liable.  If  the  milking  be 
once  omitted,  they  will  give 
much  more  at  the  next  milking  ; 
but  it  will  caufe  them  to  give 
lefs  mik  on  the  whole,  and  tend 
to  dry  them  up. 

No  animals  that  we  keep  are 
more  profitable  than  cows,  Sup- 
pofing  a  cov/  to  yield  one  gallon 
of  milk  per  day,  one  day  with 
another,  tor  forty  weeks,  (and  it 
is  a  poor  cow  th«t  wiir  not  d6 
more  th^ra  this  in  a  yearj  at  only- 
two  pence  per  quart,  the  milk, 
will  conie  to  9I,  6s,  8d,  which 
will  pay  tor  her  body,  and  for 
her  year's  keeping.  The  c;car 
profit  of  a  cow,  therefore,  in  two 
years,  may  be  allowed  to  be  a - 
bout  lol.  fuppofing  her  to  be 
worth  5I.  and  her  keeping  to  coll 
4I.  6s.  8d.  per  annum.  But  in 
fome  places  their  keeping  is  low- 
er than  this  ;  and  ottentimes  a 
cow  may  be  purchafed  for  ten 
or  twelve  dollars. 

COW  HOUSE,  that  apart- 
ment in  a  barn,  in  which  cows 
and  other  neat  cattle,  are  tied 
up  and  fed,  during  the  winter,- 
and  part  ci  autumn  and  fpring. 

Farmers  may  think  they  need 
but  little  teaching  concerning 
thefe  apartments,  as  they  have 
been  fo  long  acquainted  with 
thein.  But  I  ihall  take  the  lib- 
erty 


cow 

f  \'c  them  the  foUo'.ving 

i>,  which  they  may  rc- 

'.cn  f  or  rnett,  as  they  think  fit. 

Irt  the  hril  place,  it  is  ot  no 
fmali  importance  that  the  Moor 
under  .i  cow  iioulc  he  very  tipht, 
io  that  none  ot  the  ftale  may  be 
loft,  which  i%  ot  great  value  as  a 
r'. '.  :,:rc,  when  mixed  with  other 
1  .:  itances.  A  iamier  would 
he  no  more  bUmeworihy  for 
throwing  away  the  dung  than 
the  urine  ot  bealls,  which  con- 
tains abundance  of  fertilizing 
'  ^  and  oils.  But  it  it  be  fut- 
ti  re  i  to  run  through  the  lloor,  it 
IS  entirely  loft. 

The  defcending  pofition  of  the 
floor  has  been  inentioned  under 
'he  article  Gi///(r.'  This  defcent 
will  conver  the  ftale  through  the 
chinks  in  the  fide  ot  the  bar.n, 
unlefs  fomc  camion  ~be  ufed  to 
prevent  it.  One  edgeol  a  plank 
may  be  fitted  to  the  fill,  nailed 
to  the  polls  of  the  buildmg,  and  [ 
ihc  joint  between  that  and  the 
'' "  :".?d.  Or  a  ouaniity  of  i 
:  may  be  laid  along  on  ' 
the  Iiil.  Green  fods  willanlwer  I 
as  well.  It  will  take  fcvcral 
'-art  loads  for  a  long  apartment. 
This  earth  will  he  gradually  tak- 
en up  and  mixed  with  the  dung, 
as  it  is  fhcr\"e!ed  out  during  the 
winter.  Or  if  lods  are  ufed  they 
Avill  be  well  impregnated  with 
tiie  excrements  of  the  cattle,  and 
partly  diHolved,  by  lying  from 
irtll  to  fpring  in  fuch  a  fttuation. 
It"  the  dung  be  clefigncd  for  a 
y  foil,  clay  will  be  the  t>cft 
'  ■:■'.'.  for  this  purpofc  ;  it  for  a 
«  Iws'  foil,  faiid  will  be  moft 
I  i.,v  r.  Any  kind  ot  e.irfh,  how- 
r:\:.  will  lervo  to  ablorb  aiui 
prt  i-rve  'he  flale. — But  if  a  rarm- 
*-r  clMKife  to  lay  ftraw,  wt-eds, 
i»r  Ii^rn  doll,  for  i^  .le,  I 

rvill  not  confcnti;  •  '.ink 

ftnh  is  better,  as  rt  ,.  n!  L-  •  trjcr 
^om  wccJ-i,  and  iVjiicr  fit  toufc 
K 


COW 


73 


as  a  manure,  than  thofc  vegeta- 
ble fubftanccs.  After  this  earth 
is  thrown  out  and  mixed  with 
the  dung  in  the  heaps,  it  will  be 
ot  fervice  in  prc\  cnung  the  evap- 
oration, and  loakiiig  away  of  the 
bell  part  of  the  manure. 

^V  iicn  a  farmer  thinks  hlmfelf 
not  well  able  to  be  at  the  ex- 
penfe  ot  a  floor  of  good  planks, 
let  him  get  a  quantity  of  gooil 
clay,  make  mortar,  and  lay  a  bed 
of  It  a  foot  thick  or  more,  tor  a 
floor  ;  giving  it  a  pmper  defcent 
backwards,  that  the  cattle  may 
lie  diy,  and  raifing  it  at  the  hind- 
er border,  to  prevent  the  cfcapc 
of  the  urine.  The  floor  will 
grow  thinner  by  being  gradually 
Ihoveled  up  with  the  dung  ;  but 
it  is  eafy  to  repair  it  ;  and  the 
tafter  it  wears  away,  the  more 
the  quantity  ot  manure  is  in- 
creafed. 

Alfo,  tlie  floors  over  a  cow 
houfe  fhould  be  more  tight 
than  they  commonly  arc.  It 
would  prevent  the  defcent  of 
dutt  and  chaff.  It  would  caufe 
the  hay  above  it  to  be  lefs  injur- 
ed by  the  air  ;  as  well  as  left 
contaminated  by  the  breath  ok* 
the  cattle,  and  the  fteam  of  their 
excremems. 

There  are  diflferent  ways  of 
tying  up  cattle.  Some  prefer 
one  way,  and  fome  another.  I 
prefer  ftanchions  to  bows  :  Not 
only  becaufe  the  cattle  take  up 
lefs  room  in  this  w«y,  but  are 
lefs  apt  to  walle  their  fod.ler. 
They  arc  alio  more  fecure  in 
this  way  ;  fo  that  ihcy  do  not  fo 
often  break  loofe,  and  worry 
and  wouitd  each  other. 

A  cow  Innife  Ihould  be  in  the 
fomhcrly  pan  i>l  a  bam,  when  it 
can  well  bo  li>  ordered.  The 
rattle  will  be  lefs  pinchwl  with 
the  col«l  nortlit-rly  winds.  An- 
ot*         "  -..  that  the  heips 

o:         ^  .  jui  on  that  fide, 

bciiig 


n 


C  R  E 


being  in  a  funny  place,  will  be 
thawed  earlier  in  the  fpring,  fo 
as  to  be  fit  to  be  carted  out  in 
feafon.  On  the  north  fide,  ice 
will  fometimes  remain  in  the 
heaps,  or  under  them,  till  the  laft 
of  Alay,  or  beginning  of  June, 

In  this  ciimate,  canle  muft  be 
houfed  near  half  the  year  ;  from 
the  middle  of  November  to  the 
laft  of  April,  and  occafionally  at 
other  times.  Though  they  muft 
have  fodder  for  two  or  three 
weeks  before  and  after  thefe  pe- 
riods, I  think  it  advifable  to  let 
them  lie  in  the  barn  yard,  and 
eat  out  of  a  rack,  unlefs  the 
weather  be  ftormy  or  the  air  un- 
commonly cold.  For  if  they  be 
kept  too  warm  in  the  fall,  they 
will  become  tender,  and  not  win- 
ter fo  well  ;  or  if  lodged  too 
warm  in  the  fpring,  they  are 
more  apt  to  be  loufy. 

CRADLE,  a  frame  joined  to 
a  fithe,  ufeful  in  harvefting,  by 
the  help  of  vv'hich,  three  times 
the  quantity  ot  grain  may  be  cm 
down  in  a  given  time  that  can 
be  with  a  fickle,  and  laid  tolera-- 
bly  even  and  regular,  for  bind- 
ing in  bundles.  It  is  oftener 
ufed  for  cutting  oars  and  rye 
than  for  wheat.  There  is  dan- 
ger, however,  of  too  much  wafte 
in  cradling,  when  the  corn  is 
thick  and  heavy,  or  does  not 
iland  upright  ;  the  labour  alfo 
would  be  too  painful  and  tire- 
fome. 

CREAM,  the  fat  part  of  milk 
which  rifes  to  the  furface. 

To  produce  the  greateil  quan- 
tity of  cream,  the  pans  in  which 
the  m.ilk  is  fet  thould  be  flat  Ihap- 
cd,  fo  that  the  milk  may  not  be 
more  than  three  inches  deep, 
Thofe  in  common  ufe  are  not 
much  air.ifs.  They  (hould  be 
well  fcaided  with  hot  water,  as 
often  as  milk  is  fet  in  them,  and 
be  thoroughly   cooled.     If  the 


C  R  O 

place  v.-here  milk  is  fet  be  torn 
warm,  it  will  be  apt  to  turn  four» 
before  the  cream  has  had  fuffi- 
cient  time  to  afcend  ;  and  none 
will  rife  after  the  milk  begins  to 
coagulate.  If  the  place  be  too 
dry,  the  cream  will  become 
tough  and  hard  before  it  is  taken 
oiF,  If  the  place  be  fo  cold  as 
to  freeze  the  milk,  every  one 
knows  that  but  little  cream  wnW 
be  gotten  from  it.  The  time  of 
fkimming  muft  be  regulated  by 
the  weather,  and  other  circum- 
ftances  :  But  nearly  the  whole 
will  rife  to  the  top  in  twenty 
four  hours.  In  large  dairies  it 
may  be  troublefome  to  let  it  Hand 
longer. 

In  the  Scots  Farmer,  the  fol- 
lowing method  of  fkimming  is 
recommended.  "The maid  gent- 
ly raifes  the  difh,  laying  the  lip 
of  it  on  a  large  pan,  and  with 
her  fingers  ends  fhe  divides  the 
cream  near  the  lip  of  the  difh, 
in  fuch  a  manner  that  the  milk 
which  is  underneath  may  be 
poured  into  the  great  pan  through 
this  divifion,  leaving  the  cream 
by  itfelf  in  the  difh." 

Some  fet  their  milk  in  trays 
lined  with  lead.  This  fhould 
never  be  done.  For  the  leafl  a« 
cidity  in  the  milk  will  diffolve 
the  lead,  and  poifon  the  milk. 
Tin  pans  are  good,  being  light 
and  handy,  and  wooden  trays 
anfwer  very  well,  if  kept  fweet. 

CROP,  a  year's  produce  of 
corn,  hay,  &c,  which  a  piece  of 
land  yields. 

The  variablenefs  of  crops  is  fo 
great,  that  none  can  judge  from 
a  fingle  one,  whether  the  fame 
fort  would  be  profitable  in  the 
long  run.  A  feafon  that  does 
not  happen  to  be  fuitable  to  the 
foil  and  plants  may  either  pre- 
vent a  crop,  or  render  it  unequal 
to  the  labour  laid  out  to  produce 
it.    We   Ihould   not,  therefore, 

iudg& 


cue 

judge  of  the  comparalivc  .ulvan- 
t«igc  of  any  kind  ol  crop  Irom 
one  inftancc  ;  nor  be  dilcourag- 
cd,  but  by  the  failure  ol  a  crop 
in  a  feafon  which  is  luitable  to 
the  foil  on  which. it  is  raifcd. 

The  continual  cropping  ot 
land  with  wlieat,  without  inter- 
vals of  fallowing,  will  foon  ex- 
haufl  all  its  llrengtli,  unlefs  much 
be  expended  in  manuring  it. 
For  this  reafon,  the  horfe  hoeing 
liulbandry  is  much  recommend- 
C'i  by  fome  writers,  by  which 
land  is  not  fo  eafily  impovcrifh- 
ed,  as  the  intervals  are  always 
fallowed.  So  that  there  is  aii  al- 
ternation of  cropping,  the  inter- 
vals this  year  being  where  the 
rows  were  la  ft  year.  But  tiiis 
culture  can  hardly  be  cxpc6led 
to  be  advantageous  in  a  new 
country  ;  nor  in  any  foil  which 
is  not  quite  free  trom  obftacles. 
The  trouble  and  coft  ol  it  would 
be  intolerable,  to  Nevvengland 
farmers,  in  general. 

Small   crops  are  often    more 

{)rofitable  on  the  whole  than 
arger  ones.  That  is  the  beft 
crop  which  amounts  to  a  given 
quantity,  with  the  Icaft  expcni'e 
ol  labour,  feed  and  tillage  ;  pro- 
vided it  leave  the  foil  iu  equal 
condition  for  luture  crops.  Yet, 
in  general,  land  will  pay  far  bet- 
ter lor  generous  raanuriug  and 
tilling,  than  lor  a  partial  and 
flovenly  cultivation  :  For,  in  the 
lormer  cafe,  a  large  crop  is  al- 
moft  certain  ;  in  the  latter  no 
crop  worth  tlie  culture,  inch  as 
it  is,  can  be  rationally  expctted. 
And,  in  the  former  cafe,  the  land 
IS  Ictt  after  the  crop  in  a  far  bet- 
ter condition. 

CUCUMBERS,  Cucumn,  a 
cold  fruit,  which  is  pleafant  to 
thctaftc  of  moft  people,  and  much 
ufed  by  thofc who  ^n<i  themfclvcs 
able  to  digcft  them.  1  hry  arc 
;endercdwho!f<onicr  by  pickling. 


cue 


75 


The  method  ol  growing  them 
is  fimplcHivl  cafy.  They  iliould 
not  be  planted  till  ahcr  Indian 
corn  :  lor  the  loaft  degree  of 
Iroit  entirely  dcflioys  them.  The 
dung  of  fwinc  liiould  be  put  un- 
der them,  which  uKikes  tho?a 
grow  more  r.ii)idly  thatiany  oili- 
er  maimie  which  I  have  evir 
tned. 

Some  ficcp  the  feeds,  aud 
caufe  them  to  forout.  be  lore  they 
are  planted  :  But  I  have  never 
lound  any  advatitage  in  it.  It  is 
not  amifs,  however,  to  wet  thera 
a  little,  and  coat  them  with  pow- 
dered foot. 

Mr.  Miller  thints  the  feeds 
fliould  not  be  fowii  till  they  arc 
tliree  or  four  years  old.  Four 
plants  are  enough  io  ftand  in  a 
hole  together  ;  therefore,  whew 
they  get  iiuo  rough  leal,  they 
Ihould  be  thinned  to  this  num- 
ber. The  vincr.  Ihould  be  fo 
condufled  as  to  intertcre  as  lit- 
tle as  pollibic  with  each  other. 
Fhey  who  wi(h  to  raife  them  at 
all  (eafons  of  the  year,  may  coii- 
fuit  the  Gardcim':^  Didionary. 

I  have  known  lurp(rifing  quan- 
tities ol  cucumbers  raifcd  Ironi 
tubs.  The  method  is  this :  Take 
a  very  tight  bar;  crl  tub  ;  fill  it  up 
to  the  hung  with  lloncs,  then  a 
little  Itraw,  and  earth  over  the 
ftraw,  enough  to  fill  the  barrel. 
Fill  the  lower  ha-lf  with  water. 
Iiillead  of  letting iifteepthroiigii 
the  earth,  it  Ihould  be  palled 
through  a  tube,  placed  in  the 
earth  lor  that  purpofe,  as  often 
as  raorc  water  i .  wanted.  The 
bung  (houid  be  lelt  out,  and  the 
water  kept  as  high  as  tlic  hole, 
by  repeated  waterings.  The 
plants  lying  fo  high  will  be  out 
ol  the  way  ol  iniecls,  which  is  a 
great  advantage  ;  and  they  will 
not  be  hurt  by  drought.  The 
plants  fhould  be  a  little  fprink- 
led,  however,  with  water,  oiu'e 


76 


G  U  R 


in  a  while,  if  the  feafon  prove 
very  drv. 

CULTIVATOR,  a  plough, 
with  a  doable  fhare  and  two 
mouldboards,  ufetul  in  raifing 
ridges,  and  in  hoeing  plants  that 
grow  in  rows,  as  in  thenewhuf- 
bandry.     See  that  Article. 

CURRANT,  Ribes,  a  fpecics 
of  fruit  tree.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  currants  produced  in 
this  country,  red,  white  and 
black.  The  red  and  the  white 
are  a  wholefome  cooling  fruit, 
and  flouriih  well  in  this  part  of 
the  country.  They  are  eafily 
propagated  by  cuttings,  letting 
the  young  twigs  in  the  ground, 
which  will  furnifh  themfelves 
with  roots  ;  and  will  bear  fruit 
the  fecond  year.  Some  plant 
them  fingly,  others  in  clumps. 
The  latter  method  is  difapprov- 
ed  by  the  beft  gardeners.  If 
they  be  fet  fingle  round  the  bor- 
ders of  a  garden,  clofe  to  the 
ience,  and  lallened  to  the  fence, 
to  prevent  their  being  bowed  to 
the  ground  when  loaded  with 
fruit,  they  will  take  up  liftle  or 
BO  room,  and  make  an  agreeable 
appearance.  And  it  will  be  ea- 
ly  to  keep  them  free  from  weeds. 
When  they  are  planted  on  the 
louth,  or  Ibuth  eali;  fide  oi  a  wall, 
the  fruit  will  be  ripe  in  June  ; 
but  on  the  north  fide,  they  may 
be  kept  till  October  on  the  bulh- 
cs,  in  a  found  flate. 

A  wine  that  is  not  unpleafant 
is  made  of  the  red  kind  ;  but 
that  which  is  made  of  the  white 
is  preferable  ;  and  this  ought 
to  be  more  attended  to.  This 
wine  meliorates  exceedingly  by 
age,  becoming  equal  to  the  bell 
of  Malaga  wine,  after  being  bot- 
tled a  year  or  two. 

The  way  to  make  currant  wine 
is  as  tollows  :  Take  ripe  cur- 
jfants,walh  them,  clear  them  from 
the  flcms,  add  a  gallon  of  water 


c  u  s 

to  a  gallon  of  currants,  and  bruife 
thera  well  in  the  water.  Strain 
it  through  a  cloth.  Then  to  one 
gallon  of  the  mixed  juice  and 
water,  put  two  pounds  and  three 
quarters  of  good  brown  fugar. 
Stir  it  well.  When  the  fugar  is 
diffolved,  put  the  M'ine  into  a 
calk  not  Hopped.  When  the  firft 
fermentation  is  over,  bung  it  up 
tightly,  and  in  fix  months  it  will 
be  fit  for  bottling. 

CUSTOM,  an  habitual  man- 
ner of  doing  any  thing.  Meth- 
ods of  agriculture,  as  well  as 
metfvods  ot  doing  other  things, 
are  not  feldom  founded  merely 
on  cuifom.  Farrners  do  many 
things,  tor  which  they  can  aflign 
no  other  reafon  than  cuifom. 
They  ufually  give  themfclvcs 
little  or  no  trouble  in  thinking,  or 
m  examining  their  methods  of 
culture,  which  have  been  handed 
down  from  father  to  fon,  from 
tune  immemorial. 

Ill  fome  countries,  this  prac- 
tice anfwers  tolerably  well.  It 
does  befl  in  old  countries,  where 
methods,  which  have  not  been 
found  to  anfwer  well,  have 
been  gradually  laid  afjde  in  a 
long  courfe  of  years.  But  this 
cuftomary  culture  has  a  very 
pernicious  effect,  when  ignorant 
larm.ers  remove  to  a  different  cli- 
mate. They  naturally  continue 
in  the  ways  to  which  they  have 
been  accuflomed.  Their  crops 
oiten  prove  to  be  unfuitable  to 
the  region  they  inhabit.  They 
plant,  fow  and  harveff,  at  the 
wrong  feafons.  Theyrfow  leeds 
in  unfuitable  foils.  The  confe- 
quences  are,  that  their  labour  is 
mifapplied,  their  time  is  lolt, 
they  grow  poor  and  difhearten- 
ed.  Perhaps  they  remove  them- 
felves  to  other  places,  hoping  to 
mend  their  circumftances  ;  and 
when  they  come  thither,  their 
habitual    methods    will    anfwer. 

Itill 


C  Y  O 

9111  worfe,  rather  thati  better,  iin- 
Icls  tlicy  go  back  to  their  firU  fit- 
uation,  or  towards  it. 

CUTTINGS,  or  SF.IPS,  "in 
gardening,  the  branches  or  (prigs 
oi  trees,  or  pljius,  cut  or  flippc'd 
off,  to  ftt  at»ain,  which  is  done 
in  any  ninill  fine  earth.  The 
heft  time  tor  this  operation,  is 
from  the  nii-ldle  ol  Aum>ll  to 
the  middle  of  April  ;  but  when 
it  is  done,  the  fap  oui^ht  not  to 
be  too  much  in  the  top  ;  neither 
mull  it  be  very  dry  or  Icanty, 
for  the  r.ip  in  the  branches  ailifts 
it  to  Itrike  roots.  It  done  in  the 
fpring,  let  them  not  fail  ol  hav- 
ing water  in  the  fummer.  In 
providing  them,  fuch  branches 
as  have  burs,  knobs  or  joints,  are 
to  be  cut  off,  ike.  and  the  leaves 
are  to  be  llripped  off  lo  far  as 
they  are  placed  in  the  eartii, 
leaving  no  Jide  branch.  Small 
top  fprigs,  ol  two  or  three  years 
growth,  are  the  beft  for  this  op- 
eration."    Did.  0/  Arts. 

Cuttings  of  tiie  grape  vine, 
gooieberry,  willow  and  currants, 
are  cafily  made  to  llrike  root ;  thofe 
uken  from  the  quince  will  com- 
monly, and  the  apple  tree  will 
fometimes  do  fo,  it  the  earth  be 
kept  very  moill.  It  is  beft  to 
fet  them  a  good  depth  in  the 
earth,  not  lels  than  twelve  or  hf- 
leen  inches,  or  the  greater  part 
ol  their  whole  length.  In  this 
country,  the  bed  time  that  I 
have  found  to  fet  them  is  in  A- 
pril.  It  iliotild  be  done  as  loon 
as  the  troll  is  quite  out  ot  the 
ground. 

CYON',  or  CION,  a  young 
Iprig  or  fprout  of  a  tree.  Cyons, 
lor  grattmg,  Ihould  always  be 
taken  trom  the  moft  thrifty  trees, 
not  Irorn  thole  efpecially  which 
are  ol<l  and  decaying.  '1  he  tune 
to  cut  them  is  in  February  or 
March,  juft  belore  the  buds  be- 
gin lo  Iwcll,  and  appear  frcUi, 


DA  I 


77 


which  will  be  earlier  or  later, 
according  to  the  iLMlon  and  cli- 
mate. Thoy  Ihfuiid  be  taken 
hoMi  the  ends  ot  limbs  of  the 
loinifr  year's  growth,  not  from 
young  fiickprs  (d  an  over  quick 
groNvth  ;  and  kept  moift  in  a 
crll;\r,  with  the  lower  ends  in- 
lertcd  in  moill  clay,  or  mud,  tiil 
the  proper  time  tor  grafting.  In 
Inch  a  pofjtion  they  will  keep 
well  for  two  months  or  more,  be- 
lore grafting.  1  have  hud  good 
fuccefs  in  fettlng  them,  this  prel- 
ent  year,  1786,  though  it  was  al- 
moft  three  months  after  they 
were  cut  :  But  I  afcribe  my  liic- 
eels  partly  to  the  uimfual  wet- 
ncls  ot  the  leafon,  which  is  al- 
ways favourable  to  grafting. 

D. 

DAIRY,  the  occupation  of 
making  butter,  cheefe,  ike.  from 
milk. 

"  This  is  the  moft  ticklilli  part 
of  the  farmer's  bufinefs.  L'nlels 
he  has  a  very  diligent  and  indiit- 
trions  wite,  who  lees  minutely 
to  her  dairy,  or  a  moft  honclf, 
diligent,  and  c.iretul  houfckeep- 
er,  to  do  it  tor  him,  he  will  allur- 
edly  lofc  money  by  his  dairy. 
Truftcd  to  common  fervants,  it 
will  never  pay  charges.  The 
dairy  maid  muft  be  up  every 
morning  by  four  o'clock,  or  Iho 
will  be  backward  in  iicr  bufinefs. 
At  lix  the  cows  nnill  be  milked, 
and  there  mult  be  milkers  e- 
nough  to  finilh  by  feven.  The 
fame  rule  muft  be  oblerved  in 
the  evening.  Cleanlinels  is  the 
great  point  in  a  dairy.  The  u- 
tenlils  Ihould  all  he  Icalded  eve- 
ry day  ;  the  pails,  and  whatever 
elfe  are  finall  enough,  boiled  in 
the  copper  daily.'  farmer's 
Kalendar. 

Dairies  arc  often  managed  fo 
poorly,  that  it  would  be  as  well, 

or 


7« 


D  A  I 


or  better,  to  teed  fwine  with  the 
milk  as  iaft  as  it  comes  from  the 
cows.  This  method  has  been 
tried,  as  I  am  intonned,  by  a 
fingle  man,  fomewhere  about 
Kewbury,  who  was  convinced  it 
was  a  better  method  than  to  hire 
help  to  carry  on  the  dairy. 

It"  milk  tLirn  fom-  before  the 
cream  be  well  rifen  ;  or,  if  mag- 
gots get  into  the  cheefes,  the 
profit  of  a  dairy  will  not  be 
much.     See  Chttft. 

Butter  is  ofteuer  well  manag- 
ed than  cheefe.  But  there  are 
lew  who  fait  early  made  butter 
fo  that  it  will  keep  good  and 
fweet.  An  ounce  and  a  halt,  or 
more,  of  the  ftrongell  and  beil 
fait,  very  finely  pov/dered,  fliould 
be  worked  into  a  pound  of  but- 
ter, and  fo  thoroughly  mixed 
that  every  part  may  be  equally 
fait.  For  if  ever  fo  fmall  a  part 
mifles  of  being  faked,  it  will  turn 
rank,  and  communicate  its  ill 
tafle  to  the  remamder.  It  fhould 
then  be  put  into  tubs  that  are 
quite  fweet,  and  fo  clofely  pack- 
ed and  crowded,  that  no  air  can 
be  in  contact  with  the  butter  ; 
which  Ibould  be  carefully  cover- 
ed with  a  piece  of  fine  cloth,  af- 
ter dipping  it  in  melted  fweet 
butter.  When  more  is  to  be 
})Ut  into  the  tub,  take  up  the 
cloth  ;  and  after  that  is  well 
crowded  in,  and  levelled,  put  on 
the  cloth  again  fo  nicely  as  to 
fhut  out,  if  pofTibie,  every  parti- 
cle of  air.  The  fame  fhould 
be  done  as  often  as  any  is  taken 
out  for  ute.  The  tubs,  during 
fummer  and  fall,  fhould  Hand  on 
the  bottom  of  the  colde;il  part  of 
the  cellar.  When  there  is  occa- 
fionto  carry  butter  to  any  diftance 
for  fale,  in  hot  weather,  let  not 
tlie  tubs,  or  boxes,  be  expofed  to 
the  heat  of  a  traveling  horfe,  by 
lying  againfl  his  fides.  For  by 
this  practice  it  is  known  that  a 


D  A  I 

great   deal  of  butter  is  greatly 
damaged. 
DAIRY, ^r  DAIRY  ROOM, 

a  houfe  or  apartment  where  milk 
is  kept,  &c. 

Our  farmers  and  their  wives 
feem  to  think  it  necelTary,  or 
highly  convenient,  to  have  a 
dairy  room  annexed  to  their 
dwelling  houfe,  partly  above  and 
partly  below  ground,  that  they 
may  dry  their  cheefes  in  the  up- 
per part,  and  let  milk  and  cream 
in  the  lower.  Thi^,  in  wooden 
houfes,  is  certainly  not  the  beft 
practice,  and  .occafions  much 
lofs.  For  fuch  an  apartment  will 
be  too  hot  in  fummer,  and  too 
cold  in  winter,  to  keen  milk  in 
it  ;  neither  will  it  bcpouibie  to 
keep  it  fo  fweet  as  it  ought  tc 
be  kept. 

An  apartment  in  a  cellar  is 
better  on  every  account  to  keep 
milk  in.  As  to  drying  of  cheefes, 
they  fhould  never  be  kept  to  dry 
in  the  fame  room  where  milk  is 
fet ;  for  they  will  undoubted- 
ly communicate  an  acidity  to  the 
furrounding  air,  which  Avill  tend 
to  turn  all  the  milk  four  that 
ftands  within  the  fame  enclofure. 
And  a  drier  room  would  be  bet- 
ter for  the  cheefes  ;  only  let  it 
be  kept  dark,  that  the  flies  may 
dot  come  at  them.  So  that,  in- 
ftead  of  a  place  called  a  dairy, 
there  fhould  be  a  milk  room,  and 
a  cheefe  room,  in  a  farm  houfe. 

A  room  in  a  cellar  may  be 
kept  fo  nearly  of  an  equal  cool- 
nels,  by  means  of  burning  a  fe\/ 
coals  in  it  ;  when  the  weather  is 
cold,  that  the  milk  will  neither 
grow  four  in  fummer,  nor  freeze 
in  winter  :  So  that  notlaing  will 
obflruQ:  the  rifing  of  all  the 
cream.  It  is  fuppofed  that  the 
warmth  of  the  aii"  m  a  milk  room 
ought  to  be  from  50  to  55  de- 
grees on  Farenheit's  thermome- 
ter.    But  a  few  degrees  over  or 

under 


D  A  I 

fmdcr  will  produce  no  very  dif- 
a^ceable  effctts.  The  collar 
fliould  have  fuch  windows  as  will 
afford  a  fulFicient  quantity  ol 
hght,  and  be  on  the  molt  north- 
ern fide  ;  and  they  fliould  be  o- 
pcned  now  and  then  to  let  in 
frelh  air,  particularly  in  the  cool- 
eft  ot  the  mornings  in  fummer. 
The  room  (hould  be  ceiled  with 
plaifler,  to  prevent  the  defccnt 
ol  dirt  ;  and  the  top  and  fides 
white  walhed,  to  incrcafe  the 
light,  and  (ill  up  chinks  thit  har- 
bour infefts.  Every  part  (hould 
be  kept  extremely  clean  and 
fweet,  and  nothing  (hould  enter 
into  it  which  can  cornipt  the  air. 
The  floor  (hould  be  made  of 
Itones,  bricks  or  tiles,  and  be 
freouently  wafhed  in  fummer 
with  the  coWeft  water,  to  cool 
and  fwecten  the  air  in  the  room  ; 
and  milk  Ihotild  not  be  fuffercd 
fo  ftand  in  it  till  it  becomes  four, 
left  the  fournefs  be  commnnicat- 
fo  that  which  is  fweet.  For  the 
fame  rcafon,  cream  which  is  put 
by  for  churning,  ought  not  to  be 
kept  in  that  apartment  which 
contains  the  milk.  Becaufe  acid- 
ity in  cream  is  expected,  and 
ncceffary  before  butter  will  come. 
Thofe  who  have  large  dairies, 
in  hot  climates,  having  a  fpring 
or  brook  near  the  dwelling  houle, 
might  find  it  worth  while  to 
build  a  milk  room  over  it,  with 
a  ftone  floor,  and  a  channel  in 
fhe  floor  to  pafs  the  water  all 
round,  near  the  inlidcs  of  the 
walls.  The  p^n^  may  br  fet  in 
the  channels,  and  waiter  lei  in  at 

f^leafure,  to  cool  the  milk  in  the 
jotteft  fcafon.  An  arch  of  brick 
fhould  be  turned  over  the  build- 
ing. The  windows,  to  Ic:  in 
light  and  air,  (hould  be  on  the 
northerly  (ide,  or  end.  To  (bel- 
ter the  arch  from  the  weather,  a 
itor>'  o(  wood  may  be  ercttcd 
ovor  k,  for  a  chcefc  room.    The 


D  I  T 


19 


\  arch  will  be  the  cooler  in  fum- 
mer and  wanner  in  winter,  as 
well  US  more  durable,  as  it  will 
be  defended  trom  ram,  &c. 

It  rats  and  mice  cannot  enter 
the-  milk  room,  there  will  be  no 
need  of  having  (helves  in  it. 
The  floor  is  the  bcft  place  (o  fet  the 
vcffels  of  milk  on,  it  being  cool- 
cit  in  (ummcr,  and  perhaps  warm- 
eft  when  the  weather  is  frofty. 

DARNEL,  Lohum,  a  trouble- 
fome  weed,  wliich  (onieiimes  ap- 
pears among  grain,  and  is  often 
\o  fruitful  as  to  fpoil  a  crop. 
The  feeds  of  it  relemble  corns 
of  blafted  rye,  but  are  more  light 
andchaff"v.'  Thefcweeds  (hould 
be  pulled  up  before  they  go  to 
feed.  But  grain  for  fowing  may- 
be moftly  cleared  of  the  feeds 
bv  fwimming  it  in  wafer. 

DENSHIIUNG,  fee  the  arti, 
cle  Burn  Bahng. 

DIBBLE,  among  gardeners 
the  name  of  a  tool,  or  forked 
ftick,  with  which  they  fet  plants, 
Dul.ofArts. 

DITCH,  a  narrow  channel, 
or  trench,  of  great  ufe  in  agri- 
culture. Ditches  ferve  two  pur- 
pofcs,  to  enclolc  groun.^s  and 
to  carry  off  fupertluous  water. 
When  they  are  ufcd  for  fences, 
they  (hould  be  four  feet  wide,  at 
leaft,  at  the  furfacc.  In  England 
they  make  them  wider.  But 
four  feet  ts  enough,  when  the 
railed  earth  is  laid  all  on  one 
fidr.  When  they  (erve  only  a*; 
drains,  they  (hould  be  wider  or 
narrower,  in  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  water  which  is  to 
pafs  through  them.  And  the 
earth  may  be  laid  in  heaps,  iii- 
ftead  of  laying  it  in  a  continued 
bank.  Thus  the  water  \Vill  the 
better  find  its  way  into  the  ditrh. 

A  ditch  (hoi:!d  W  t!ir»*e  times 
wider  at  the  top  than  h»  the  bot- 
tom, to  prcvrnt  the  failing  in  rtl 
the  {'J.ci.     Wh«i'  there  js  avur- 

rcnt 


89 


D  I  T 


rent  of  '.vater,  the  fides  v.-i11  fome- 
tirnes  be  undermined  by  it.  But 
in  this  country,  the  fides  ot  ditch- 
es are  often  hove  in  by  the  fe- 
vere  frofts  in  winter.  Nothing 
will  fo  much  prevent  the  filling 
up  of  ditches  as  flrong  rooted 
graffes,  or  other  pianti,  growing 
pientifuliv  on  their  margins. 

DITCHING,  the  making  of 
duches.  This  work  is  tnoft 
commonly  performed  in  fum- 
incr,  or  early  in  autumn.  When 
this  work  is  to  be  done  in  very 
low  and  wet  land,  a  hot  and  dry 
feafon  is  beft  ;  that  the  water 
may  not  prove  troubkfome,  nei- 
ther by  its  quantity,  nor  by  its 
coldnefs.  When  it  is  to  be  per- 
formed in  a  fait  marfh,  not  only 
a  dry  and  warm  time  fhould  be 
chofen  for  the  bufinefs,  but  it 
Ihouid  be  done  alfo  at  a  time 
when  the  tides  are  loweft.  On 
high  lands,  ditches  may  be  made 
at  almcfl  any  feafon,  when  the 
ground  is  not  frozen.  But  in 
the  fpring  the  digging  will  be 
eafieit,  the  ground  being  foften- 
ed  by  the  preceding  frofts.  But 
as  the  ground  is  driell  in  autumn, 
then  is  the  beft  time  for  ditching 
in  moft  of  our  low  lands.  At 
leaft,  the  month  of  September  is 
a  good  feafon.  But  farmers  muft 
be  governed,  as  to  the  time,  in 
fome  meafure,  by  their  own  con- 
veniency.  Itmuft  be  done  when 
no  other  bufinefs  of  greater  im- 
portance demands  the  whole  of 
their  attention  and  exertion. 

W'hen  bulhy  ground,  full  of 
ftrong  roots,  is  to  be  ditched,  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Eliot  wifely  recom- 
mends beginning  the  ditch  in 
the  winter,  when  the  ground  is 
frozen  two  or  three  inches  deep. 
The  furface  may  be  chopped  into 
pieces  by  a  broad  axe  with  a  long 
heive,  and  the  fods  pulled  out 
with  an  inftmment  made  like  a 
dung  croom.    The  farmer  may 


D  I  V 

probably  hit  upon  a  good  timi 
ior  this  work  in  December,  when 
there  happens  to  be  no  fnow,- 
and  when  it  will  not  interfere 
with  other  farming  bufinefs.  The 
lower  part  of  the  ditch  may  be 
done  in  the  following  fummer, 
or  autumn.  In  a  free  and  firm 
foil,  a  ditch  may  be  begun  with 
a  plough,  drawn  by  an  orderly 
team  that  will  keep  to  the  line. 
This  faves  labour. 

To  make  a  ditch  ftraight,  and 
equal  m  all  its  parts,  it  is  recom- 
mended that  the  work  be  regu- 
lated by  a  frame  of  flit  deal,  nail- 
ed together,  to  the  exatt  iize  of 
the  intended  ditch.  It  may  be 
a  rod  or  more  in  length,  and  a5 
wide  as  the  intended  ditch. 

DIVISIONS,  of  a  Farm,  lots 
enclofed  for  the  convenience  of 
tillage,  pafturing,  mowing,  &c. 

The  judicious  dividing  of  a 
farm  into  lots,  may  fave  much 
labour,  efpecially  much  travel- 
ing from  one  part  to  another. 
The  more  fquare  lots  are  made, 
the  more  is  faved  in  fencing. 
Crooked  fences  fhould  if  pofli- 
ble  be  avoided,  not  only  to  fave 
expenfe,  but  to  add  beauty  to  a 
field,  or  plantation.  All  tillage 
lots,  and  efpecially  fmall  ones, 
fnould  be  nearly  ot  equal  dimenl 
fions  on  all  fides  ;  for  if  a  lot  be 
out  of  fquaie,  the  labour  of 
ploughing  will  be  increafed,  as 
there  muft  be  a  number  of  fhort 
farrows.  If  a  lot  be  long  and 
narrow,  crofs  ploughing  will  be 
either  prevented,  or  the  labour 
of  it  much  increafed. 

W^hen  it  can  conveniently  be 
fo  ordered,  the  lots  defigned 
chiefly  for  tillage  fhould  be  near- 
eft  to  the  houfe  and  barn,  to  fave 
labour  in  carting  manure,  and 
to  prevent  lofs  in  getting  in  the 
crops.  The  nearer  grain  is,  the 
!efs  it  will  fhatter  out  in  caning. 
The  mowing  lots  fhould  be  ne.\t 


D  1  V 

tfl  the  till«j:c,  if  the  foil  permits ; 
■4  lil  beJur.^Cvi.autl  ihcir 

Ci  , --  "{"oi:  Th;!  l<;;s  tor|>ailiir- 
4ge  iWuld  be  C9&irivc'i  to  he  next. 
Mvi  tn«  vfooii  lots  t'^rthcfi  ot  all 
the  lots  Irom  the  lioufc.  ih«a  fo  the 
viev*'  <A  th«  (ithcr  lots  m.»y  noi 
Ur  obilrut-ted  too  much  by  trees. 
Suppolc  A  iATin  oi  one  hundretl 
teres.  lying  *II  <)n  one  fuir  of  the 
road,  100  rods  wi*lc  on  Uic  road, 
^i<l  }6o  ro(is  deep  ;  it  iiuy  he 
veil  divided  according  to  tlw? 
foll'jwinx  fcheint'  : — 


D  O  O 


Si 


»• 

< 

C     M. 

d 

d 

<; 

/■ 

¥ 

>— 

f      "W 

c 

(i 

V 

^ 

/ 

< 

Where  4  i-^  the  fartn  luxtle,  b 

the  b«m  ;  f  c  /■  r  the  tillage  lots, 

«i  whicJi  one  of  the  corner  onc$ 

fnay  contain  the  orchard,  that  it 

may  rtot  obflrufi  the  view  o\  the 

t»tlter  i>Jris  ol  the  farm.    Ti>ele 

tots  arc  fotnmimeii  to  be  rcftcd, 

by  Ijying  them  to  grafs ;  d  d  d  d 

Mie^Mag  lot?;,  once  in  awhth^  to 

he   ufefl   as   tilltgo  ;  c  «  pallure 

lots  ;  f  J  v»ood  lots,  to  be  uied 

dift)  M  p»ftures.    Tlje  imni  lots 

are  fivt;  .nrei  each,  tl»o  reli.  ten, 

excepting   what  ^h.^.   lane  lake^ 

f.p.  whjcii  ttn>uld   not   be  very 

nirruw,  l«il  it  be  bloi:ked  up  f(iO 

ionch  wifh  fiTow  \x\  wiiuev.    The 

find   »i  cuntjins   \*ill  be  nfchd 

'   "p^  ;  fo  thai  Its  wide- 

!)e  no  lofs. 

y\i   tnii  plan,  the  laboiir  <»f 

irivic.7  cattle  out  an  I  m,  morn- 

'♦ig  and  evening,  will  be  laved, 

!     th'"   I'll"   f-mv   Hf"  alu'.iys   in 

■  •  •  '    re  whi':h 

'  ^i^es  ol  ail 


If  the  lane  pafs  through  funk- 
en  land,  the  owner  had  belter  bo 
at  the  expenfe  ot  a  little  cauley- 
ing,  tlwn  fpoil  the  regularity  of  his 
lots  by  making  it  crooked.  Or, 
fi)nietimes  a  bog  or  a  lleep  hill 
may  be  avoided,  by  niakinK  the 
lane  a  little  on  one  [\<\t  ot  the 
centre  of  the  farm,  biK  dill  par- 
allel to  the  fitlcs.  If  tl;c  lots  dcf- 
tined  tor  tiiUne  be  too  low,  or 
wet,  it  fliouM  be  confidered 
whether  they  may  not  be  made 
fufiicicsitly  dry  by  draining.  If 
fo,  there  will  be  no  need  of  cau- 
feyiiig. 

Wlien  a  farm  is  niord  oblong 
(hapcd  than  I  ha.ve  here  fuppol- 
rd,  the  lots  may  be  Ipngthenci 
the  other  way,  or  made  fmaller, 
as  Ihall  be  found  convenient. 
Small  lot5  arc  generally  the  moll 
protitable,  in  proportion  to  their 
nuantity  of  lauKl.efpecially  whea 
iQcy  are  nfed  as  paflurcs. 

If  a  farm  be  out  of  fauare,  a 
lane,  perhaps,  may  l>e  had  paral- 
lel to  one  of  its  fides  ;  fo  that 
fome  fquaie  lots  may  be  obtained 
I  bw-  tillage.  The  ilupc  of  lots 
utd  only  for  other  purpofcs,  \^ 
not  ot  \yi  much  conlequence. 
Leafl  of  all  ihofc  which  are  for-* 
I  efts. 

j  1  here  are  doub  tlefs  many  farmi 
I  fo  broketi  and  irregular  as  to  be 
I  <juite  incanablc  (A  the  above  reg- 
I  uLition.  ^ut  all  I  would  coa- 
;  tend  for  is,  that  wlien  it  is  prac- 
j  ticablc,  without  too  much  e.\- 
'  pcnfc,  a  taj-m  fhould  be  fo  ordei- 
!  cd.  It  will  \>c  ot  great  adv;in- 
I  tagc  to  tlic  farmer,  in  fanng 
I  Uine  and  UU^ur. 
I  DOOR  DUN'G.  a  ruanurc 
taken  tiom  the  b-U^k  vards  and 
\  doors  of  dwe.lUng  houfcs. 
;  Thotigh  it  may  fcenj  to  bo 
ma<le  itp  ot  chip's  Caw  duft,  4.\\\ 
I  levcral  otfu  r  matters  that  appear 
I  uniHonnfing.  veii.wrcare  vaiioiw 
!  fubAances  iuicr«riiiu:d  witu  tlicm, 

ani 


82 


t)  R  A 


and  foaked  into  them,  wliich 
co!itain  food  for  plants  in  abun- 
d.mcc.  A  large  proportion  ot 
the  dung  of  fwine  and  of  fowls, 
which  are  excellent  manures,  are 
contained  in  the  comport.  It 
lias,  befides,  the  fweepiiigs  of  the 
houfe,  blood,  fma?!  bones,  fhells, 
and  other  animal  fubftances  ;  alfo 
fiids,  afhes,  foot,  nrine,  together 
with  fait  particles,  which  are 
Ibme  ot  the  beft  of  manures. 

It  is,  therefore,  no  wonder  if 
tliis  filth  is  foimd  to  be  very  con- 
ducive to  the  growth  of  plants, 
as  it  really  is. 

Some  think  it  beft  to  let  it  lie 
year  after  year  in  the  yard,  that 
Tt  may  grow  fine  and  mellow. 
But  it  is  wafted  by  this  prafctice, 
the  fun,  air,  and  rain,  depriving 
it  of  its  volatile,  fine,  and  moft 
fru-^-tifying  particles.  I  choofe 
ih  be  rid  of  its  piitrid  fteams, 
and  place  if  where  it  may  do 
good  and  not  hurt.  I,  therefore, 
haA'e  it  fcraped  up  clean  every 
rpring,  clearing  it  of  the  largeft 
And  brighteft  chips  ;•  and  after  it 
has  lain  in  a  heap  for  a  tew  days 
to  ferment,  apply  it  to  the  foil  in 
the  field,  though  it  be  nof  fine 
enough  for  the  garden  ;  or  elfe 
add  it  to  the  cojnpoft  dunghill. 
1  'find  it  to  be  a  very  proper  ma- 
nure for  land  that  is  ftiff  and  clay- 
ey ;  and  it  will  do  great  fervice 
in  any  foil. 

Thofe  farmers  are  certainly 
gtiilty  ot  bad  hufbandry,  who 
take  no  care  to  avail  thcmfelves 
of  this  excellent  manure,  of 
which  they  all  have  more  or  l"efs ; 
and  that  is  commonly  beft,  where 
the  greateft  number  ot  fwine  are 
permitted  to  run. 

DRAIN,  a  channel  made  in 
the  foil  to  carry  off  fupertluous 
Avatei ,  or  ui\'ert  its  courfe. 

Drains  are  of  the  higheft  im- 
portance in  agriculture  :  For,  by 
jiieans  of  them,  lands  that  are  fo 


D  R  A 

wet  and  fenny  as  to  be  entirery' 
ufelefs,  may  oftentimes  become 
by  far  the  moft  valuable  part  of 
a  farm.  It  would  be  happy  for 
this  country,  if  the  hulbandmen 
were  tully  convinced  of  the  vaft 
utility  of  them.  The  real  value 
of  fome  eftates  might  be  doubled, 
by  a  fmall  expenfe  in  draining. 

Drains  ufed  in  farming  are  of 
two  kinds,  open,  and  hollow,  or 
covered.  The  open  drains  are 
moftly  ufed,  becaufe  more  eafily 
made.  But  if  the  firft  coft  be 
fefs,  the  expenfe,  in  the  long  run, 
may  not  be  lefs,  but  greater  than 
that  of  covered  drains.  For  they 
will  be  continually  filling  up  ; 
and,  therefore,  will  often  need  to 
be' mended. 

Open  drains  are  to  be  fhaped 
tike  other  ditches,  wider  at  the 
furface  than  at  the  bottom.  And, 
for  a  general  rule,  they  ttould 
be  carried  through  the  loweft 
and  wetteft  parts  of  the  foil, 
though  it  ihould  caufe  them  to 
be  crooked  and  unfightly.  The 
water  will  be  carried  off  more 
efieftually  ;  and  fome  labour  in 
digging  will  be  faved  ;  for  it 
they  pvafs  through  the  higher 
parts,  the  ditch  muft  be  deeper, 
at  leaft  in  fome  places.  But 
where  a  piain  is  incommoded 
with  too  much  water  defcending 
from  an  adjacent  height,  the  wa- 
ter muit  be  cut  off  by  an  open 
drain  drawn  along  at  the  foot  of 
the  high  ground,  and  the  earth 
which  is  taken  out  fhould  be 
laid  on  the  fide  towards  the  plain. 
Open  drains  ferve  well  enough 
in  fwamps,  if  the  foil  be  not  too 
loofe,  fo  as  to  fill  them  up  foon. 
In  this  cafe  the  covered  drains  are 
certainly  beft,  efpeciall/  %\'herc 
materials  lor  making  them  are 
ealily  obtained. 

The  earth  that  is  thrown  out 
of  open  drains  in  fwamps  fhould 
not  lie  in  banks  by  the  fide  o£ 

them.' 


D  R  A 

<tiem.  This  will  tend  to  prevent 
the  water  trom  pafling  freely  in- 
to them,  and  conduce  to  thtir  fill- 
ing up  the  fooner.  It  Ihoitid  be 
fpreaa  over  the  furtacc  ot  the 
arained  land,  whuh  will  make 
it  drier,  and  romctunes  anfwer 
as  a  g(x)d  manure.  And,  in  this 
operation,  there  will  be  otten  a 
mixing  ot  foils,  attended  with 
conlidcrabic  advantage. 

To  judge  rightly,  wUetJicr  ii 
will  ho  worth  while  to  attempt 
the  draining  ot   a  Iwamp,  it  is 
firll  to  be  conlidcred  what  will 
be  tiic  coll  of  digging  at  tlie  out- 
let, where  it  will,  in>fomc  cafes, 
he  necefTary   to  go   very  deep. 
It  large  rocks  fhould  be  found  in 
the  way,  they  may  be  blown  to 
pieces  with  gun   powder.     But 
doing  this  is  fomewhat  expeu- 
live.      Alfo,   the   depth   ot'  the 
black  foil  in  the  fwamp  mult  be 
examined,  and  the  liratum  ne.vt 
under  it.     It  the  under  ilratuin 
be  clay,  the  f\Vdmp  may  be  well 
worth  tiraining,  though  no  more 
than  fix  inches  ot  till  or  niudl)e 
above  it  ;  for  the  mud  and  clay 
mixed,  will  make  an  excellent 
foil.     But  if  the  under  llratuin 
be  gravel,  or  white  faad,  it  will 
not  be  bell  to  undertake  drain- 
ing, unlcfs  the   depth  of  black 
mud  be  as  much  as  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches,     Yur  it  is  to 
be  remembered  thai  the  foil  will 
fettle  after  draining,  and  be  not 
fo  deep  as  it  wa.s  btf<>rf.     II.  af- 
ter draining  and  haidening.  there 
fhould  be  a  fufficieot  deptli  for 
tillage,  the  foil  will  be  moil  ex- 
cellent ;  and  will  pay   well  lor 
an  exjKnfive  draining. 

The  manner  of  draining  a 
fwamp  is  as  follows  :  Beginning 
at  the  outlet,  pafs  a  large  ditcli 
through  it,  (o  as  moflly  to  ^ui 
the  lowell  part*.  Thcji  make 
another  ditch  quite  round  it.  near 
to    tKc    berd-r.    Ui    cut     oir   f!  <• 


D  R  A 


88 


fprings  which  come  from  the  up- 
land, and  to  receive  the  water 
iliat  runs  down  from  Uic  hills 
upon  the  fiirlacc,  ni  gr«!at  rains. 
1  liefc  tlitrlu's  <mc  to  be  larger  ojr 
fnialLer  in  lome  proportion  to 
the  bignefs  of  the  fwamp,  having 
a  regular  dcfcent  for  the  water, 
that  not  much  of  it  nuy  Hand  ii\ 
tlvcm.  It  the  fwamp  bv!  large,  it 
may  licnccelfary  that  foir.e  f mail- 
er crofs  drains  IhouM  be  tut  in 
feveral  of  the  lowell  parts.  The 
bottom  o\  tjie  mam  <iitcheJs 
when  the  foil  h  cot  of  an  extra- 
ordinary deptJi,  i;iuft  be  lower 
than  the  Iwttom  of  the  loofe  foil ; 
otherwife  the  foil  will  never  be- 
come lufHcieiitly  dry  and  firm, 
Wiieij  the  fwamp  comci  to  bo 
fuBiciently  dry  ior  tillage,  fucli 
of  the  drains  may  be  converted 
into  hollow  ones, as  cannt»t  prohi- 
abjy  be  kept  open  tor  fences. 
Thus  the  quantity  of  impioved- 
ble  land  will  be  increalcvi. 

It  a  bridge  over  any  of  the 
drains  Ihould  be  wanted,  tlxbcli 
way  to  make  one  will  be  by  fill- 
ing up  a  Ihort  piece  ol  the  drain 
with  itojies,  oi  wood,  that  is,  by 
making  it  hollow  in  that  part. 
This  Will  bcJefs  cxpcnfive  than 
a  common  bridjje,  and  aniwer 
tjie  uurpolc  better. 

Thofe  who  are  willing  to  bo 
convinced  ot  the  a-Tuz-ing  iruii- 
fuinefs  of  drained  lwan;ps,  Ihoul  J 
read  ^Ir.  Kiiot  on  the  lubjecr. 
He  reprefents  tljem  as  producin^f 
tiiriiips,  clover,  oats,  ike.  to  great 
a'ivantage  ;  LngliUi  hay,  four 
tons  j>er  acre,  and  Indian  corn 
at  the  rate  of  n:ore  tlian  ninety 
biifhels  per  acre,  witliout  ma- 
nuring. 

Such  land  .  are  highly  ad/nn- 
tageous,  as  they  require  no  dime  ; 
and  cannot  be  cafjly,  if  at  all, 
Avorn  out  by  cropping  :  Alio,  as 
th«v  bear  drought  remarkably 
\<.rU       \<-'i;    .  .ytintry  vciv  oft* 

eff 


^4  D  R  A 

en  has  its  crops  greatly  dimin- 
iflied  by  dry  feafons,  it  would  be 
■\\ei!  if  evei"y  farmer  had  contin- 
ually fome  of  this  kind  of  foil  in 
tiliage,  or  mowing,  or  in  both. 

Covered  or  hollow  drains  are 
moie  ufed  for  the  dr\'ing  of 
fpringy,  wet  and  fpungy  uplands. 
They  may  he  ufed  with  advan- 
tage on  gentle  declivities,  where 
the  foil  appears  fpewy  and  cold, 
by  means  of  fprings.  They  will 
caufe  the  foil  above  and  below 
them,  to  be  more  dn,'  and  fruit- 
ful. But  it  the  defcent  be  ver)' 
ffeep,  or  if  the  wetnefs  of  de- 
clivities be  owing  only  to  water 
running  down  on  the  farface,  the 
open  drains  are  to  be  preferred  : 
For  if  they  were  covered,  the 
water  would  pafs  over  them,  and 
the  drain  v.'ould  be  of  little  ad- 
vantage. 

To  make  a  hollow  drain,  dig 
a  channel  between  thirty  and 
thirty  fix  inches  wide  atop,  and 
fix  inches,  or  the  breadth  of  a 
fpade,  at  the  bottom,  and  three 
feet  deep,  giving  it  juft  defcent 
enough  to  make  the  water  run 
brifKly.  Fill  it  half  lull,  or  more, 
with  fmall  ilones,  thrown  in  at 
random,  and  cover  them  with  a 
layer  of  Itraw,  leaves,  or  the 
fmali  branches  of  trees  with  the 
leaves  on  them  ;  then  fill  it  up 
to  a  level  with  the  fiirface,  with 
the  earth  th»at  was  tlirov»!i  out. 
Such  a  drain,  as  it  will  notcltoke 
or  fill  np,  will  never  i^eetl  repair- 
ing, li  the  defcent  ihould  be 
but  juft  fo  much  as  to  make  the 
water  run  ilov^'ly,  there  may  be 
fome  danger  ot  its  choking  np, 
and  ceafing  to  rjm  at  all.  But 
this  danger  will  be  greater  or  Icfs 
according  to  the  difference  of 
foils.  There  will  be  no  danger 
of  it,  in  a  foil  that  does  not  eali- 
}y  diffolve  in  water. 

If  floijc-s  be  fcarce,  long  fag- 
gots,  or    tafcines,    I£d    in    the 


D  R  A 

trench,  will  anfwer  as  well,  fo 
long  as  they  lad  ;  \.'hich  being 
fecluded  from  the  air,  will  not 
rot  foon.  Some  fay  they  have 
known  them  to  anfwer  weW  for 
forty  years. 

If  a  plain  piece  of  around  be 
too  wet  to  be  made  fit  for  tillage 
by  ridge  ploughing,  it  IhouW  be 
made  drier  by  hollow  drains.  If 
no  lower  place  be  adjoining, 
where  the  drains  may  have  an 
outlet,  holes  fhould  be  dug  iti 
fome  of  the  loweft  parts  of  the 
plain,  to  examine  what  ftrata  are 
under  the  foil.  It  is  likely  that 
a  llraium  of  clay,  or  of  fome  oth- 
er earth  not  eafily  penetrated  by- 
water,  is  the  real  caufe  of  the 
wetnefs  of  the  foil.  If  you  find 
it  foj  then  dig  through  the  ftra- 
tum,  and  below  it,  till  you  com* 
to  loofe  gravel,  fand,  or  fome- 
thing  that  will  eafiJy  imbibe  wa- 
ter :  Fill  up  the  hole  with  ftones, 
and  direM  your  hollov,-  drains  to 
it.  It  will  ferve  for  a  perpetual 
outlet  ;  and  conduce  much  to 
the  drying  of  the  foil. 

The  peculiar  advantages  of 
hollow  drains  are,  that  they  will 
not  need  repairing,  as  they  do 
not  fill  up  ;  th^i!  no  foil  is  wait- 
ed, or  rendered  ufelefs  by  them  ; 
that  a  plough  may  pafs  over 
them  to  2S  great  a  depth  as  is 
neceffary  in  any  kind  of  tillage  ; 
and  cart>  ami  other  carriages  are 
not  obflru£ied  or  incommodetl 
by  thern.  So  that  thefe  drain*, 
may  pafs  acrofs  roads  vnthxjut 
detriment,  when  the  defcent  re- 
quires it.  It  is  often  nejceiFary 
to  hollow  drain  roads  to  lay 
them  dry,  and  found  to  be  ot 
great  advantage. 

The  drai.niiig  of  a  mtrifb,  or 
fhaking  meadow,  which  feems  vo 
be  a  foil  floating  on  the  water,  it 
fometiines  pratticable.  I  fh«U 
give  the  reader  the  method  of 
doing  it  in  rhe  words  ci  tile  ift* 
gcniaus 


D  R  A 

j»caioi«  Mr,  Dickfon.— "  To 
<li<iin  a  manlh,"  [a\%  he,  "  it  is 
I'K'cell'ary,  in  the  hill  plare,  to 
convey  aw^y  all  the  llngrntin;; 
water  :  Anri  this  w.iter  can  be 
conveyeil  away  in  ii<»  other  man- 
ner, than  hy  a  iari^c  open  drain, 
with  ii  lullicicnt  full.  This  inll 
mud  be  Inch,  as  to  carry  oft'  the 
water  Inun  the  lM)lt(»m  of  the 
marilh  ;  othcrwilc  little  advan- 
tage is  to  be  cxp«^leci  Ik^pi  it. 
By  conveyinj:  away  all  the  Ibg- 
natin^  water,  lome  latid  on  each 
lide  will  be  gained  :  For  the  wa- 
tt-T  being  removed,  the  earth  by 
degrees  will  iubfnle,  and  become 
firm  and  folid.  By  thin,  likewifc, 
the  bottom  will  become  firm  ; 
which  will  allow  the  drain,  by 
degrees,  to  be  carried  forward 
lhron;;h  the  middle  of  the  marilh. 
Jf  the  fpriogs.bv  which  them. iriLh 
is  fiipplicd,  arile  near  fhe  middle, 
rhis  pnncipal  drain,  with  Ionic 
branches  cut  from  each  fide, 
where  the  fprings  ;ire  larceft,  or 
moA  numerous,  will  be  fumcient, 
But  if  tl»ero  arc  fprings   m  all 

{>bccs,  as  is  frequently  the  cale, 
t  will  be  iiecellary  to  make 
drains  at  the  fides,  as  nearly  par- 
allel to  the  principal  drain,  as 
the  fiiuation  of  the  marilh  will 
allow,  to  intercept  the  water  that 
comes  from  the  heights,  and 
fupplies  I'ne  fprings.  It  will  be 
niceirar^',  liKewifc,  to  make  com- 
munications, by  crofs  drains,  be* 
twixl  the  parallel  drains  at  the 
fides, and  the  principal  draiiv.n  the 
middle."  It  is  no  wonder  if  the 
coti  of  draining  a  ftiakinjj  mead- 
ow Ihould  be  connderable,  as  it 
feems  like  u  foil  tloating  upon 
water.  Hut  there  is  norcafi>n  to 
doubt  its  becoming  (ome  of  tire 
bed  f«>il,  when  fo  dnitned  as  to 
give  firmnefs  to  if. 

DRAY,  or  car,  a  flight  kir.d 
ot  rarfijce  dra'..f:  by  o?re  horie. 
h  confift?  oi  a  pair  of  thilfJ,  con- 


D  R  E 


«5 


Reeled  by  two  or  three  crofs  ban. 
The  hinder  ends  of  the  thills 
lli<le  along  on  the  ground,  h 
draws  heavily  on  bate  roads,  but 
on  gfafs  land  nine h  more  eafily. 
'i'ho  horle  mull  cany  mucli  of 
the  load  on  his  back.  In  cafe  of 
necellity,  it  is  better  than  no  car- 
riage. 

DUKSSIXG,  the  appliratiofi" 
of  dung,  or  other  manure*, to  foils, 
to  inca'jfe  their  fniiifiilnrt''s. 
Dreifing  differs  from  inauunng 
in  general,  only  as  it  is  chiclly 
intended  for  the  incre.ifing  of 
o.ne  fingle  crop.  Not  only  arc 
drertin^s  ncceflary  lor  poor  and 
vs'cak  loils  ;  but  fhcv  are  profit- 
ably applied  to  thofe  which  are 
rich  and  llroiig;  cfpecially  when 
feeds  are  Town  which  need  much 
n(uniflunent,  or  will  make  good 
return  for  it. 

There  are  four  things  chiefly 
to  be  regarded  in  dreiTing  ;  the 
fuitablenefs  of  thedreffing  to  thr; 
foil,  und  to  the  crop  ;  and  thi: 
maimer  and  the  feafon  of  apply- 

To  light,  warm,  or  fandy  foils, 
the  coldefl  manure  fhould  be  ap- 
plied ;  f:tch  as  the  dung  of  hogs, 
cows,  oxen,  ^:c.  Dung  that  is 
much  mixed  with  flraw  docs  heft 
in  fuch  a  foil,  :is  the  liraw  foon 
rots  cind  becomes  food  for  plants. 
C(-l.»  and  lliff  foils  fhould  be 
drelfed  with  the  hottell  and  dri- 
ell  manures,  as  the  dun|  of 
horfcs  fhecp  and  fowls.  Wet 
foils  (hoidd  have  manirres  thai 
have  the  greaiefl  power  of  ab- 
f'>it>ing  moiflure.  Lime,  where 
It  is  cheap  and  plenty,  may  h6 
ufcd  with  great  advantage  ;  alh- 
cv,  coals,  and  faw  dufl,  arc  alfd 
very  proper. 

Sonre  kinds  of  drcfTmg  fhould 
be  \rell  mixed  with  the  foil,  by 
the  plongli  and  harrow  ;  efpc- 
cially  fucn  as  arc  apt  to  lofe  their 
flrc.Tjilh,  by    being  c.xpofed  ia 

the 


«6  D  R  E 

the  air.  Of  this  fort  are  duii»s 
in  genera],  and  fome  other  ma- 
nures. Dung  is  to  be  ploughed 
in  with  a  hght  furrow.  Com- 
poits,  which  connil  of  dung, 
earth,  and  other  fubllances,  need 
only  to  be  harrowed.  If  drefT- 
ings  are  laid  too  deep,  as  under 
deep  furrows,  they  will  be  in  a 
manner  loll  ;  the  roots  of  moft 
kinds  of  annual  plants  v,dll 
fcarcely  reach  them  ;  and,  be- 
fore the  next  ploughing,  the 
ftrength  of  them  will  be  funk 
ftill  deeper  into  the  earth. 

There  are  other  manures  which 
fhould  be  ufed  only  as  top  drelT- 
ings.  Their  cxpofure  to  the  air 
takes  away  little  or  none  of  their 
virtue,  being  of  an  alkalious  na- 
ture, mch  as  aihcs,  lime,  and  the 
like.  They  are  fpeedily  fettled 
into  the  foil  by  rains,  and  melt- 
ing fnows  ;  and  afford  a  more 
kindly  nourifhment  to  the  roots 
of  grafs  and  grain,  than  if  they 
were  buried  in  the  foil.  Being 
laid  lower  than  the  furiace,  their 
ifrength  would  be  more  apt  to 
be  carried  lower  than  the  roots 
of  plants  commonly  reach. 

Some  drefhngs  are  thought  to 
be  more  fuccefsfully  applied 
fome  time  before  fowing.  Such 
a  one  lime  is  faid  to  be,  as  being 
apt  to  burn,  or  too  much  heat 
the  feed.  But  this,  I  think,  can 
be  only  when  it  is  laid  on  un- 
flacked,  and  in  large  Quantities. 

Other  dreflings  anfwer  beft  at 
the  time  of  fowing.  This  is  the 
cafe  as  to  mofl  kinds  of  dung 
that  are  ufed,  and  of  feveral  oth- 
er manures. 

But  thofe  manures  which  ex- 
ert all  their  flrength  fuddenly, 
are  allowed  to  be  belt,  ufed  only 
as  top  dreffings,  after  the  plants 
are  up,  fuch  as  foot,  afhes,  cer- 
tain warm  conipofls,  and  malt 
jduff.  If  they  are  laid  on  winter 
grain  in  autumn,  there  will  be 


D  R  I 

(?anger  of  their  caufmg  too  rapid 
a  growth  :  In  confequence  of 
which,  the  grain  will  be  after- 
wards flinted,  and  languifh,  un- 
lefs  another  and  larger  dreffmg 
be  given  it  in  the  following 
fpring,  or  fummer.  It  is  proba- 
bly bell  to  apply  thefe  drefhngs 
jufl  before  the  time  when  the 
plants  will  need  the  greateft  fup- 
ply  of  vegetable  nourilhment, 
which  is  when  their  growth  is 
moft  rapid,  or  near  the  time 
when  the  ears  are  (hooting  out. 

The  adapting  of  dreffings  to 
the  nature  of  plants  will  be  found, 
in  thofe  parts  of  this  work,  where 
the  moft  ufeful  plants  are  treat- 
ed of. 

DRILL,  "  a  name  given  to 
an  inftrument  tor  fowing  feeds 
in  the  new  method  of  horfe  hoe- 
ing hufbandry.  It  plants  the 
corn  in  rows,  makes  the  chan- 
nels, fows  the  feeds  in  them, 
and  covers  them  with  earth  when 
fown  ;  and  all  this  at  the  fame 
time  with  great  expedition.  The 
principal  parts  of  a  drill  are  the 
feed  box,  the  hopper,  the  plough 
and  its  harrow,  bt  all  which  the 
feed  box  is  the  chief.  It  meal- 
ures  or  rather  numbers  out  the 
feeds,  which  it  receives  from  the 
hopper,  and  is  for  this  purpofe 
as  an  artificial  hand  ;  but  it  de- 
livers out  the  feed  much  more 
equally  than  can  be  done  by  a 
natural  hand, 

"  Whoev.er  is  defirous  of 
knowing  more  intimately  the 
whole  apparatus  for  this  method 
of  fov/ing,  may  fee  it  fully  de- 
fcribed,  and  illuftrated  with  fig- 
ures, by  Mr.  Tull,  in  his  Hor/e 
Hoeing  Hujhandry."  Did.  of 
Arts.  . 

The  drills  which  are  defcrib- 
ed  by  European  writers  are  very 
complicated  and  collly  machines. 
But  I  have  had  barley,  carrot, 
and  fopgie  other  feeds,  evenly  and 
expeditioufly 


D  R  I 

expeditiouny  drilled  by  a  hand 
dull,  being  only  a  light  tin  meaf- 
uff ,  with  a  hole  through  the  hot- 
torn,  and  a  broad  lieaded  fpike 
in  the  hole.     When  this  is  iifcd, 
channels  on  the  ridges  mull  be 
previoufly  made  with  the  head 
of  a  rake.     But  a  drill,  which  I 
%vould  rather  recommend  for  ufe, 
on  account  of  its  lightncfi,  and 
fimple   conftniftion,    is   a    drill 
upon  fiiiall  wheels,  to  be  drawn 
bv  a  man,  or  by  one  or  two  boys. 
7*0  the  hinder  part  of  the  axis  is 
faflcned  a  long  Ihapcd,  tapering 
1  cifel,  ferving  at  once  as  a  hop- 
per, drill  box,  and  hofe.     Below 
the  middle  is  a  partition,  through 
^hich  is  a  hole  for  the  feeds  to 
pafs   into   the  hofe.     The   hole 
has  a  Aiding  cover,  which  flops 
and  opens  it  two  or  tliree  times 
in  a  fecond,  by  being  faftcncd  to 
a  fpring  that  is  moved  by  one  of 
the  wheek,     A  coulter  to  open 
the  channel  may  be  made  !aii  to 
the  fore  part  of  tlie  axis,  as  much 
longer   than    the  fpokes  of  the 
wheels  as  the  deptli  at  which  the 
feeds  are  to  be  buried  :  And  this, 
as  well  as  the  box,  may  be  fixed 
higher  or  lower  o,n  the  axis  at 
pleafure,  according  as  the  fow- 
ing  is  to  be  performed,  on  ridg- 
ts  or  on  a  level  ;  or  according  1 
to  the  depths  at  which  different 
feeds  are  to  be   fown.     A  final  I  j 
harrow,   or   rake,  to    cover   the  \ 
feeds,  may  as  well  follow  this,  as  i 
a  drill  of  any  otl>er  conllrutlion.  j 
I  have  fecn  a  drill  nearly  of  this  { 
conflruction  in  pofli-fTion  of  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Little  of  Wells.     And 
I  cannot  but  prefer  fuch  a  hand  I 
drill  to  a  he«\y  conjp.^rx  one,  i 
drawn  by  a  horle  :  For  the  tre^id  ' 
ot  a  hoife  makes  fuch  holes  in 
the  foil,  as  mull  needs  render  the 
opcfittion  ol  drilling  lefs  accu-  | 
fate,  or  more   iinpcrfett.    Two 
boxes  with  coulters  may  as  well 
be  fixed  on  the  machine  I  rcc-  ' 


D  R  O 


8 


7 


ommend  as  one  ;  but  it  will  in- 
creafe  the  l.ihour  of  drawing  ir. 
DROUGHT,  fuch  a  contin- 
nance  of  dry  weather,  that  plant* 
cannot  draw  a  fufficicncy  of 
noiiiifhment  from  the  e^rth,  to 
give  them  their  full  growth  and 
perfe6tion. 

Some  countries  are  mucli  more 
liable  to  this  inconvenience  than 
others.  Newengland,  for  in- 
flance,  is  oftcner  troubled  with 
it  than  Greatbritain  ;  one  occa- 
fion  of  which  is,  tlie  greater  heat 
of  our  fimimers,  by  which  lands 
grow  dry  fafler  here  than  there. 
Another  caufe  may  be  our  hav- 
ing a  greater  quantity  of  fair 
weather.  And  our  being  more 
liable  to  dronght,  makes  it  nee- 
effary  that  our  methods  of  cul- 
ture fhould  be  different  from 
tfiofe  pra6tifed  in  that  country. 
Heating  manures  are  generally 
more  needful  there  than  here  ; 
and  ridge  jiloughing  is  a  more 
proper  kind  ot  tillage  for  the 
Engiifh  than  for  us— (hough  if 
might  be  of  great  fervice  in  ma- 
ny of  our  fields,  I  have  found 
confiJerahle  advantage  from  it 
rn  land  that  is  flat  and  wet. 

To  plough  our  driell  lands  in 
ridgt*<5,  would  undoubtedly  he 
lolt  labour,  unlefs  for  certain 
particular  crops,  as  it  would  caufe 
a  drought  to  be  more  hurtful  to 
the  crops,  ?n\d  there  is  no  dan- 
ger of  ^too  much  wetnefs.  And 
yet  it  may  be,  that  when  :in  o^^cr 
flrynefs  of  foil  on  the  fide  of  a 
hill,  is  owing  to  the  rain's  rim- 
ning  off  before*  it  has  time  to 
foak  into  the  fori,  ploughing  the 
land  imo  ridges,  and  making  tfie 
glitters  rrearly  parallel  with  the 
jjorizon,  may  caufe  the  foil  to  re- 
tain moiflirre  the  better.  But  as 
this  would  bv-  difficult  plotigh- 
ing,  prrhai)s  libbinj^  the  furfai  e 
with  furrows  half  a  rod  aparr, 
TU'ght  as  well  retard  the  efcape 

of 


83 


PRO 


of  the  rain  water.    This  latter  | 
incthofi  voiild  be  proper  for  paf- 
ture  grounds,  which  lie  in  fuch 
a  fituation. 

It  IS  in  the  pover  of  the  f^rm^ 
er  in  good  meafure  to  guard  a- 
^ainft  the  ill  effects  of  drought. 
It    is    a  matter    that    certainly 
ought  to  be  attended  to  in  thi^ 
country,  in  vhich  almoflji^lt  vi 
our  fammers  are  complained  of 
by  many,  asbeingvery  dr>'.  The 
heft  method  is,  to  have  more  of 
our  loweft  lands  under  the  heil 
improvement  in  tillage.     If  this 
were  the  cafe,  we  Ihould  not  fo 
often  hear  of    a  fcarcity   cauf- 
ed  by  drought.     If  it  u-ere  be- 
come cuflomary   to   plant    and 
fow  on  drained   lands,   and   in 
thofe  which  are  fo  low  and  wet 
as  to  need  laying  in  ridges,  pof- 
f;bly  our  dry  fummers  would  be 
*s  fruitful  on  the  whole  as  our 
wet  ones.     But,  as  we  manage 
our  lands  at  prefent,  the  cafe  is 
far  otherwife.     A  great  number 
pf  i^eople  are  always  reduced  to  j 
a  difijelTed  condiiion  by  a  dry  \ 
fummer.  And  they  are  too  ready  j 
to  confider  the  fhortnefs  of  their  '■ 
crops  in  a  dry  year  as  a  divine  ] 
^judgment,   though    they   might  I 
have  prevented  it  by  a  more  pru- 
dent management.  _       ' 

Another  way  to  guard  againft 
having  our  crops  pinched  by 
drought  is,  to  have  a  variety  of 
<iifferent  crops  on  a  farm  each 
year,  fprne  that  are  leall  injured 
cy  a  drought,  and  forae  that  re- 
quire the  moil  rain.  Thus,  let  a 
leafon  happen  as  it  will,  we  may 
hope  to  gain  in  one  crop,  what 
we  lofe  in  another  ;  or  at  leail 
that  fome  of  our  crops  will  be 
very  good,  if  others  fhould  fail. 
Sometimes  land  is  fo  (haped 
by  nature,  that  the  water  of  a 
rivulet,  or  of  a  plentiful  fpring, 
mav  be  led  by  gutters,  or  narrow 
channels,  to  moiften places  which 


D  R  a 

would  otbenfc'ife  fnffer  by  drought* 
When  it  can  be  be  performed, 
^\.•ilhout  too  jTuich  expenfe,  it 
will  be  found  to  be  aji  excellent 
j«ece  of  hufbandry.  In  ibm^ 
cafes  it  may  he  a  double  advaa* 
tage,  making  a  wet  place  drier, 
by  diverting  the  water  to  places 
that  need  it.  Deep  tillage  is  al. 
fo  af  very  great  importance  to 
prevent  the  ill  effects  of  a  dry 
feafon.  For  the  drynelJi:  of  three 
or  four  inches  in  depth  vt)uld 
fcajceiy  alter  the  condition  oi 
the  plants.  But  if  the  plough 
has  gone  only  to  this  depth,  9 
fevere  drc^ught  will  be  f«ul  t<? 
the  crop. 

It  would  greatly  advantage  the 
faimer,  it  he  could  foretel  wheth- 
er a  feafon  will  be  dry  or  wet. 
But  a^  he  knows  this  is  impoG- 
ble,  he  fhould  fo  conduct  his 
crops,  and  other  matters,  that  he 
m.ay  be  prepared  for  eitlier  ex- 
treme. 

The  earlier  a  drought  begins, 
the  more  diilreffing  it  generally 
proves  in  this  country.     For,  af- 
ter the  grafs  crops  and  Engliflr 
grain    ha\"e    nearly     got     their 
growth,  a  drorght  is  lefs  detri- 
I  mental  than  before,  becaufc  the 
Indian  corn,  by  means  of  the  til- 
lage given  while  the  plants  arc 
i  growing,  bears  it  fo  well  as  to  be 
;  feidom  cut  ihort  by  it  :  And  In- 
I  dian  corn  is  the  principal  of  our 
I  late  crops. 

j  Failure  grounds  are  often  {q 
'  dried  up,  that  both  tl>e  meat  and 
drink  of  the  cattle  axe  cut  ofTaJ 
once.  This  fhews  the  propriety 
and  neccfhty  of  having  fome  low 
lands  in  paliure,  when  it  is  prac- 
ticable. And  a  few  txe^s,  grow- 
ing at  proper  diifances  in  a  paf- 
ture.  will  panially  fhade  the  foil, 
and  prevent  its  drying  fo  rapid- 
ly. The  more  grafs  will  be  pro-" 
duced  ;  and  the  cattle  will  be  re- 
frefbed  by   the  fhade  j  beiides 


t)  U  N 

the  advantage  the  fanner  will 
gain  in  fewel  and  timber.  In 
tliofc  parts  of  the  country  where 
trees  have  become  Icarce,  the  o- 
hiiffion  of  planting  quick  grow- 
ing trees  in  our  panuic  grounds 
is  unpardonable.  When  a  paf- 
ture  IS  dcftitutc  of  water,  Mr. 
Eliot  advifei  to  die  a  well  on 
the  fide  of  fome  hill  in  the  paf- 
ture,  and  having  come  to  water, 
to  dig  a  trench  below,  level  with 
the  Bottom  of  the  well,  and 
bring  the  water  through  a  hol- 
low drain  out  to  the  furface, 
where  it  may  be  kept  in  a  little 
bafin,  made  in  the  foil,  for  a  wa- 
tering place. 

DUNG,  the  excrehient  of  an- 
imals, ufed  to  increafe  the  fertil- 
ity of  land.  Dung  may  be  faid 
to  be  almofl  of  the  fame  im- 
portance to  the  farmer,  as  flock 
in  trade  is  to  the  merchant. 
There  are  but  few  lots,  or  pieces 
of  lots,  in  this  country,  which 
Can  be  tilled  to  any  great  profit, 
in  the  common  way  ot  culture, 
without  manure  ;  and  dung  is 
of  all  manures  the  moft  ufeful. 
The  very  beft  of  foils,  when 
dunged,  will  more  than  pay  for 
it,  by  the  increafe  of  their  crops, 
and  the  poorefl  will  produce 
next  to  nothing  without  manure. 
Some  think  it  more  profitable  to 
apply  dung  to  their  beft  foils 
than  to  their  pooreft,  as  they 
think  the  increafe  from  it  to  be 
greater  in  the  f(jrmer  cafe  than 
m  the  latter.  This  opinion  is 
probablv  founded  in  trtuh. 

The  (oTts  of  dung  which  are, 
or  may  be  ufcd,  are  that  of  black 
cattle,  Iheep.  Iiorfes,  fwine,  goats, 
hcn^,  pigeons,  ducks,  gecle  and 
rabbits,  bcfides  human  ordure. 

The  dung  of  animals  confifts 
'if  oils,  6xed  and  volatile   fahs, 

.  -thcr  with  nitrous  and  eiirthy 
i.a::iilc$.  But  in  different  forts 
ot  dung  thcfc  princii>lcs  arc  dit- 

M 


b  U  N 


Bg 


fercntly  compounded  ;    fo  that 
the   dung   of  one   animal    is  si 

f (roper  manure  for  one  kind  of 
oil,  and  that  of  another  for  an- 
cther.  And  yet  there  is  no  kind 
ot  foil  that  may  not  be  enriched, 
in  fome  degree,  by  any  kind  ot 
dung, 

Mr.  Dickfort  fays,  "  Dung 
promotes  vegetation,  by  increaf- 
mg  the  vegetable  food  ;  it  being 
compounded  of  the  fame  princi- 
ples bf  which  the  vegetable  food 
itfelf  is  compouiided.  It  pro- 
motes vegetation,  by  enlarging 
the  pafture  of  plants  :  It  attratis 
acids  from  the  air  and  foil  ;  and 
by  raifing  a  fermentation  with 
them,  feparates  the  particles  of 
the  foil  with  which  it  is  mixed. 
It  promotes  it,  by  communicat- 
ing to  the  foil  a  power  of  attraft- 
ing  the  vegctablo  food  from  the 
air  ;  for  the  eanh  it  contains,  is 
ot  the  abforbent  kirtd,  and  at- 
tratis all  the  other  principles  o£ 
the  vegetable  food.  And  u  like- 
wife  promotes  vegetation,  by 
preparing  the  vegetable  food  for 
the  notirilhmertt  of  plants  ;  for, 
by  the  falts  which  it  contains, 
and  produces,  it  not  only  attra6U 
oils,  which  is  probably  one  of 
the  principal  ingredifents  of  eve- 
ry plant  we  cultivate  in  the  field, 
but  diflblvcs  them,  and  thereby 
makes  them  fit  to  mi.x  with  wa- 
ter, and  to  enter  the  roots  of 
plants.  But  though  it  operates 
m  all  thcfe  ways,  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  it  principally  ope- 
rates by  incrcafing  the  tood  of 
plants  :  And  this  feems  to  be 
confirmed  by  experience  ;  for 
when  the  virtues  ot  dung  are  ex- 
haufted,  the  foil  is  no  poorer 
than  before  it  was  laid  on." 

The  dung  of  oXen  and  cawn 
is  a  cool,  mild  and  oily  fub- 
ftance  ;  and  is,  therefore,  moll 
fuitfiblc  tor  Warm,  landy,  and 
gravelly  foils,    li  tcndi  lo  pro 

vent 


9© 


P  U  N 


vent  the  foil's  becoming  tod  dry, 
and  keeps  the  plants  on  it  from 
being  pinched  for  want  of  moif- 
ture. 

The  dung  of  fheep  is  more  hot 
and  fiery;  than  that  of  black  cat- 
tle ;  It  ferments  quicker  ;  it  is 
fitter,  therefore,  for  cold,  heavy 
lands.  Perhaps  the  belt  way  of 
applying  the  dung  of  fheep  to 
land  is  by  folding,  in  countries 
efpecially  which  are  not  greatly 
infefled  by  wolves.  For  in  this 
method  their  urine  is  all  faved,  as- 
well  as  their  dung.  But  it  ought 
to  be  turned  in  with  the  plough 
as  foon  as  pofTible,  that  the  fun 
and  air  may  not  deprive  the  land 
of  It. 

In  Flanders,  it  is  thepraftice  to 
houfe  their  fheep  at  night,  under 
night  fheds,  the  ground  being 
fpread  with  dry  fand,  about  four 
or  five  inches  thick,  laying  on  a 
little  more  frefh  every  night. 
This  is  cleared  out  once  a  week, 
aaid  carried  to  a  dunghill,  or  ap- 
plied to  the  foil.  This  mixture 
of  fand  and  hot  dung,  makes  a 
yery  excellent  drefhng  tor  cold 
and  ftiff  land.  For  there  is 
fcarcely  a  richer  manure  than 
the  dung  and  urine  of  fheep. 
M.  Quintinie  thinks  it  the  great- 
eff  promoter  of  fruitfulnefs,  in 
all  forts  of  ground.  This  meth- 
od of  folding  fheep  in  a  covered 
fohl,  and  of  mixing  their  dung 
with  ff  iff  earth  or  fand,  according 
to  the  nature  of  the  foil  it  is  in- 
tended for,  is,  alfo,  with  much 
reafon,  recommended  by  Mr. 
Mortimer  ;  who  alfo  fays,  "  that 
he  has  known  vaft  crops  of  rye 
upon  barren  lands,  that  have  been 
old  warrens,  v/eH  dunged  by 
rabbits,  and  large  oak  and  afh 
trees  upon  the  fame,  though  the 
foil  was  very  fhallow." 

Some  have  recommended  the 
reducing  of  fheep  dung  to  aow- 
der,  by  pounding  it  with  mallets. 


DUN 

and  ufing  it  as  a  top  drefling  for 
grain,  perhaps  half  a  dozen  bufh- 
els  on  an  acre.  But  this  is  a  te- 
dious piece  of  work,  and  of  no 
lafting  advantage  :  Whereas  too 
much  can  hardly  be  fald  in  praife 
of  the  Flanders  method  of  ufing 
it.  A  prodigious  quantity  of 
good  mapure  may  be  thus  ob- 
tained from  a  flock  of  fheep,  by 
houfing  them  regularly  every 
night. 

If  a  light  foil  is  intended  to  be 
manured  with  this  compofl ;  in- 
flead  of  fand,  clay,  pond  mud, 
or  the  mud  of  flats,  may  be  ufed, 
thefe  fubffances  having  been  firljt 
mellowed  by  the  frofls  of  winter. 
The  dung  of  goats  is  fuppofed 
to  be  nearly  of  the  nature  of 
fheep's  dung.' 

Horfe  dung  is  a  flill  hotter 
manure,  as  appears  by  its  quicfc 
fermentation  in  heaps,  even  in 
cool  weather.  It  is  confequent- 
ly  fittefl  for  hot  beds,  when  it  is 
new,  ajid  for  nourifhing  thofe 
plants  which  require  the  greatefl 
degrees  of  heat.  The  dung  of 
horfes  that  are  fed  on  grain,  is  a 
richer  manure  than  that  ot  thofe 
fed  only  on  grafs  and  hay. 

Great  care  fhould  be  taken 
that  horfe  dung  be  not  fpoiled, 
by  being  overheated,  or  burnt 
in  the  heaps,  before  it.  is  ufed. 
For,  in  this  country,  it  is  very 
commonly  the  cafe.  When  it 
has  been  fo  heated  as  to  give  it 
a  white  and  mouldy  appearance, 
the  virtue  of  it  is  gone.  •  It  is 
difficult  to -give  it  age,  v/ithout 
mixing  it  with  other  fubflances. 
A  mixture  of  horfe  and  cow 
dung  is  very  proper  for  land  that 
is  neither  too  light  nor  too  flifF. 
Horfe  dung  is  a  much  If  ronger 
manure  than  it  is  fuppofed  to  be 
by  thofe  whofe  conftant  praftice 
is  to  fuffer  it  to  be  fpoilt  by  over- 
heating in  the  heaps.  This  ma- 
nure, when  ufed  as  an  ingredient* 


DUN 

in  compofts,  has  an  excellent  ef- 
icti,  as,  by  its  quick  and  itrong 
lermentaiion.it  Ipccdily  diH(jlvcs 
other  iubtlances  that  are  mixed 
with  it. 

Mr.  Miller  fays  he  has  frc- 
quently  feen  new  horle  dung 
buried  as  it  came  troni  the  liable 
in  very  cold,  mo  ill  land  ;  and 
always  oblcrved  that  the  crops 
have  iiiccceded  bettor  than  where 
the  ground  was  drclled  with  vc»y 
rotten  dung. 

The  dung  of  fwine  is  a  very 
rich  and  fat  manure,  and  fo  cool 
^  to  ferment  very  llowly.  It  is 
fo  rich  and  oily,  as  to  be  doui>le 
in  value  to  neats'  dung.  It  will 
render  the  moll  dry  and  hungry 
foils  exceedingly  truitfid  in  a 
wettilh  feafon,  as  1  have  found 
by  experience.  It  refills  the  ill 
etletts  of  drought,  and  docs  mod 
lervice  in  a  hot  country.  By 
as  Heady  and  gradual  fupply  of 
a  rich  nounlhment,  it  is  peculi- 
arly adapted  lor  the  growing  of 
hops,  pumpions,  running  beans, 
and  every  plant  which  has  long 
vines.  Nothing  can  equal  it  for 
the  growmg  ot  potatoes.  It  has 
produced  me  more  than  a  peck 
in  a  hill  on  tlie  poorell  hungry 
fands.  Or  rather  1  might  lay, 
llraw  only  a  liiile  impregnated 
with  the  dung  o^  hogs  has  done 
it.  This  IS  io  llrong  a  manure, 
that  it  anfweis  well,  when  mixed 
with  a  Urge  proportion  of  earth, 
weeds,  llraw,  ov  other  bibulous 
lubllanccs.  It  is  almofl  incredi- 
ble how  great  a  quantity  of  good 
manure  may  be  obtained,  by  fup- 
plymg  a  hoglly  with  rubbifh  to 
raix  with  the  dung.  I  have 
heard  ot  40  loads  ol  matuire  be- 
ing made  in  a  year  by  means  ol 
one  hoglty.  And  I  have  no 
iioubt  ot    its  bring   pra6licablc. 

The  dung  of  ducks  and  gcefe, 
is  deemed  too  hot  and  burning. 
Jlut  lithe  tanner  woulrf  gather 


DUN 


91 


it  in  a  heap,  and  mix  it  with  the 
dung  of  cattle,  he  would  bring 
it  to  a  temperate  heat,  and  dnw 
trom  it  fuch  ad\-anuge  as  would 
iuJi  mnifj'  him  lor  the  pain.<  he 
Ih'UiM  tdAe.  Ihe  virtue  of  tlivK 
method  is  known  by  experience. 
A  fanner  having  aFk;idon<d  a 
piece  of  ground  to  his  geefe  for 
twelve  years,  afterwards  turned 
them  out  to  let  the  grafs  grow. 
and  it  role  fo  thick  and  llron* 
that  a  fithe  would  fcarcely  paft; 
through  It.  f  leii  dung  is  recom- 
mended to  be  fcaitcred  in  fmall 
.quantities  upon  land  intended  to 
be  fown,  and  on  account  of  its 
heat  It  IS  never  ufed,  urtlels  when 
rain  k  forelcen.  It  is  an  excel- 
lent manure  to;  meadows.  Pig- 
eon's dung  i;;  much  the  fame 
with  that  of  poultry,  the  only 
dilferencc  being  its  fuperiour 
heat."     Scc'ls  furmfi. 

I  Ikould  thitilt  it  belter  to  irtix 
the  dung  of  poultry  and  pigeons 
with  otiier  lablbnccs,  to  allay 
their  heat,  before  they  arc  appli- 
ed to  the  foil.  -\nd  thus  quali- 
fied, they  v/oiild  be  an  excellent 
top  dreinng  for  coin,  efpecially 
in  cold  and  wet  lands.  On  old 
mowing  grounds,  I  have  lound 
the  grils  abundantly  incrcafed, 
by  a  fpriniiling  of  eartli  taken 
oiit  ot  an  apariment  witA  as  a 
hen  hcufe.  though  there  was  lit- 
tle or  none  of  their  dung  vifiblc 
amongfl  it. 

'*  Human  ordure  is  a  very  fat 
and  hot  manure,  full  of  fertilize 
ing  falls  and  oils  ;  and,  ilieretore, 
extremely  proj)or  tor  all  cold, 
four  foils  ;  cfpecially  if  it  be 
mixed  with  other  dung,  flraw,  or 
earth,  to  give  it  a  termentation, 
and  render  ii  cimvcnient  for  car- 
riage. Some  do  not  like  the  ufe 
of  It,  on  account  of  its  1)3(1  Imell ; 
and  others  imagine,  that  it  gives 
a  fetid  tallc  t(»  plants.  But  m 
this  they  fcem  to  carry  ihcir  del- 
icacy 


92  DUN 

icacy  too  far.  Mr.  Bradley  fays, 
it  is  kept  in  pits  made  on  pur- 
pofe,  in  foreign  countries,  till  it 
be  one,  two,  three  or  four  years 
old  :  That  of  four  years  old 
is  accounted  the  befl,  that  of 
three  years  tolerable.  Perhaps 
it  may  owe  great  part  of  its  rich- 
nefs  to  the  urine  with  which  it 
is  mixed ;  for  though  the  human 
urine  be  deftruftive  to  vegeta- 
bles, whilfl  it  is  new,  by  rea- 
fon  of  its  burning  fal  ammonia- 
cal  fpirit,  as  Glauber  terms  it, 
yet  time  yrill  digefl  the  urine, 
and  render  it  an  extraordinary 
fertilizer  of  e%-ery  kind  of  foil." 
Complete  Farmer. 

This  kind  of  manure  ihould 
be  compounded  with  a  large 
quantity  of  earth,  and  lie  one  or 
two  fummers  at  leaft,  that  it  may 
be  thoroughly  mixed.  The  con- 
tents of  an  old  vault  w^ould  thus 
make  a  furprifing  quantity  of  ex- 
cellent manure. 

As  dung  in  general  is  fo  im- 
portant a  manure,  every  pofTiblg 
method  fhould  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent its  being  wafted,  as  indeed 
a  great  proporton  of  it  is,  by 
the  com.mon  management  oi 
our  farmers.  In  no  way  is  it 
metre  wafted,  than  by  its  being 
too  much  expofed  to  the  fun,  air, 
and  rains.  Mi.^ing  pf  dry  earth, 
or  other  abforbent  fubftances, 
with  heaps  ot  dung,  will  do 
much  towards  preventing  this 
lofs.  Or  flighty  fheds  may  be 
made  over  them  to  prevent  their 
ftrength  being  too  much  wafted 
by  heavy  rains  ;  and  at  the  fame 
time,  to  prevent  a  too  great  ex- 
halation from  them.  Some  cov- 
er them  with  turfs,  when  they 
choofe  to  keep  dung  till  it  be  old. 
This  is  not  a  bad  practice  ;  for 
the  turfs  in  that  fituation  will 
become  good  manure.  I  would 
)ippe  farmers  need  not  be  told, 
^hat  the  graffy  fide  fhould  be  laid 


DUN 

on  the  dung.  Otherwife,  inflead 
of  confuming,  it  will  produce  a 
crop  of  grafs. 

It  would  be  a  good  method, 
if  barns  were  built  with  the  roof 
hanging  over  about  ten  feet,  on 
the  fide  or  fides,  where  the  dung 
is  to  be  thrown  out.  This 
would  greatly  prevent  its  being 
robbed  of  its  richnefs.  But  if 
this  be  neglefted,  and  the  heaps 
are  at  the  ends,  it  is  beft  to  build 
fheds  or  leantoos  over  them.  If 
the  heaps  lie  at  the  fides  of  barns 
or  under  the  eaves,  the  leaft  that 
fhould  be  done  to  prevent  the 
wafting  of  the  dung,  is  to  put  up 
gutters,  that  the  heaps  may  not 
be  waftied  with  the  ftreams  from 
the  eaves.  And  befides,  fome 
loofe  board-s  fhould  be  fet  againft 
the  fides  oi  the  barn,  in  fuch  a 
manner  as  to  prevent  the  great- 
eft  part  of  the  rain  trom  falling 
on  the  heaps  of  dung. 

Or,  if  thefe  things  are  negleft- 
ed,through  indolence  or  an  unrea- 
fonable  parfimony  ;  at  leaft  let 
the  farmer  lay  a  ridge  of  earth 
along  in  th^  back  fide  of  his  cow 
and  ox  houfes,  and  ftables,  that 
the  dung  may  be  mixed  v/ith  the 
earth  by  degrees,  and  the  ftale 
abforbed.  It  the  dung  is  to  be 
laid  on  a  light  foil,  clay  and  turfs 
fhould  be  ufed,  if  on  a  heavy 
one,  fand  is  better.  A  very  con- 
fiderable  faving  may  be  made  in 
this  way,  efpecially  where  the 
houfe  is  not  too  narrow.  I  hav« 
praftifed  this  method  with  ad- 
vantage for  feveral  years  paft. 

Some  build  cellars  under  their 
barns,  and  throw  the  dung 
through  fcuttles  down  into  them, 
to  keep  it  from  the  weather. 
This  is  a  far  more  expenfive 
method  than  what  I  have  above 
recommended.  For  it  is  necef- 
fary,  in  order  to  fave  the  m.a- 
nure,  that  the  cellar  wall  be  well 
pointed  ;  and  alfo  that  ii  lw<i 
under 


DUN 

under  ftratum  form  the  floor,  or 
that  a  tight  artihciai  floor  be 
made.  The  dung  in  this  (itiia. 
tion  will  mellow  tlie  falter,  by 
its  not  being  expofed  to  any  fe- 
vere  frolt.  And  a  cellar  may 
be  fo  contrived,  that  a  cart  may 
be  driven  in  at  one  end,  and  out 
at  the  other,  which  may  render 
the  removing  it  cafy.  I  wilh 
not  to  difcouraee  any  who  are 
willing  to  put  themfelves  to  the 
expenfe  that  attends  this  method. 
For  I  am  fully  convinced  that 
the  expenfe  will  be  more  thao 
repaid  in  a  courfe  ot  years. 

Some  caution  fhould  be  ob- 
ferved,  that  the  ftrength  of  dung 
may  not  he  diminifhed  by  Ihov- 
eling  and  carting  it  in  weather 
that  is  hot,  dry,  or  windy.  If  it 
be  performed  when  the  weather 
is  calm  and  cloudy,  its  volatile 
parts  will  not  evaporate,  in  any 
confiderable  degree. 

When  it  needs  fermenting  in 
the  field  before  fpreading,  or  put- 
ing  into  holes,  which  is  often 
the  cafe  of  new  dung  carted  trom 
large  heaps,  and  fometimes  con- 
taining ice  and  fnow  ;  the  fmall 
heaps  in  the  field  (hould  be  thin- 
ly covered  with  a  little  earth. 
It  will  not  hinder  the  fermenta- 
tion, but  will  prevent  evapora- 
tion. 

When  the  farmer  has  carted 
his  dung  heaps  away  trom  the 
fides  ot  his  barn,  he  ihould  take 
up  an  inch  or  two  of  the  furfacc 
ot  the  ground  beneath  ;  bccaufe 
much  of  the  ftrength  of  the  dung 
and  flale  has  palled  into  it,  and 
made  it  a  good  manure. 

When  dung  is  applied  to  til- 
lage  land  by  folding,  it  Ihould  ; 
be  mixed   with  the  foil,  by  the 
plough  or  the  harrow,  every  two  | 
or  three  days,  it  the  weather  be 
dry.     Or  it  may  be  done  wilh 
the  hoe  or  Ihovcl.     In  cloudy  or  . 
rainy  weather,  it  will  not  need  \ 


DUN 


93 


mixing  fo  often.  If  this  method 
be  oblerved,  much  will  be  fav- 
cd  :  And  half  the  time  that  yards 
are  commonly  folded,  will,  if  I 
miltakc  not,  be  luthcicnt  to  fit 
them  to  produce  a  good  crop. 
See  the  aiticle  Folding. 

Our  tarmers,  in  general,  feem 
to  think  It  a  matter  of  great  im- 
portance to  put  dung  in  holes 
under  the  (ecd,  cfpciially  to 
produce  a  crop  of  Indian  corn. 
Nothing  makes  this  tedious  and 
laborious  method  needtul,  unlefs 
it  be  a  fcarcity  of  manure,  as  lefs 
ot  it  will  anfwcr  for  one  finglc 
crop,  th^n  is  required  in  the  oth- 
er way.  The  corn  does  n')t 
commonly  come  up  fo  well,  and 
it  is  more  in  danger  of  being  de- 
ftroyed  by  worms.  If  fix  or 
eight  loads  of  dung  will  caufe 
an  acre  to  produce  more  corn 
when  put  in  holes,  than  if  it  were 
ploughed  in,  as  it  undoubtedly 
will ;  yet  it  ihould  be  remember- 
ed, the  land  will  not  be  in  fo 
good  heart  the  year  following, 
will  not  produce  fo  good  a  crop 
ot  grain,  nor  be  in  to  good  or- 
der to  lay  down  to  grafs.  So 
that,  perhaps,  in  a  courfe  of 
crops,  it  may  be  found  that  the 
labour  of  dunging  in  the  holes 
may  be  fpared  ;  excepting,  per- 
haps, in  green  fward  ground.  If 
fo,  the  tarmer  might  redeem 
time  by  it,  anil  at  a  leafon  when 
his  hurry  of  bufincls  is  greatett. 

I  may  add,  that  new  dung  is 
not  fo  fuitable  to  put  in  holes, 
as  that  which  has  lain  a  year  in 
heaps.  But  it  has  more  virtue, 
and  will  add  more  llrength  to 
the  foil  ;  tor  it  is  next  to  impol- 
(ible  to  keep  dung  till  it  is  old 
without  fume  wailagc.  And  this 
may  affijrd  another  good  rcafon 
for  layjng  afide  the  pra6>icc  of 
dunging  in  holes.  For  the  newcft 
dung  will  anfwcr  well  for  fpread- 
ing, and  ploughing  into  the  foil. 
DUNGHILLS. 


94 


DUN 


DUNGHILLS,  heaps  of  raa- 
tiure  laid  up  to  ferment,  confift- 
ing  of  dung  and  earth,  together 
with  hme,  or  maile,  and  any  an- 
imal or  vegetable  fubfLances, 
■which  eafily  putrefy  and  con- 
fume. 

It  would  be  well  if  every  farm- 
er had  fome  of  them  preparing, 
to  be  carted  out  in  autumn,  or 
to  lie  two  fummers,  when  it  is 
found  convenient.  He  would 
avail  himfelf  of  much  manure 
that  might  be  collefted  between 
ipring  and  fall  ;  for,  in  the  fum- 
mer,  the  crops  on  the  ground 
Tnu ft  prevent  carting  it ;  fo  that 
it  fnould  he  preferved  in  the  heft 
manner  to  prevent  wafte.  And 
this  can  in  no  way  be  fo  well 
prevented,  as  by  mixing  it  with 
other  fubitances. 

Farmers  Ihould  have  fuch 
dunghills,  fome  at  their  barns, 
or  cow  yards,  one  at  a  hoglfj', 
■when  fwine  are  fliut  up,  and  an- 
otlier  not  too  far  from  the  back 
<loor  of  a  houfe.  They  may  be 
lended,  and  augmented  at  odd 
limes,  when  no  other  bufinels 
flands  in  the  way.  That  at  the 
^ack  door,  efpecially,  may  be 
very  eafily  made  up,  oi  a  varie- 
ty oi  rich  and  fertilizing  ingre- 
<iients,  befides  dung  ;  fuch  as 
ihe  fcrapings  of  the  yard  after 
rain  ;  foot  and  alhes  ;  Ihells, 
lime  and  bones  ;  the  fweepings 
of  the  kitchen  ;  oil  dregs,  and 
any  fat  things  ;  woollen  rags  ; 
bloody  water,  in  which  meat  or 
afti  has  been  waflied  ;  greafy  wa- 
ter ;  fuds  ;  aQies,  although  the 
lie  has  been  drawn  from  them  ; 
old  ufelefs  brine;  urine  ;  and,  in 
fhort,  any  animal  or  even  vege- 
table fubftance,  that  has  not  too 
rattch  acid.  Or,  even  acids,  if 
they  be  overbalanced  by  plenty 
oi  alkaline  fubftances. 

To  prevent  the  heaps  being 
too  niiich  tcra  and  fpjead  about 


BUN 

by  fwine,  or  by  the  fcratclirii^g 
ot  dunghill  fowls,  the  heaps 
may  be  inckided  in  pens  made 
v.'ith  wide  boards  ;  or  fome  rock« 
may  be  laid  roimd  them.  Turfs 
may  be  laid  over  them,  to  pre- 
vent their  evaporating  ;  as  well 
as  under  them,  to  prevent  their 
foaking  into  the  earth. 

The  heaps  Ihould  have  fuch  2 
degree  of  moifture  as  beft  pro- 
motes fermentation  and  corrup- 
tion. A  cavity  may  be  made 
clofe  to  the  lower  fide  of  the 
heap,  to  receive  the  fuperfluous 
moifture  as  it  .runs  from  it  after 
rain  ;  and  this  liquid,  highly 
impregnated  with  the  ftrength 
of  the  manure,  fliould  be  thrown; 
from  time  to  time,  on  tiie  top 
ot  the  heaps,  with  a  fcooping 
fliovel.  In  a  wet  feafon,  the 
heaps  will  need  fome  flight  Iheds 
over  them.  Indeed  it  would  be 
beft  to  cover  them  in  all  feafons-, 
and  to  apply  water  to  them  when 
the^-  need  it. 

Heapg  about  the  barn  or  cow 
yard,  may  be  augmented  with 
fome  ot  the  nearell  earth,  fwamp 
mud,  ftraw,  weeds.  Sec.  thofe  at 
the  hogfty  with  the  fame,  to- 
gether with  the'  dung'  of  fowls, 
or  other  hot  manures,  as  the 
dung  of  fwine  is  naturally  cold. 
But  the  farmer  Ihould  acquaint 
himfelf  with  the  nature  of  differ- 
ent manures  ;  and  always  let 
that  ingredient  in  his  heaps  be 
predominant,  which  is  beft  adapt- 
ed to  correft  and  meliorate  th« 
foil  on  which  it  is  to  be  laid.  If 
it  be  f^eftined  for  a  fandy  foil,- 
clay  will  be  an  excellent  ingre- 
dient in  the  compofition  oi'  the 
lieaps.  If  it  be  defigned  to  lay 
on  a  clayey  foil,  fand  is  proper. 

The  heaps  wiH  not  ferment  fo 
faft  as  they  ought,  uiilefs  they  be 
(hoveled  over  once  or  twice  in  a 
fummer.  By  fuch  operations 
they  will  be  more  tboroughJy 
mixed 


D  U  iV 

«-iixi>.I  ami  iTu-llowed,  Soid  the 
:  T  u/e.     J  lie  Ift-ds 

c.    ., .iiciu  will  vegetate, 

and  be  dcllroyed,  wlmh  is  no 
iocon^derable  advantage  ;  cf- 
pcciplly  if  the  manure  is  to  be 
implied  to  unhocii  nlldjje  crops. 

DUNG  MEERS,  "  places 
wlicff  l»)iis  and  dungs  are  mixed 
jmd  digeilcd  ioi;ctliar.  For  this 
purpofe,  it  >s  iifual  to  dig  a  pit 
hiihcient  to  hold  the  Hock  ot 
foil  the  hulbandman  is  capable 
of  making  ;  and  to  prepaic  it 
at  the  bottom  with  ftone  and 
clay,  that  it  may  hold  vrater,  or 
the  moifture  of  the  dung  ;  and 
befides,  it  (hould  be  fo  fituated 
cfadt  the  finks  and  drips  of  the 
houfes  and  barns  may  run  into 
k.  Into  this  pit  they  caft  retufe 
fodder,  litter,  dung,  weeds,  &c. 
where  they  lie  and  rot  together, 
CtJl  the  farmer  have  occahon  tor 
It."     DiCl.  of  Arts. 

Thefe  piu  anfwer  nearly  the 
fame  end  as  dunghills.  But 
they  are  attended  with  more  cx- 
penfe  and  labour  ;  and  arc  more 
apt  to  fuffer  with  wetnefs  in  a 
rainy  (eafon,  unlcfs  a  ihed  be 
built  over  them..  If  this  be  done, 
and  the  right  proportion  ol  wa- 
ter applied,  there  can  be  no  bet- 
ter method  of  roaking  cotnpoit. 
I  know  ageutlcman  in  the  coun- 
ty ol  Brillol,  who  lia^  a  friiall 
cellar  iiinler  cover,  adjoining  to 
his  Hable,  m  which  he  lodges 
only  one  horie  ;  arul  who  makc5 
ta  it  20  loads  yearly  ot  c<;mi>oft, 
iar  fuperiour  in  Urength  to  any 
unmixed  ba/n  dung.  In  funi- 
raer  Ivc  Ium  it  hllcd  with  weeds 
and  various  vegetable  matters  : 
In  aiiuimn  two  «»r  three  Iwme 
are  ^att<  ncd  in  tiic  npnrtment. 
In  winter  a  very  1:  ':  of 

ihecp  lodge  there  :    .  ^j  ol 

one  horfe  is  gradually  thrown  in 
as  iait  as  it  li  ina/ic  ;  and  a  few 
k>wl«  rooil  over  lU    The  whole  ! 


D  Y  K  95 

is'Wateredoccariouailyty  a  fpouf 
tuiiied  in*vards,  ']  he  crops  he 
laifcs  horn  this  manure  are  fur- 
priiiiigiy  large  and  goo^l. 

DUiCH  HOE,  fometimea 
called  a  Scufflt  ;  an  iron  inAru- 
ment,  with  a  Iharp  Heeled  edge, 
nearly  \\\  the  fhape  of  the  letter 
D.  with  a  Ihank  Irom  the  round- 
ing part,  hve  or  fix  inches  lc»ng» 
which  i>allc»  into  a  Iwndle  of  a- 
bout  fix  feet  in  length.  It  is  of 
ufe  to  clean  walks  and  avenues  in 
gardens.  No  gardener  Ihould  be 
Without  (meol  thefe  inlliuinents. 

DYKE,  or  DIKE,  a  fort  of 
dam,  conllrucled  uf  earth,  timber, 
falcines,  &c.  to  oppofe  the  en- 
trance kA  water  from  rivers  and 
irom  the  lea. 

Dykes  made  to  exclude  the  fe» 
from  marlhes,  are  built  witli  lod» 
cut  out  of  the  marlii,  io  as  to 
make  a  ditch  near  the  dyke,  or 
elle  a  ditch  on  each  fide,  fhe 
fo<is  are  jaid  as  a  wall  flopinjf 
on  both  fides  ;  they  Ihould  be 
laid  very  clofc,  that  the  water 
may  rx>t  enter  ;  ami  fomc  flen- 
der  bulhes  Ihould  he  laid  between 
them,  that  the  work  may  hold 
together  the  better.  Some  ot 
the  bulhes  Ihould  have  roots  to 
them,  that  they  may  grow,  and 
more  Itrongly  bind  the  fods  to- 
gether. Shrubs  without  root* 
will  not  hve  placed  in  the  dykes 
at  riiidlummer,  the  time  when 
dykc^  Ihould  be  huiU.  But  they 
may  be  inferteJ  afterwards,  at  a 
proper  fealon. 

A  dyke,  feven  or  riglit  ftet 
wide  at  bottom,  and  three  atop, 
and  made  a  little  higher  than  the 
liighell  ipnng  tides  life,  will  be 
luihcient  on  higfi  marlh.  Whca 
a  dyke  palies  through  a  low 
place,  or  through  a  creek,  it  miilk 
^»e  wider  at  bottom  in  pi^tportion 
to  the  depth  of  the  hollow,  or 
creek,  {q  that  the  fides  ot  the 
dyke  may  be  perfe6i  incline<l 
plaiies. 


B6 


EAR 


J>lanes.  Though  this  will  make 
it  very  thick  at  bottom,  it  is  nec- 
eflary ,  that  it  may  refift  the  great- 
er pr'eflure  of  water  again  ft  that 
part. 

When  we  build  on  an  oozy, 
foft  fpot,  it  is  beft  to  fill  the  mud 
with  piles,  driven  as  deep  as 
they  will  eafily  go,  and  then  cut 
off  even  with  the  furface  or  a 
little  above  it.  This  will  give 
inability  to  the  foundation,  and 
prevent  the  water's  undermining 
the  dyke.  On  a  fideling  place, 
ftakes  fhould  be  driven  through 
the  dyke  into  the  marlh,  to 
hold  the  fods  in  their  places. 
There  fhould  be  many  of  them, 
and  they  (hould  be  ftrong. 

In  the  creek,  or  creeks,  there 
muft  be  fluices,  larger  or  fmaller 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
frefh  water  that  will  need  to  pafs 
out.     See  Sluice. 


EARTH,  the  foil,  or  land,  in 
which  the  roots  of  plants  find 
nouriftiment.  There  are  fever- 
al  Cmple  kinds  of  earth,  confid- 
ered  only  with  rcfpeft  to  huf- 
bandry  ;  as  clay,  marie,  loam, 
gravel,  fand,  peat,  and  black 
mould.  Perhaps  tbefe  are  near- 
ly all  the  limple  foils  that  are 
found  on  or  near  the  furface  of 
the  earth,  in  this  country- ;  though 
others,  diftinft  from  them  all, 
are  foimd  by  digging  deep. 
There  is  not  one  ot  thefe  earths, 
in  its  unmixed  flate,  that  is  fo 
friendly  to  the  growth  of  plants, 
as  when  mixed  with  fome  other 
forts  ;  and  it  is  happy  for  us  that 
nature  in  moft  places  has  blend- 
ed them.  Though  the  original 
foils  are  fo  few,  they  are  fo  va- 
rioufly  compounded  in  different 
places,  as  to  prefent  us  with  an 
cndlefs  variety  of  foils,  fome  or 
Other  of  which  are  liioft  fuitable 


E  A  ft 

to  nourlffi  every  different  plan^; 
But  for  moft  of  the  purpofes  of 
hufbandry  a  fandy  loam  is  as 
good  as  any. 

Good  earth  for  the  general 
purpofes  of  huftjandry,  is  moft 
commonly  of  a  dark  colour,  or 
quite  black,  unftuous  to  the 
touch,  eafily  ploughed,  on  a  due 
medium  betwixt  dry  and  wet, 
not  compaft,  nor  too  loofe  and 
open,  and  eafily  made  to  ferment. 
To  find  whether  land  be  good, 
fome  recommend  the  following 
experiment  :  Dig  a  hole,  and 
return  the  earth  into  the  hole. 
If  there  be  more  than  enough  to 
fill  the  hole,  fay  they,  tlie  land 
is  good  ;  if  juft  enough  to  fill  it, 
indifferent  ;  but  if  there  be  not 
enough,  the  land  is  bad.  Doubt- 
lefs,  in  warm  weather,  good  earth 
expofed  to  the  fun  will  immedi- 
ately fwell  by  fermenting  ;  fo 
that  fuch  earth  will  more  than 
fill  the  hole  it  is  taken  out 
of,  unlefs  it  be  forcibly  ram- 
med. 

Mortimer    obferves,    *'   That 

mixed  foils  are  beft  ;  efpecially 

where  the  mixtures  happen  to 

be  of  the  right  kindj  as  thofc  of 

the  hot  and  dry   foils,  blended 

'  with  the  cold  and  the  moift.   All 

I  fands  are  hot,  and  all  clays  are 

,  cold,  and,  therefore,  laying  fand 

on  clayey   lands,  or  clay  upon 

'  fandy  landsj  is  the  beft  of^all  ma- 

j  nure  for  both.     This  alters  and 

i  changes  for  the  better,  the  very 

nature  of  the  land  itfelf,  whereas 

I  dung   only    improves   it    for   a 

I  time,   and   after    that  leaves    it 

!  nearly  as  bad  as  it  was  before. 

■  It  is  not  only  the  nature  of  the 

I  foil  we  are  to  confider,  but  the 

depth  of  it,  and  what  kind  of 

1  earth    is  underneath  ;    for     the 

richeft  foil,  if  it  be  only  eight  or 

ten  inches  deep,  and  lies  upon  a 

cold  clay,  or  upon  a  quarry  of 

ftoae,  will  not  be  fo  fruitful,  oi 

advantageouj 


ELD 

^ilvantageous  to  the  farmer,  as 
the  leaner  foil  that  lies  upon  bet- 
ter under  ftrau." 

But  an  under  ftratum  of  clay, 
not  too  near  to  the  furlace,  ana 
where  the  ground  has  not  too 
much    wetnefs,   is   lound   to  be 

SDod,  as  the  ttrength  of  manures 
oes  not  efcapc  through  it.  A 
ftratum  of  clayey  giavel,  or  mere 
clay,  or  almoft  any  that  is  not 
too  eafily  penetrated,  is  good  : 
But  one  of  loofc  f.md  or  gravel 
muft  nccelTarily  be  bad,  as  the 
foil  above  it  will  not  hold  its 
manure. 

EDDISH,  or  EADISH,  "  the 
latter  paflure  or  grafs  that  comes 
after  mowing  or  reaping  ;  oth- 
fcrwife  called  eagrafs,  earlh,  and 
ttc\\."     Did.  of  Artf. 

EFFLUVIUM,  an  invifible 
vapour,  confining  of  minute  par- 
ticles, wliich  exhales  trom  bodies 
of  alinofl  every  kind.  A  copi- 
ous effluvium  arifcs  from  all 
Elatus  while  they  are  growing  ; 
ut  more  while  drying  alter  they 
are  cut  down,  as  appears  Irom 
the  ftrong  and  agiecable  fcent 
ot  mown  grafs.  The  exhalation 
of  fome  plants  while  growing,  is 
very  fcnfible  to  the  fmcll  ;  and 
the  flowers  of  moft  of  them  fend 
forth  a  perceptible  odour.  That 
of  clover  fields,  and  of  orchards 
in  full  bloom,  is  grateful  and  re- 
frelhing.  See  Perfpiration  of 
Plants. 

The  effluvia  of  rotten  fuhftances 
Jire  fuppofed  to  breed  di leafed  : 
The  farmer,  thcrctorc,  Ihould  be 
cauti«)ns  that  he  do  not  breathe 
in  the  Reams  of  his  old  dun»lulls 
more  than  is  necclfary,  efpecial- 
Jy  when  they  have  a  very  difa- 
grecable  flench. 

ELDLR,  Su/nhucus  nigra,  an 
ill  fmcliing  Ihrub,  which  grows 
plentiiully  in  moft  parts  ol  this 
country,  produces  a  black  berry, 
and  is  too  well  known  to  need 


ELF 


97 


defcribing.  I  mention  it,  be« 
caufe  it  is  believed  to  be  an  excel- 
lent antidote  aeainft  deflruftive 
infefts.  But  as  I  have  not  yet  fuf- 
ciently  proved  it  by  experiments, 
not  makingany  trial  till  rather  late 
in  laft  fummer  ;  I  fhall  give  the 
reader  a  briet  account  of  fome 
experiments  which  were  com- 
municated to  the  Roval  Society, 
by  Chriftophcr  Gullet,  Efquire. 

He  whipt  cabbages  gently 
with  green  boughs  ot  elder,  juft 
at  the  time  when  the  buttertlies 
appeared,  after  which,  though 
they  hovered  over  them,  they 
were  never  obferved  to  touch 
them.  He  whipt  the  limbs  of  a 
plumb  tree  as  high  as  he  could 
reach.  That  part  remained  green 
and  flouriftiing  ;  but  all  above 
fhrivcled  up,  and  was  full  of 
worms.  He  concluded  that,  if  a 
tree  were  fprinkled  with  an  infu- 
fion  ot  elder,  once  a  week  or  fort- 
night, it  would  effcHually  pre- 
ferve  it,  without  injuring  the  tree, 
or  the  fruit.  He  prevented  the 
yellows  in  wheat,  which  is  caufcd 
by  an  infett,  by  brulhing  the 
M'heat  with  elder  ;  and  preferved 
a  bed  of  young  colliflowers. 
He  prcters  the  dwarf  elder,  as  it 
emits  a  more  ofTenfive  effluvium. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  found,  as 
this  writer  fuggefts,  to  preferve 
turnips  from  the  fly,  and  thefe 
and  other  plants  from  grafshop- 
pers,  and  all  other  infects.  Noth- 
ing is  eafier  than  to  make  a  thor- 
ough trial  ot  it. 

ELFSHOT,  or  ELFSHOT- 
TEN,  a  dilcafe  in  horned  cattle, 
the  fvmptoms  or  concomitants 
of  w^ich  are  fluggifhnefs  and 
lofs  of  appetite.  The  original 
of  the  name  fecms  to  have  been 
a  fupcrftitious  opinion,  that  cattle 
were  (hottcn  and  wounded  by 
elves,  or  fairies.  The  difcafe, 
however,  is  not  imaginary.  It 
is  believed  ig  be  an  opening  ia 


9S 


E  M  P 


the  peritonaeum,  or  film  of  the 
belly,  caufed  by  relaxation.  It 
refembles  a  hole  made  by  a  bul- 
let, and  may  be  felt  thi-ough  the 
jkin  which  remains  unhurt. 
Thefe  openings  are  clofed, 
and  the  animals  cured,  by 
rubbing  the  part  with  fait  and 
water.  It  fhould  be  repeated 
two  or  three  times  in  the  courfe 
of  a  day. 

ELM,  Uhnus  Am.ericana,  a 
tree  that  is  commonly  found  in 
our  iorefts.  It  is  tall  and  beau- 
til  ul,  longlived,  and  grows  to  a 
Luge  fize.  The  wood  is  not  apt 
to  fplit,  or  crack  ;  and  is  very  fit 
ior  the  naves  of  wheels  tor  car- 
riages. Oi  this  tree  ther€  are 
iaid  to  be  tw^o  varieties,  the  white 
and  the  red.  The  Elm  is  a  prop- 
er tree  to  plant  in  groves.  It  is 
fightly  and  durable  ;  and  not  apt 
to  be  broken  bv  high  \wnds. 

EMPLOYA'IENT,  bufinefs 
which  takes  time,  and  isan  exer- 
cile  of  abilities.  No  one  that 
confiders  the  condition  of  a 
fanner,  can  doubt  of  his  having 
i'ufiicient  employment.  He  has 
lb  many  objecii:  to  attend  to,  that 
liis  life  muft  be  filled  up  with 
carefulnefs  or  exercife.  If  he 
grow  remifs,  he  will  foon  find 
that  he  has  loft  fomething  through 
neglett,  or  failed  ot  availing  him- 
lelf  of  fome  advantage. 

In  our  climate,  befides  care, 
the  farmers  are  necelfarily  hurri- 
ed with  their  bufinefs  during 
much  the  greater  part  of  the 
year,  that  is^  from  April  to  No- 
vember inclufive.  But  in  the 
winter,  they  may  be  in  fome 
danger  of  fpending  fome  ot  their 
time  idly,  if  they  do  not  take 
fome  care  to  prevent  it.  Feed- 
ing and  tending  their  cattle,  it 
they  do  it  faithfully,  will  take 
fome  confiderable  part  of  each 
day,  it  the  ftock  be  large.  The 
dreJIing  of  hemp  and  flax  re- 


E  W  E 

quires  fome  time,  and  ought  te 
be  done  in  winter.  Getting 
home  tewel  for  maintaining  fires 
through  the  year,  and  hauling 
ftuff  and  fitting  it  for  the  building 
and  repairing  of  fences  ;  threlh- 
ing  and  cleaning  of  corn  and 
grain,  and  preparing  farming 
implements,  may  all  be  done  at 
this  feafon.  And  tliefe  things 
ought  to  be  done  at  this  time  of 
the  year,  to  prevent  hurry  at  a 
more  bufy  feafon.  So  that, 
though  our  farmers  cannot 
plough,  or  do  any  thing  to  the 
foil  in  winter,  unlefs  it  be  fome- 
times  in  part  of  December,  they 
need  not  be  idle.  In  maritime 
places  they  may  employ  them- 
felves  and  their  teams  in  getting 
manure  from^  flats  and  creeks, 
and  drawing  it  to  their  hungry 
high  lands.  This  will  turn  te 
very  good  account,  and  pay  them 
well  for  their  labour.  Holes 
may  be  dug  in  the  ice  over  flats, 
from  whence  rich  mud  may  be 
taken,  and  drawn  upon  fleds  to 
the  high  parts  of  a  farm.  And 
this  w  ill  be  found  to  be  a  profit- 
able emplovTnent. 

ENCLOSURE,  a  piece  of 
ground  tenced  by  itfelf,  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  cattle,  &:c. 
In  fome  places  men  farm  in  com- 
mon fields.  But  this  method, 
pafturing  excepted,  is  not  eligi- 
ble. Some  lofe  more  by  it  than 
enough  to  pay  for  enclofing. 
And  it  is  too  often  the  occafion 
of  quarrels,  and  endlefs  uneafi- 
nefs  among  neighbours. 

EWES,  the  females  of  fheep. 
That  they  may  be  profitably 
managed,  we  fhould  keep  none 
for  breeders  that  have  not  long 
and  fine  fleeces.  The  reft  fhould 
be  killed  off  during  the  firft  year.  ■ 
Otherwife  the  flock  will  degen- 
erate ;  and  a  large  proportion  of 
their  wool  Avill  be  coarfe,  or  too 
fhort,  and  of  little  value. 

from 


EWE 

From  the  firft  of  ORobor.  to 
the  twentieth  ol  November,  the 
rams  fhould  be  kept  trom  them ; 
that  (o  their  lambs  may  not  come 
till  the  twentieth  ot  April,  when 
the  ground  is  moll  commonly 
bare,  and  the  grafs  begins  to 
fpring  in  many  places. 

For  a  few  days,  or  weeks,  be- 
fore yeaning  time,  they  Ihonjd  be 
more  generoufly  led.  Some 
juicv  food,  whicn  they  are  fond 
of,  ihould  be  given  them,  fuch 
as  turnips,  potat«9es,  &c.  that 
they  may  haxt  plenty  of  milk 
for  their  Iambs  :  For  it  is  the  o- 
pinion  of  careful  obfervers,  that 
want  of  milk  is  the  caufc  ot  the 
dying  of  fo  many  lambs  in  the 
firft  ifage  of  their  exiftence. 

From  their  firft  going  to  paf- 
ture  to  the  lall  of  JurK*,  or  the 
middle  of  July,  the  ewes  ihould 
have  plenty  of  feed,  by  means 
of  which  the  lambs  will  come 
forward  rapidly  in  their  growth, 
fo  as  to  be  fit  lor  weaning.  Nor 
»vill  the  ewes  become  fo  lean, 
but  that  they  may  be  fattened  in 
autumn  ;  which  would  be  other- 
wife,  were  the  lambs  to  fiick 
them  as  long  as  they  are  pennit- 
ted  to  do  in  this  coimtry. 

As  to  the  advantage  of  the 
milking  ol  ewes,  after  the  lambs 
are  weaned  ;  as  it  has  not  yet 
been  much  praMifed  ammig  us, 
1  can  only  teftitr,  that  the  heft 
cheefes  1  ever  tafted,  made  in 
this  country,  had  a  mixture  of 
this  milk  in  them.  But  a  writer 
in  the  Scots  Farmer  declares, 
from  his  own  experience,  it  is 
of  great  advantage  to  the  owner. 
He  thinks  they  (hould  not  be 
milked  more  than  eight  weeks 
at  the  farthcft  ; — fays  tliey  ought 
to  have  goo<l  pafture  ;  and  that 
the  lambs  they  bring  the  y<"ar 
following  will  not  be  the 
worfe  for  their  having  been 
coilked. 


E   X    P 


99 


EXCRr.MKNT.  that  which 
is  thrown  out  ot  the  body  as  ufe- 
lefs  after  digcil ion.  See  Dung^ 
Urinr,  &c. 

FXPFRH-.NrE,  pra/lice.  or 
comuiued  iile.  Ptihaps  no  man 
ever  attained  to  a  thorcugh 
knowledge  of  htifbandry  merely 
by  books,  or  by  oral  njtonn:i- 
tion.  txperienre  is  needful  to 
fix  the  knowledge  of  the  multi- 
faricMJS  branches  of  it  in  our 
minds.  It  is  needful,  alfn,  to 
teach  us  the  eafieft  metimds  cxt 
performing  a  thoufand  things, 
which  depend  on  circumftances 
fo  minute,  that  they  were  never 
committed  to  paper,  and  fcarre- 
ly  arc  thought  to  be  worth  uien- 
tioning. 

But  experience,  however  ner- 
elTar}-,  i.s  not  all  that  is  needful 
to  make  an  accomplilhed  farmer. 
Obfervation  iscqually  nicdlary. 
And  without  argumentation, 
none  will  be  fit  for  any  thin.kj 
greater  than  goi<ig  on  in  the 
moft  beaten  tracks.  None  ouglit 
to  conclude  from  their  having 
had  tlic  longeft  experience,  that 
they  have  the  greatett  degree  ot 
knowledge  :  For  fome  will  learn 
more  by  experience  in  one  year, 
than  others  will  in  forty.  'I'Ik*. 
ory  anti  practice  Ihould  certainly 
concur,  to  render  perions  fkilful 
in  iRifb.'tndry,  or  in  any  other 
profefTion  An  early  apprentice- 
ihip  IS  as  necelfary  to  the  attain- 
ment of  this  art,  as  any  other  ; 
as  fome  have  been  convinced, 
who  have  entered  on  farming 
when  they  were  paft  the  ir»eriJ- 
ian  of  l:fe. 

EXPERIMKNTS,  trials  of 
practice*  in  hiilbandrj*.  It  is 
greatly  to  be  wdhcd,  that  more; 
ot  thefe  were  made  iti  this  young 
countrv,  wh'*re  the  knowledge 
of  agriculture  is  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy. Lvperiments  made  m 
other  countucs  arc  not  tobe.ne- 

lied 


100 


EXP 


lied  on,  as  proofs  of  the  utility 
of  one  mode  of  culture  in  pref- 
erence to  another,  in  this  coun- 
try. Therefore,  we  fhould  not 
truft  to  the  experiments  ot  Eu- 
ropeans, but  make  experiments 
for  ourfelves.  Till  this  is  done, 
we  are  not  to  look  for  great  im- 
provements in  hufbandry. 

It  may  be  true,  that  he  who 
makes  a  new  experiment  is  in 
fome  hazzard  of  lofmg  more  or 
lefs  by  it.  Therefore,  I  would 
not  prefs  it  upon  farmers  in  in- 
digent or  low  circumftances,  to 
venture  upon  any  thing  of  the 
kind,  unlefs  it  be  in  very  fmall 
matters,  or  on  a  fmall  fcaJe  ;  for 
the  failure  of  one  year's  crop 
would  almoil  reduce  them  to 
beggary.  They  would  do  well, 
however,  to  compare  the  profit 
of  one  crop  with  another,  reck- 
oning the  coil  laid  out  upon 
each  ;  and  of  one  courfe  of  crops 
with  another  ;  and  the  fuccefs  of 
different  manures  on  the  fame, 
or  on  different  foils.  Thus  they 
may  find  which  of  the  old  meth- 
ods is  to  be  preferred,  by  a  fmall 
degree  of  attention,  yrithout  any 
rifk,  which  is  a  matter  of  fome 
confequence.  For  we  need  to 
learn  what  methods  to  drop,  or 
difcontinue,  as  well  as  v/hat  to 
adopt  or  bring  into  ufe. 

Gentlemen  of  large  eflates, 
who  can  bear  fome  conuderable 
lofs  without  feeling  it,  in  cafe 
they  fail  of  fuccefs,  are  the  per- 
fons  that  (hould  try  new  crops, 
or  new  way?  of  raifmg  old  ones. 
Love  of  their  country  fhould 
prompt  them  to  it  ;  for  there  is 
no  reafon  to  doubt  but  that  our 
hufbandry  may  admit  of  a  varie- 
ty of  important  improvements. 
It  is  wifhed  that  an  enterprifing 
fpirit  were  more  excited,  that 
we  might  have  reafon  to  hope  for 
great  improvements  in  hulband- 
ry.    There  is  an  cj^tenfive  field 


EXP 

for    experiments  ;  and    making 
them  might  be  a  good  and  lauda- 
ble amufement  to  perfons  who 
have  leifure.    Trench  ploughing, 
which   has  never  yet  been   at- 
tempted in  this  country,  ought 
to  be  tried,  at  leafl  by  thofe  who 
have  deep  foils,  clear  of  rocks 
and     other     obflacles.      Trials 
fhould  be  made  of  the  advantage 
ot  ploughing  flat  land  in  ridges  ; 
and    whether    ridge    ploughing 
will  not  fecure  grain  from  de- 
flruftion  by  winter  frofts.     At- 
tempts  fhould  be   more   exten- 
fively  made  to  raife  winter  wheat, 
which  is  the  moft  valuable  of  al| 
grain.     We  fliould  endeavour  to 
find  out  the  beft  fteeps  for  grain 
and  other  feeds,  to  quicken  their 
vegetation,  and  to  fecure  them 
againfl  infefts  and  fraut  ; — what 
are  the  befl  quantities  ot   feed 
for  fowing  in  different  grounds; — 
whether  fowing    feeds    vrith    a 
drill  be  not  the  befl  method  when 
horfe  hoeing  is  not  applied  ; — 
when  is  the  beft  time  for  fowing 
of  winter  grain  ; — whether  good 
peat  and  marie  be  not  to  be  loimd 
in  plenty  in  various  parts  of  the 
country,  and   the  advantage  of 
marling,  and  fovjing  peat  aihes; — 
whether  drained  fwamps  are  not 
the   moft   profitable   of  all   our 
lands  ; — whether   new  dung  or 
old  will  produce  the  befl  crop, 
and  whether   compoft  will  not 
do  better  than  either  ; — how  lime 
will  anfwer  as  a  manure  in  our 
hot  fummers — on  what  kind  of 
foil  it  is  moft  ferviccaple.  Sec.  &c. 
But,  in   making  experiments, 
great  care  fhould  be  taken  that 
we  do  not  draw  a  conclufion  too 
haftily  ;  certainly  we  mull  not 
do  it  from  one  fingle  trial.    For 
a  thing  may  anfwer  well  at  one 
time,  owing  to  the  peculiarity  ot 
a  feafon,  or  to  fome  indifcerni- 
ble  circumflances,  which  will  not 
at  anodier.     If  men  allow  them- 
felves 


F  A  L 

feivet  to  be  too  fanguine  and 
ludden  in  their  conclufions  from 
fingle  cxpcrimcnis,  they  will 
rather  embamfs  and  mi  (lead, 
than  increafe  agricultural  knowl- 
edge. 

But  if  improvements  be  wilh- 
ed  tor,  experiments  (hould  be 
caretully  recorded.  It  this  be 
neglertcd.  hufbandry  muft  be  ex- 

f)e^ted  to  remain  in  its  prefent 
ow  flate.  For  want  of  fuch 
records,  a  great  deal  of  ufctiil 
knowledge  has  been  already  loft. 
Though  many  have  made  exper- 
iments, by  which  they  have  fatis- 
fied  themfelvei,  but  few  have  re- 
corded them.  The  experiment- 
ers thcmfelvcs  have  forgotten 
them,  to  fuch  a  degree,  that  they 
are  apt  to  mifrcprefent  them, 
when  they  attempt  to  relate 
them.  And  too  many  fuffer  ufe- 
hil  difcoverics  to  die  with  them. 
To  prevent  thefe  evils,  the  form- 
ing of  focicties  in  various  parts  of 
the  country  might  be  of  great  ufe. 


¥. 


FAGGOT,  a  bunch  of  bufh- 
es,  or  limbs  of  trees,  bound  to- 
gether by  a  withe.  Faggots  for 
tewel  are  cut  to  the  length  of  a- 
bout  two  feet.  In  many  parts 
of  this  country,  the  fcarciiy  of 
fire  wood  makes  it  expedient 
that  farmers  fhould  no  longer  go 
on  in  the  practice  of  burning 
fuch  materials  on  the  ground. 
They  (hould  preferve  tncm  in 
faggots  tor  fewel  in  their  houfes. 
They  will  ferve  to  heat  ftoves  ; 
juid  for  heating  ovens  iliere  is  no 
better  wood. 

FALL,  autumn,  that  quarter 
of  the  year  which  includes  Sep- 
tember, Oftobcr,  and  November. 
It  is  fo  called,  bccaufe  the  leaves 
of  deciduous  trees  fall  off  m  thai 
feafon.  In  this  quarter  of  the 
year,  the  farmer  finifhes  hii  har- 


F  A  L  loi 

verting,  and  lays  iu  hisfiores  for 
winter. 

In  a  country  where  the  fpriugs 
arc  backward,  as  in  the  northern 
parts  of  Newengland,  fdrincrs 
jhould  do  all  they  can  in  autumn, 
to  dimiiiilh  or  lighten  die  la- 
bours of  the  following  fpring, 
when  they  will  have  much  work 
to  i)erfonii  in  a  Ihort  time.  Sum- 
mer dung  and  compofts  (hould 
be  carted  out  at  this  feafoiu 
Penccs  (hould  be  built  or  repair- 
ed, not  only  to  prevent  hiving 
them  to  do  in  die  fpring,  but  to 
keep  cattle  from  injuring  the 
lands  with  their  feet.  All  the 
ground  (hould  be  ploughed  ia 
the  fall,  that  is  to  be  lecded 
the  following  fpring.  That 
which  is  intended  for  fpring 
wheat  Ihould  be  ploughed 
twice.  Though  all  that  is 
ploughed  in  the  fall,  for  fpring 
tillage,  muft  bu  ploughed  again 
before  feeding,  the  fall  plough- 
ing favcs  labour,  as  one  plough- 
ing may  anfwer  in  the  fpnng- 
where  two  would  be  oihenvile 
needful.  It  is  faving  labour  at  a 
time  when  teams  are  moil  apt  to 
be  faint  and  feeble,  and  when 
there  is  too  often  a  (carcity  of 
food  for  them.  But  ploughing 
in  autumn  is  of  great  importance 
in  a  clay  (oil,  as,  by  expoling  it 
to  the  froft,  the  cohclion  of  its 
parts  is  much  broken. 

The  tranlplanting  of  trees  out 
of  nurferies  may,  to  redeem 
time,  be  pci formed  in  the  fall  ; 
though,  on  other  accounts,  1 
ihould  prefer  doing  it  in  the 
fpring. 

FALLOWING  of  land,  let- 
ting it  reft  from  one  crop,  or 
more,  being  ploughed  without 
feeding. 

When  kind  has  two  plough- 

ings,   in  the   fallow  year,   it  is 

!.!id,    in  the  language  of    Lng- 

liUi  farmers,  to  be  iwyfalloweJ. 

Wliea 


t02 


F  A  L 


"When  it  has  three,  as  indeed  it 
always  fliould  have,  it  is  faid  to 
be  trifallowed.  The  firft  plough- 
ing is  ftallow;  the  fecond  a  little 
-deeper  than  the  firft ;  and  the  third 
a  little  deeper  than  the  fecond. 
But  if  the  land  be  cold  and  ft  iff,  and 
need  much  warming  by  the  fun, 
they  go  to  the  full  depth  at  the 
iirft  ploughing. 

Nothing  can  be  better  than 
fallowing,  to  recruit  land  that  is 
too  much  exhaufted  by  crop- 
ping- The  oftencr  it  is  plough- 
ed, the  more  it  is  enriched. 
Some  have  ploughed  their  tal- 
low land  no  lefs  than  a  dozen 
times ;  and,  if  I  am  not  mifm- 
formed,  have,  by  doing  fo, 
changed  fome  of  the  pooreft 
foots,  fo  as  to  make  them  too 
rich  for  a  crop  of  wheau 

If  new  dung  be  laid  on  fallows 
to  recruit  the  foil,  it  fhould  be 
-done  early  in  the  year  ;  that  the 
ploughings  may  more  thorough- 
ly mix  it  M^ith  the  earth  ;  and 
that  the  feed  of  weeds  conuined 
in  the  dung  may  be  killed.  But 
vhen  old  dung,  or  compoft,  is 
laid  on  to  help  the  next  crop,  the 
right  time  to  do  it  is  juft  before 
•the  laft  ploughing.  It  fhould  be 
turned  in  with  the  plough  with- 
out delay,  to  prevent  evaporation. 

But  if  dung  cannot  be  had, 
tiie  want  of  it  may  be  fupplied 
hy  more  frequent  ploughings. — 
By  fallowing,  the  weeds  arc  moft 
t;ffeftually  k.illed,  and  converted 
to  manure.  The  land  is  finely 
pulverized,  fo  that  the  pafture  of 
plants  is  greatly  increafed  :  And 
a  new  furface  by  each  ploughing 
is  expofed  to  the  influences. of 
the  atmofphere  ;  fo  that  the  foil 
is  deeply  penetrated,  or  even 
faturated  with  fertilizing  parti- 
<ies,  which  are  wafted  by  the  air. 

"  The  farmer  cannot  wifh," 
fays  one,  "  for  any  thing  more 
.beneficial  to  his.hufbandry,  than 


F  A  L 

moderate  fliowers  after  each  fal- 
low, to  bring  the  feeds  of  every 
weed  to  vegetate,  in  order  that, 
being  turned  down  by  feveral 
ploughings,  they  may  be  the 
more  effeftually  deftroyed." — I 
may  add,  that  the  more  the  land 
is  ploughed  when  the  dew  is  on 
it,  the  mare  it  will  be  enriched. 
Too  much  of  this  work,  there- 
fore, cannot  be  done  early  in  the 
morning,  efpecially  if  the  ground 
be  dry  :  And  when  it  is  fo  wet 
as  not  to  crumble,  but  turn  up 
in  clods  or  potch  like  mortar,  it 
fhould  not  be  ploughed,  or  med- 
dled with  at  all. 

Summer  fallowing,  however, 
is  not  fo  much  in  ufe  among 
European  farmers  at  prefent,  as 
it  has  been.  For  they  Iiave  found 
that  there  are  certain  crops 
which  do  not  impoverifh  the 
foil,  but  rather  improve  it.  Such 
crops,  for  inft^nce,  as  peafe,  and 
other  things  which  form  a  clofc 
fhade  over  the  ground,  whick 
kill  weeds,  and  increafe  the  pu- 
trefaction in  the  foil.  Therefore, 
many  choofe  to  avail  themfelves 
of  the  advantage  of  improxnng 
crops,  as  they  are  called,  rather 
than  lofe  a  year  in  fallowing. 

But  winter  tallowing  is  always 
allowed  to  be  profitable  ;  and  I 
have  found  it  to  be  fo  by  expe- 
rience. The  advantage  of  it  is 
moft  vifible  in  ftiff  foils  ;  for  the 
froft  and  winds  in  winter  will 
do  muchitov.-ards  making  thera 
mellow  and  fine.  One  plough- 
ing in  the  tall,  and  another  in 
the  fpring,  will  put  the  land  in- 
to better  order  for  feeding,  than 
two  ploughings  in  the  fpring. 
Land  that  is  apt  to  be  wet  may 
be  ploughed  the  earlier  in  the 
fpring,  tor  having  been  winter 
fallowed.  The  feed  may  be  got 
in  the  fooner,  as  the  land  will  be 
drier,  which,  in  fome  crops,  is  a 
great  advantage. 

-Qrecn 


F  A  L 

Green  fward  land  fhould  al- 
ways be  broken  up  in  the  fall,  if 
it  be  only  lor  pealt  or  potatoes, 
and  the  earlier  in  fall  the  better. 
For  either  of  thefe  crops,  noth- 
ing more  will  be  needful  in  the 
i\>r»ng,  than  a  harrowing  with  a 
heavy  drag.  On  half  an  acre  of 
poor  ground  thus  managed,  and 
without  any  manure,  I  once 
railed  a  hundred  bufhcis  ot  po- 
tatoes, 

FALSE  QUARTER,  a  rift  or 
chink  in  the  quarter  ot  the  hoof 
ot  a  horfe,  trom  top  to  bottom. 
It  happens  generally  on  the  in- 
fide,  that  bemg  the  weakeft  and 
thinned  ;  and  proceeds  from  the 
drynefs  ot  the  hoof,  butefpecial- 
ly  when  a  horfe  is  ridden  m  dry, 
fandy,  or  ftony  ground,  in  hot 
weather,  or  in  trolly  weather, 
when  the  ways  are  flinty  and 
hard.  It  i»,  likewife,  caufed  by 
had  Ihocing.  and  all  other  acci- 
dents whereby  a  horfe  becomes 
hoot  boimd  :  For  the  narrownefs 
of  the  heels,  and  brittlenefs  of 
the  quarters,  continually  expofc 
a  horfe  to  all  the  faid  accidents. 
"  This  accident  is  both  dan- 
gerous and  paintui  ;  for  as  often 
as  a  horfe  fets  his  foot  to  the 
ground,  the  chink  widens  ;  and 
when  he  lifts  it  up,  the  fharp 
edges  ot  the  divided  hoof  wound 
the  tender  flelh  that  covers  the 
coffin  bone,  which  is  for  the 
moft  part  followed  with  blood  ; 
and  it  miift  of  courfe  be  apt  to 
render  a  horfe  ia/ne,  as  it  i&  very 
difficult  to  torm  a  reunion.  To 
remedy  this  imperfection,  Firll, 
draw  the  whole  length  of  the 
clcti  with  your  drawing  iron, 
then  anoint  the  hoot  with  tar, 
honey,  anJ  fuet,  molten  togeth- 
er ;  tor  nothing  oan  be  more 
proper  tor  the  hoof  ;  and  lay  a 
thin  pledgit  dipt  in  the  fame  a- 
iong  the  cleft.  After  this,  take 
rope  yam,  fuch  as   ilic  failors 


FAR 


103 


I  ufc,  which  is  no  other  than  hemp 
nioiftened  in  mtlted  tar,  and  fpuu 
loofe  :  Apiply  the  yarn  all  down 
the  hoot,  begiiining  at  the  coro- 
net and  defcending  downwards, 
one  lay  alter  another,  as  clofe  a^ 
the  binding  of  the  hoops  of  wine 
talks,  laying  a  fmooth  pledgit  of 
flax  behind,  to  keep  it  trom  fret- 
ting the  heel.  This  ftiould  be 
opened  once  in  three  or  four 
days,  that  the  cleft  may  be  dreft. 
Aind  to  prevent  any  inronvc- 
niency  tliat  may  happen  by  th« 
opening,  a  thin  ftaple  may  be  al* 
fo  contrived  with  points  like 
horfe  Ihoe  nails,  call  off  oblique- 
ly, to  take  a  (lender  hold,  the 
plate  ot  it  croffing  the  cleft-, 
where  part  of  the  (hoe  is  cut  ofF 
(as  it  muft  be  under  the  cleft) 
and  the  nails  coming  out  on  each 
fide  ot  the  cleft,  on  the  upper 
part,  to  be  clinched  as  the  other 
nails.  By  this  method  a  cleft  in 
any  part  of  the  hoof  may  be  ea- 
fily  cured,  if  the  horfe  be  not 
ver>-  old,  or  djfeafcd."  Gihfons 
Farriery. 

FAX,  an  inftrument  ufed  ia 
feparating  corn  from  its  chaff. 
Of  late  the  i^n  is  almoft  out  of 
ufe.      See    Riddle^    IVinnowinz 

FARCY,  a  difeafe  in  horfes, 
fimilar  to  the  fcurvy  in  men, 
and  arifiiig  trom  a  fimilar  caufe. 
The  farcy  is  caufed  in  horfts 
from  their  being  for  a  long  time 
confined  to  dry  meal.  And  as 
the  fcurvy  in  men  is  cured  by  a 
diet  of  green  vegetables  ;  fo  the 
tarcy  in  horfes  may  be  cured 
by  turning  them  into  a  good 
frefh  pafture.  But  it  is  only  in 
the  beginning  ot  the  difeafe  that 
it  can  be  fo  eafily  cured.  Gib- 
fon  prefcnbes  blecdin?^,  and 
moderate  purging  ;  and  after- 
wards dofes  of  antimony.  Sec 
his  Farriery.  Mr.  Mills  calls 
it  a  cording  of  the  veins,  and  the 
appearance 


t04 


FAR 


appearance  of  fmall  tumOurs  in 
feveral  pans  of  the  body.  Mr. 
Bartlet  deems  this  di^emper  eafy 
of  cure,  when  it  appears  on  the 
head  only.  Mr.  Bourgelat  fays, 
a  decoction  of  the  woods,  anti- 
mony, powder  of  vipers,  with 
fome  mercurial  preparationi,  are 
looked  upon  as  fo  many  fpecif- 
icks  in  this  difeafe — and  that 
hemlock  will  cure  it. 

FARM,  a  traft,  or  piece  ot 
land,  under  improvement,  fit 
for  a  fanner  to  live  on,  or  one 
that  is  adapted  to  ferve  the 
general  purpofes  of  a  hufband- 
man. 

That  a  farm  may  be  conve- 
nient, it  fhould  be  compact  and 
regularly  fhaped  ;  well  watered 
vitn  rivulets  or  fprings  ;  and 
contain  a  variety  of  foils,  fit  for 
the  growing  of  all  forts  of  plants 
that  are  needful  to  thofe  who 
live  a  country  life.  It  fhould 
contain  high  and  low  lands,  dry 
and  moift  ;  lands  that  are  fit  for 
tillage,  orchard,  mowing,  paftur- 
ing  and  wood  land.  And  a  farm, 
with  fome  rocky  land  in  it,  is 
not  the  worfe.  Thofe  farms  will, 
in  the  long  run,  be  the  raoff 
profitable,  which  contain  flones 
enough  to  make  a  wall  round 
them  ;  it  not  to  enclofe  them  in 
lots.  Farms  that  have  a  fouth- 
crn  expofure  are  generally  pre- 
ferred ;  but  a  nonhern  expofure 
is  beft  in  a  dry  feafon,  in  partic- 
ular for  grafs,  and  fome  other 
vegetables,  which  require  no 
great  degree  of  heat.  Flat  land 
IS  not  fo  good  as  land  lying  in 
gentle  declivities.  Flat  land  is 
commonly  too  much  incommod- 
ed with  ^vater. 

In  fome  countries  men  choofe 
to  hold  large  farms.  But  in 
places  where  labour  is  dear,  as 
in  this  country,  fraall  farms  are 
to  be  preferred.  One  hundred 
acres  of  good  land  may  be  enough 


FAR 

for  a  man,  whofe  work  is  moftly 
done  by  himfelf  and  family. 
Near  to  a  market  town,  a  much 
lefs  quantity  may  be  fufficient ; 
and,  all  things  confidered,  equal- 
ly profitable. 

They  who  hire  farms  fhould 
confider,  and  be  well  fatisfied 
what  they  will  produce,  before 
they  bind  themfelves  to  be  tenants. 
Otherwife  they  may  repent  when 
it  is  too  late.  It  is  a  kind  of  rule 
in  England,  that  a  farm  (hould 
produce  the  value  of  three  rents ; 
one  for  the  landlord  ;  one  for 
the  charges  of  cultivating,  &c, 
and  the  third  for  the  farmer  and 
his  family  to  live  on.  So  that  a 
farm  will  not  rent  for  ico  unlefs 
its  produce,  commumhus  annis,  be 
worth  300  pounds.  But  farming 
muft  be  better  underltood  and 
praftifed,  before  farms  with  us 
will  pay  for  three  times  the  la- 
bour done  on  them,  or  labour 
rauft  grow  cheaper;  orboththefe 
eaufes  muft  concur. 

Perhaps  100  acres  produces  40 
tons  of  hay,  which, 
commumbus  annis^  /.  s.  d. 

may  be  worth,  60  o  o 

ioobu{helsoflndiancom,2o  o  o 
100  weight  of  flax,  400 

50  bulhels  of  rye,  10  o  o 

30  bufhels  of  wheat,  '900 
100  bufhels  of  potatoes,  600 
pafture  for  10  cows,  one 

horfe,  and  2  oxen,         1100 

Total,  i2o  o  o 

i      The  third  part  of  this  fum  is 

\  40I.     But  I  know  of  no  farm  of 

this  fize  which  brings  fo  high  a 

;  rent.     I  fuppofe  it  muft  be  part- 

:  ]y  owing  to  the  dearnefs  of  la- 

j  hour,  and  partly  to  the  want  of 

■  better    management    of    farms. 

i  The  higher  the  price  of  labour 

is,  the  lower  rents  ought  to  be. 

Forty  pounds  will  by  no  means 

j  purchafe  the  labour  that  muft  be 

I  done  on  fuch  a  farm. 

FARMER, 


FARMER,  one    who    culti- 
vate^ a   farm.     His   addition   is 
HuJbandfMaH.     In  England,  the 
\v(»rd  givfs  the  idea  ot  one  who 
hires  a  iarm  to  cultivato,  as  ia  a 
inaniRT  all  the  tanners  are  ten- 
arils.     But,  thanks  to  j(o(kI  Prov- 
idence, the  farmers  with  us  are 
moftly   landlt)rds.      One  would 
tlii.'ik  this  mull  conduce  to  the 
better  cultivation  oJ  our  lands  in 
general.     A  fcnant  does  not  in- 
tend   hitnlcif  in    the   improve- 
juent  ol  the   farm  :   He  aims  to 
<lo  what  will  he  molf  prohtable 
to  himfclf.     If  he  can  anfwcr  his 
own   ends,  he  cares    little  how 
much   the   lands   arc    exhaulled 
when  h<J  leaves  the  farm. 

FEN,  Und  which  abounds  with 
water,  as  Iwamps,  or  is  full  of 
bogs,  or  miry  |)laccs.  The  only 
way  to  make  teany  lands  gocxl, 
either  lor  till.tgc  ar  grals,  is  by 
draining.  See  Bog  and  Drain- 
ing. 

rEXCE,  a  hcd^e,  wall,  ditch,- 
■T  other  inclohiig  made  about 
farms,  or  parts  of  farms,  to  ex-  | 
chide  cattle,  or  include  them.  | 
Ei-n.ing  is  a  matter  of  great  con- 
(cii»ience  with  lariners  ;  and,  as  it 
is  managed  in  moft  parts  of  this 
ccumtry,  is  a  great  drawback  up- 
on tlieir  proms.  But  however 
coftly  fencmg  may  be,  it  is 
gocxl  economy  to  make  fences 
ilroii!^  and  tally  (ulhcient  to  an- 
fwer  their  purpofo.  It  would  be 
h»lly  to  lave  a  tritie  by  making 
a  fcn<:e  tuo  llightly,  and  be  liable 
to  lofc  a  whole  croj),  by  the 
breakin??  of  cattle  through  it. 

The  kinds  of  lencc,  and  man- 
ner ot  t'-Mcing,  Ihould  vary  ac- 
*  flic  diflrrence  ot  ioils ; 

a:.  111.^  asone  kmd  ot  ma- 

tcruU  {oi  trncir.;;  is  more  plen- 
ty »t\A  cheap  than  another. 

In  the  new  plantations  of  tliis 
cotintry,    log    fences    are    molt 
od  f  «H  they  certainly  ought  to 
N* 


F  E  M  10^ 

be  ;  bccaufc  the  wood  is  of  little 
or  no  value.  To  build  thcfc 
fences  with,  the  belt  wood  that 
1  am  acquainted  with  is  white 
pine.  A  fence  built  with  logs 
of  this  kind  will  Uand  twenty- 
years,  with  little  or  no  repairing. 
But  it  this  kind  of  wood  be 
not  at  hand,  and  other  forts  be 
plenty  and  near,  it  may  be  as  well 
to  make  ufc  of  fome  other  kinds  : 
Such,  for  inftance,  as  pitch  pine, 
norway  pine,  hemlock,  alh,  oak, 
and  white  maple.  Several,  or 
almoll  any  of  thefe  kinds,  if  they 
do  not  lie  too  near  to  the  ground. 
Will  laft  tor  a  confiderable  time. 
It  a  fence  be  made  partly  of 
white  pine,  and  partly  ot  other 
wood,  the  lormer  fhould  be  laid 
ncareft  to  the  ground. 

But  let  farmers  beware  of  build- 
ing their  log  fences  of  bafs  wood, 
poplar,  birch,  beach,  or  rock  ma- 

f)le,  unlets  in  cafes  of  ncccfTity  ; 
or  as  they  will  be  foon  rotten,  the 
labour  ot  building  them  is  in  ;i 
manner  loll.  It  logs  are  peeled 
they  w»ll  laft  the  longer  irt  fences. 
The  largeft  logs  fhould  lie  low- 
ell  in  a  fence,  both  for  ftrength 
and  durablenefs.  The  loweftaie 
fooneft  rotten,  when  all  are  of 
the  fame  fue  ;  anil  tiic  largeft 
logs  will  laft  longefl. 

Log  tences  Ihould  always  be 
braced  with  ffrong  ffakes  acrofs  ; 
and  heavy  riders  add  ftrength  to 
a  fence; 

When  ground  is  wholly  fub- 
dued,  and  the  flumps  of  its  orig- 
inal growth  of  trees  quite  rotted 
out,  it  flones  can  be  had  without 
carrying  too  far,  ftone  waJls  arc 
the  fences  that  ought  to  be  made* 
Though  the  coll  may  be  greater 
at  tirft  than  tlut  of  forac  other 
fences,  tliey  will  prove  to  be  the 
cl:eapeft  in  the  end.  Building 
flone  walls  is  not  only  the  way 
to  clear  ground  of  i  bad  incum. 
brancc  ;  but  » lu;n  the  fence  \%  . 

made, 


i<:^ 


TEN 


made,  it  is  certainly  ihebeftofall 
fences.  On  a  hard,  fandy,  or 
gravelly  bottom,  it  built  with 
good  ftones,  a  wall  will  Hand  ma- 
ny years  without  any  repairing. 
And  it  will  fland  well  on  any 
foil,  clay  and  mire  only  except- 
ed. On  a  clay  foil  it  will  ftand, 
if  the  foundation  be  lard  in  a 
trench,  near  as  low  as  tlw  earth 
commonly  freezes  in  winter.  Bu* 
a  wall  of  flat  or  fquare  Ihaped 
ilones,  will  ftand  tolerably  well  on 
any  foil,  laid  only  on  thefurface. 

it  is  true  that  walls  will  grad- 
i-.ally  fettle  into  the  ground, 
M-herethe  foil  is  at  all  mellow,  and 
heaves  with  the  froft  ;  fo  that  it 
may  be  ncceflar}',  in  a  century 
or  two,  to  dig  them  up  and  re- 
build them.  I  find  fome  of  this 
\v'ork  has  already  been  done  in 
lome  of  our  oldeft  towns.  But 
this  is  a  flight  objection  againft 
the  utility  of  this  kind  of  fence, 
lor  future  generations  wilf  blefs 
themlelves,  if  they  have  materi- 
als on  the  fpot  to  build  fences 
^^'jth,  when  wooden  m-aierials 
muft  unavoidably  be  fcarce  in 
moft  places,  and  very  coflly. 

I  am  aware  it  will  be  obj etled, 
that  ftone  walls  are  not  fufficient 
fences  againfl  fheep.  But  it  is 
eafy  to  make  them  fo.  A  row 
of  flat  ftones  laid  on  the  top,  and 
jutting  over,  will  make  a  wall 
Sufficient  for  this  purpofe  :  Or 
fome  ot  the  flighteft  riders  will 
do  it.  Riders  with  fome  of  the 
limbs  on  them  are  beft  for  this 
purpofe. 

Farmers  need  not  fear  that  they 
fhall  impoverilh  their  land  by 
clearing  it  of  ftones.  For,  after 
all  they  can  do  to  a  foil  that  is  nat- 
urally ftony,  there  will  be  ftones 
enough  remaining,  a  little  way 
below  the  furface,  to  render  the 
ground  moift  and  warm. 

In  thole  parts  of  the  countiy 
vhere  boards   are    plenty  and 


FEN 

cheap,  many  think  it  worth  wlifle 
to  build  fences  to  their  fields  and 
paihires  with  boards.  Such 
fences  abound  in  the  counties  of 
York  and  Cumberland,  in  the 
ftate  of  Maffachufetts.  Refufe 
boards,  which  are  moft  common- 
ly ufed  for  this  purpofe,  may  be 
had  at  the  mills  for  two  dollars 
per  thoufand  ;  and  a  thoufand 
will  ferve  for  about  fixteen  rods 
of  fence.  So  that  I  fuppofe  fuch 
fence  may  be  made,  at  leaft  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  mills,  and 
in  a  flight  manner,  for  about  one 
fhilling  per  rod.  If  the  boards 
muft  be  carted  to  any  confidera- 
bbe  diftance,  the  coft  of  the  fence 
is  much  increafed.  Such  fence, 
however,  may  be  accounted 
cheap,  confidering  the  durable- 
nefs  of  the  boards.  I  have  board 
fences  now,  which  have  ftood 
twenty  years,  which  will  laft  per- 
haps ten  years  more,  with  the  ad- 
dition of  here  and  there  a  board. 

When  the  boards  are  of  com- 
mon width,  they  may  be  fo  fort- 
ed  together,  that  three  boards  one 
above  another,  will  make  a  fence 
ot  convenient  height. 

Board  fences  are  of  two 
kinds :  They  are  built  either  with 
pofts  and  fpikes,  or  with  flender 
ftakes  and  withes.  In  making 
the  former  fort,  fome  lap  the  ends 
of  the  boards  one  on  another  a- 
gainft  the  pofts.  This  makes  the 
ftrongeft  work,  and  is  beft  for 
open  fence.  For  field  fence  the 
edges  of  the  boards  may  be  put 
three  or  four  inches  apart.  The 
ftrong  winds  will  not  be  fo  apt  to 
injure  it,  as  if  it  were  made  clofe. 

To  make  handfomer  fences,  a- 
bout  gardens,  yards,  and  fmall 
inclofures,  the  ends  of  the  boards, 
being  cut  fquare,  fhould  meet  a- 
gainll  the  centre  of  the  poft. 
There  muft  be  a  poft  at  the  mid- 
dle, as  well  as  at  each  end  of  a 
board,  fuppofing  the  boards  to  be 

not 


FEN 

not  much  over  nor  under  twenty 
fcci  in  length.  The  port  fhould 
go  into  the  ground  at  le.tft  thirty 
inches.  Throe  tt\'t  will  not  be 
too  much  in  clayey  ground  :  For 
in  fuch  (oil  the  polls  are  apt  to 
bcraifed  by  fevere  IroHs. 

The  otht-r  kind  ot  board  fence 
is  more  eaiily  built.  The  ends 
ot  the  lowermoft  boards  Uiould 
be  a  little  railetl  from  the  ground 
with  Hat  Hones  or  pieces  ot  wood. 
The  boards  will  laft  the  longer, 
and  it  is  no  hurt  to  the  tence. 
But  the  withes  will  not  laft  more 
than  two  years  at  longeft.  So 
that  the  fence  mud  be  rebuilt  once 
in  two  years.  It  thould  not  be 
neglected  longer,  left  the  boards 
fall  and  get  broken  bctore  the 
fence  IS  rebuilt.  I  will  add  one 
thing,  which  is  not  generally  at- 
tended tp,  in  making  board  fences 
ot  cither  kind.  W  hen  the  tvnce 
docs  not  Hand  due  north  and 
fouth,  or  on  a  mciidional  line, 
care  muft  be  taken  to  place  that 
fkle  ot  a  board  which  is  neareft 
the  heart,  towards  the  fouth,  or 
o«i  the  foutherly  fide  ot  the  tence. 
This  will  ferve  to  keep  a  board 
trom  warping  ;  and  the  tence 
vrlU  laft  the  longer  ;  tor  ihey 
fomeiimes  warp  lo  miKh  as  to 
make  them  fplit. 

Rail  tence  i;  perhaps  hs  much 
iifed  as  any.  The  timber  for  pofts 
and  rails  thoujd  be  telled  in  the 
winter.  To  Iharpen  rails  betore 
they  are  dried  faves  labour  :  And 
polls  fhould  be  mcrtifed  while 
they  are  green.  Rails  are  cut 
twelve  feet  long.  Pofts  Ihould 
be  fix  feet  and  a  half,  or  feveii 
feet.  The  bcft  timber  tor  rails 
is  cedar  :  It  is  eafy  tofpiit,  liglit 
to  carry  and  to  handle,  hilhcient- 
ly  ftrong,  and  the  molt  durallc 
of  any.  A  rail  of  cedar  will  laft 
an  age.  Next  to  cedar,  rails  of 
fhefnut,  white  pine  and  a(h  are 
fceft.     But,   for  want  of  better,  I 


F  E  M 


107 


I  fomc  ufe  rails  of  oak.  Cedar  is 
j  alfo  beft  tor  the  poft,  in  this  and 
I  in  board  tence.  The  locuft  tree 
1  is  faidto  be  excellent.  But  pofts 
i  of  white  oak,  which  in  m'»(t 
'  places  are  more  ealily  got,  will 
I  laft  ab«nit  fifteen  or  twenty  years. 
I  It  the  lower  ends  of  po^ts  be 
I  fcorclied  in  a  hot  ilaine,  before 
j  they  are  put  into  the  ground, 
they  will  Lli  the  longer.  A\h 
j  foaking  them  in  fea  wattr  will 
;  tend  to  keep  them  from  rotting. 
t  Juniper,  the  larch,  is  much  ufed 
I  lov  pofts  in  this  part  ot  the  coun- 
i  try.  They  wiU  laJl  about  eight 
i  or  ten  years. 

j      In   fome  places  it   is  beft   t^ 

!  make  hedge  fences.     There  are 

two  kinds  of  fence  that  go  by 

this  name,  dead  hedge  and  qiiick- 

fet  hedge. 

To  make  a  good  dead  hedge, 
take  ftakes  about  fix  feet  long', 
and  fet  them  faft  in  the  ground, 
upon  the  line  of  your  fence, 
about  four  feet  apart,  or  a  lc(s 
diftance  if  your  l*u!hes  be  fhorf. 
Then  interweave  bufties,  young 
trees,  or  finall  llendu"  limbs  of 
trees.  This  fence  will  anfwer 
with  a  yearly  repairing  until  the 
ftakes  tail. 

But  quickfet  hedge  is  much 
better,  as  it  is  a  perpetual  fence. 
It  muft  be  made  v.ith  different 
fets  in  differeut  grounds.  En- 
glilh  wiilows  will  anfwer  well  in 
low  andmoift  land.  They  grow 
very  rapidly,  though  fet  without 
roots.  On  high  land,  hawthorn, 
prim,  pear  tree,  or  crab  tree 
liedges  will  do  better.  Sorrie- 
times  a  hedge  is  made  in  the 
bank  of  a  ditch,  and  fometimes 
without  a  ditch.  The  latter  fort 
may  be  planted  clofe  to  another 
tence,  >vhich  (hould  ftand  until 
the  hedge  is  grown  up.  \\'lie:i 
a  fence  is  made  without  a  ditch 
it  ought  to  be  fenced  on  botl^ 
fides. 

Mprtimcr 


io8 


FEN 


Mortimer  dirctls,  •'  That  if  the 
hedge  have  a  ditch,  it  fhould  he 
three  feet  wide  atop,  one  at  bot- 
tom, and  two  feet  deep  :  Tliat  if 
it  be  without  a  bank,  or  ditch, 
the  fets  be  in  two  rows,  ahnoft 
perpendicular,  and  at  a  toot  dif- 
tance  ;  and,  that  at  every  thirty 
foot  diftance,  a  young  oak,  elm, 
crab,  or  the  like,  be  placed  : 
That  when  a  hedge  is  grown  tall, 
it  may  be  plalhed,  by  giving  the 
ihoots  a  cut  half  through,  and 
weaving  them  between  the  ffakes, 
trimming  off  the  fuperfluous 
branches." 

Mr.  Miller  fays,  "  It  will  be 
proper,  before  planting  a  hedge, 
to  confider  the  nature  of  the  foil, 
and  what  fort  ot  plants  will 
thrive  bell  in  it  ;  and  alfo  what 
the  foil  is  from  whence  the  plants 
are  to  be  taken  :  That  when  the 
bank  at  the  fide  ot  a  ditch  is  to 
be  planted  with  quicks,  the  fets 
ought  to  be  about  the  fizc  ot  a 
goofequiil,  and  their  tops  Ihould 
be  cut  off  within  tour  or  five 
inches  of  the  ground  :  That  they 
ihould  be  frelh  taken  up,  ftraight, 
fmooth,  and  well  rooted.  Part 
of  the  turt  taken  off  the  furtace 
of  the  ground,  where  the  ditch  is 
to  be  dug,  fhould  be  laid  with 
the  graffy  fide  downward,  on  the 
fide  of  the  ditch  where  the  bank 
is  intended  to  be  made,  and  fpme 
of  the  beft  mould  Ihould  be  laid 
upon  it  to  bed  the  quick.  The 
fets  of  quick  are  then  to  be  laid 
upon  that  mould,  a  foot  afunder, 
with  their  cut  cuds  fomewhat 
Hoping  upwards.  When  the 
firfl  row  ot  quick  is  thus  laid,  it 
mull  be  covered  with  mould  : 
Some  ot  the  remaining  turf  muff 
be  laid  upon  that  mould,  with 
the  grafs  tide  downwards,  as  he- 
fore  ;  and  more  mould  mufl  be 
laid  upon  the  turf.  When  the 
bank  has  been  thus  raifed  about 
jg^.  foot  high,  a  fccond  row  of  fets 


FEN 

(liouid  be  laid  in  the  fpaces  be- 
tween the  lower  quick,  and  with 
their  ends  turned  the  oppofite  way, 
in  order  to  thicken  the  bottom 
of  the  hedge.  Thefe  are  then  to 
be  covered  in  the  fame  manner 
as  the  former.  The  bank  is  to 
be  topped  v.- ith  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  ;  and  a  dry  or  dead  hedge 
mufl  be  made  ^n  the  other  fide, 
to  defend  the  young  plantation 
from  cattle.  The  quick  mufl  be 
contlantly  weeded  ;  and  in  Feb- 
ruary it  fhould  be  cut  to  within 
an  inch  of  the  ground  ;  for  this 
will  make  it  thoot  flrong,  and 
greatly  help  its  growth.  When 
a  hedge  ot  this  kind  is  about 
eight  or  nine  years  old,  it  will  be 
proper  to  plafh  it.  The  befl 
time  is  in  Ottober  or  February. 
Alter  it  has  flood  twenty  or  thir- 
ty years,  and  there  is  iii  it  old 
itubsy  as  well  as  new  fhoots, 
tliofe  flubs  fhould  be  cut  floping 
off,  within  two  or  three  inches  or 
the  ground." 

It  takes  time  to  make  thefe 
hedges.  But,  on  the  whole,  they 
are  cheap  fences,  as  they  require 
but  little  repairing,  befides  trim- 
ming and  pruning,  to  prevent 
their  growing  fo  high  as  to  call 
too  great  a  fhadow.  It  is  greatly 
to  be  wifhed  that  farmers  in  many 
parts  of  this  coimtry,  where  ma- 
terials for  othef  fences  are  fcarcy 
and  dear,  would  go  into  this 
method  of  fencing.  The  cofl  of 
making  the  ditch  and  bank, 
would  be  no  more  than  tvv'o  fhil- 
lings  a  rod,  cxclufive  ot  the 
quicks.  And  when  fucha  fence 
is  ijitended,  the  farmer  fhould 
have  a  nurfery  of  quicks  prepar- 
ed. For  though  flips  and  cut- 
tings may  live,  quicks  with  roots 
are  more  certain.  And  it  is  bet- 
ter to  make  a  good  hedge  at  firfl 
than  to  have  it  to  mend  after- 
wards. T\\c  befl  times  to  place 
thefe    quicks  iji  the    fence    ia 

^hi5 


FEN 

this  country  arc  April  or  Ntay, 
au'l  October. 

There  is  a  Virginia  fence,  lo 
called  from  its  being  inndi  iifcti 
in  Virginia.  It  is  nia»lc  bv  lap- 
ping the  ends  of  rails  or  poles  on 
eacU  other,  turning  alternatciy 
to  the  right  and  left.  There  mull 
be  ftakcs  acrofs  under  the  upper- 
moll  rails,  to  make  tiic  icncc 
fleady,  and  prevent  its  falling. 
As  it  is  ealily  made,  ar>d  loon 
iak.cn  up,  it  may  do  bell  where 
a  fence  is  wanted  only  lor  a  Ihoit 
lime  :  But  it  ukes  up  too  irucii 
room,  and  has  not  an  agreeable 
appearance. 

Another  kind  of  fence  is  made 
with  rails,  or  poles,  with  ev- 
ery hut  end  on  the  >»r()und, 
and  every  rail  lupported  by  a 
pair  ol  iiakes  cro'led.  It  may 
be  built  exactly  on  a  line,  and 
be  put  up  with  great  c>cpedition. 
Cattle  feem  afraid  to  attempt  to 
leap  over  it,  nor  can  they  pufli 
it  down,  nor  remove  any  oi  the 
parts  of  it  with  thcic  horns.  It 
IS  not  to  be  coveted  for  the  beau- 
ty of  its  appearance.  At  a  (mail 
di fiance  it  might  be  millaken  for 
a  CluxHiux  di  frije, 

Bulh  fences  arc  fomeiiines 
made  by  piling  bulhes,  or  Imall 
trees  with  the  limbs  on  them  ; 
finilhed  withcrofs  Hakes  .md  rid- 
ers. It  will  be  continually  let- 
tHrig  ;  and  theretore  mult  be 
made  hghcr  e^ch  year.  It  poor- 
ly pays  tor  the  labour  of  making 
it,  and  ihould  never  be  m.!de, 
hut  where  fuirable  njateriaU  tor 
better  fences  arc  not  ealily  to  be 
Iiad. 

^>omc  make  a  compound  fence, 
with  two  or  three  rails  ahove, 
and  ftoncs  beneath.  Potts  that 
have  ftood  in  a  rail  fence  till  the 
bottoms  are  rotted  off,  will  an- 
fwcr  to  hold  the  rails  in  tliis 
kinil  of  fence,  it  c  ire  be  taken  to 
fr.nwort  ll.env  ^^  th   liruvv  /Icm-- 


F  K  N  109 

agaiiifl  their  fide"!.  But  if  the 
wall  be  not  mailc  with  Ifoiles  tlini 
are  lonicwhat  large,  fwiuc  will 
be  npt  to  difplace  them,  and  make 
breaches  to  pals  through. 

Fences  tor  lorne  inclofures 
muy  be  made  with  iwo  rails  or 
three,  and  open  belov/,  Jb'or  di- 
vilion  lences  on  a  farm,  fuch 
fences  will  be  fully  fulh- 
cient,  where  neither  Iheep  nor 
luigs  are  to  be  oppofed.  They 
are  convenient  alio,  and  prefer- 
able to  almoU  any  other,  on  ac- 
count ol  the  facility  ol  Ibifiinj? 
tiicm  trom  place  to  place,  as  a 
farnier  may  often  find  occafjon 
to  do.  ?  or  the  pofts  being  j)oint- 
cd  in  the  manner  ol  itakes,  the 
holes  may  be  made  with  an  iron 
bar,  and  the  polls  driven  into  the 
gnmnd  with  a  beetle,  li>  as  to 
Uandlufficiently  llrong.  In  Tome 
parts  of  the  country,  where  nei- 
tlicr  Ihcep  nor  1  wine  are  permitted 
to  go  at  large,  thefe  open  tences 
are  uled  againft  roads.  And  it 
is  not  amils  to  adopt  tlie  chedp- 
cfl  ways  ol  fencing  that  will  jin- 
fwer  the  purpofc, 

A  fort  ol  leiice  is  made  of  the 
ftumps  and  roots  ol  white  pine 
trees.  In  a  fofl  foil  the  root* 
run  deep  :  But  the  Humps  on  i 
foil  ct  clay  may  be  taken  up 
without  mui;h  lalx>ur.  1  he  meth- 
od ol  doing  it  is,  to  cut  off  the 
roots  all  round,  about  two  leet 
horn  the  body  of  the  llurnps  ; 
Or  nearer  the  lidc  ot  the  Hump 
which  is  to  lie  on  the  ground, 
?a\A  farther  on  the  other  :  I  he  11 
heave  at  them  with  a  l')ng  lever, 
till  they  are  fo  loolened  that  they 
may  be  pulled  up  by  oxen.  L.'iy 
them  in  a  range  where  you  want 
your  fence,  inciulm;?  the  K^ps 
with  the  fmallerrooLs ;  they  will 
be  a  good  fen^x'  fv)r  two  or  three 
generations.  Betides  durable- 
nefs,  the  fence  has  thefe  things 
ro   rr-rorir.r. -r!  1  \*  :  It  clears   the 

land 


iio 


F  E  R 


land  of  a  bad  incumbrance,  and 
will  {land  well  on  a  clay  foil, 
.which  is  bad  for  other  fences  in 
general. 

For  ditch  fences,  fee  Ditch. 

FERMENTATION,  an  in- 
ternal motion  excited  in  fubftan- 
ces,  by  which  the  cohefion  of 
their  parts  is  deftroyed,  and  their 
nature  changed.  But,  that  a  fer- 
mentation may  take  place,  it  is 
neccfTary  that  fome  particles  in 
ihe  fermenting  body  be  fluid  ; 
or  that  the  body  be  moift.  Bod- 
ies perfeftly  dry  can  have  no  de- 
gree of  fermentation  in  them. 

Fermentation  does  much  to- 
M'ards  the  produftion  and  growth 
of  plants.  It  is  therefore  a  thing 
of  much  confequence  to  the  farm- 
er ;  and  he  ought  to  know  by 
what  means  he  may  increafe  ii 
in  his  ground. 

The  pafture  of  plants  is  increaf- 
ed  by  fermentation,  as  it  loofens 
the  foils,  fo  that  their  roots  do 
more  eafily  find  their  food.  AH 
rich  foils  contain  the  principles 
of  the  food  of  plants  in  abun- 
dance :  And  a  fermentation  is 
produced  among  them  by  any 
thing  that  alters  the  arrangement 
of  their  particles.  A  fermenta- 
tion is  produced  by  heat  from 
the  fun,  and  by  rain  :  But  when 
the  foil  is  too  much  filled  with 
water,  the  fermentation  is  abat- 
ed, or  deftroyed.  Ploughing, 
and  otherwife  ftirring  the  ground, 
is  a  principal  caufe  oi  fermenta- 
tion in  the  foil.  The  plough  not 
only  increafes  the  pafture  of 
plants  by  pulverizing  the  foil, 
but  by  mixing  the  falts  and  oils 
contained  in  it,  fo  as  to  bring  on 
a  degree  of  fermentation,  if  the 
foil  have  neither  too  much,  nor 
too  little  water  in  it  at  the  time 
of  ploughing. 

I  fufpecl  that  our  fevere  frofts 
in  winter  may  have  a  tendency  1 
to  excite  a  degree  of  fermenta-  ' 


F  E  R 

tion,  which  takes  place  after  die 
ground  is  thawed.  For  the  heav- 
ing and  fettling  of  the  foil  will 
make  fome  alteration  in  the  dif- 
pofition  of  its  particles,  and  con- 
duces to  its  imbibing  more  free- 
ly, fnow  water  and  rains,  which 
contain  food  of  plants. 

But  dung,  and  other  ftrong 
manures,  are  perhaps  the  chief 
caufes  of  the  fermentation  of 
foils.  -Dung  is  no  fooner  mixed 
with  the  foil,  when  there  is  a 
proper  degree  of  warmth  in  the 
earth,  than  it  ftrongjy  ferments 
in  itfelt,  and  brings  on  a  new 
fermentation  in  the  earth  which 
is  in  contaft  with  it,  which  is 
communicated  to  remoter  earth  : 
By  all  which  the  cohefion  of  the 
parts  oi  the  foil  is  broken,  the 
foil  highly  pulverized,  and  the 
paflure  of  plants  proportionably 
increafed,  fo  that  their  roots  cart 
freely  extend  themfelves  in  queli 
of  their  food. 

By  the  fame  fermentation,  the 
food  or  nourilhment  of  plants  is 
increafed  ;  becaufe  tlie  dung  it- 
feif  is  diffolved,  its  falts  and  oils 
mixed,  its  fine  earthy  particles 
fet  at  liberty,  the  vegetable  fub- 
ftances,  fuch  as  roots,  weeds,  8<.c. 
corrupted  and  diffolved  :  AH 
which  confpire  to  increafe  the 
iood  of  plants,  and  prepare  it  to 
enter  the  minute  pores  of  their 
roots. 

That  plants  may  flourifli,  it  is 
thought  to  be  needful  that  a  fer- 
mentation of  the  foil  be  contin- 
ued during  their  growth.  Oth- 
erwife a  fufficient  quantity  of 
fteam  will  not  arife  to  their  roots ; 
a  probable  confequence  is,  that 
they  will  be  Hinted  in  their 
growth.  It  may  be  for  this  rea- 
fon  that  tillage,  during  the  grow- 
ing of  plants,  is  found  to  be  fo 
very  advantageous  to  them  ;  ef- 
pecially  when  they  are  hoed  to 
a  good  depth,  by  which  the  ferr 
mentativn 


PER 

^nlatien  of  the  foil  among  the 
roots  is  incrcafcd. 

FERN,  or  BRAKES.  Pohpo- 
i^j/OT.awcll  known  lortof  weeds, 
that  is  ohcn  trouhlcfonic  to  fuch 
of  our  cleared,  or  pantdlly  fub- 
ducd  lands,  as  ha\e  not  been 
tilled.  They  are  fo  lull  of  falts, 
that  they  fhould  be  cut  green, 
and  laid  in  our  barn  vards  to  pu- 
trefy, and  mix  with  dung.  Per- 
haps there  «  fcarcely  any  better 
method  ot  increahng  manure. 
Pafturing  the  land  where  they 
grow,  efpccially  with  hungry 
cattle,  that  will  eat  them  as  tall 
as  they  come  up,  will  help  to 
fubduc  thctn.  Pukiing  will  kill 
them  ;  tor  tl>cre  is  nothing  fo 
iatal  to  them  as  uriin:  :  But  not 
lefs  than  two  or  three  year's  til- 
lage will  fubdue  them.  They 
arc  hardeft  to  fubdue  in  deep 
foils.  Flentilul  dunging,  with 
tillage,  will  be  efTeclual  ;  but  a 
TOoU  certain  remedy  is  urine  ; 
this  ihcy  get  in  plenty  by  lold- 
iflg. 

"  Fern,  cut  while  the  fap  is  in 
it,  and  lett  to  rot  on  the  ground, 
is  a  very  great  improver  of  land  ; 
for  if  burnt  when  fo  cut,  its  alhes 
will  yield  double  the  quantity  of 
fait  that  any  other  vegetable  can 
do.  In  fcvcral  places  in  the  north 
pans  ot  Europe,  the  inhabitants 
mow  It  green,  and  bui-ning  it  to 
allies,  make  thofe  albes  up  into 
balL,  with  a  lutie  water,  which 
they  dry  in  the  fun,  and  makt.-  ufe 
of  tiiem  to  walh  their  hnen  with  ; 
looking  upon  it  to  be  near  as 
good  as  foap  for  that  purpofe." 
Did.  of  Arts. 

In  the  Farmer's  OtUndai  you 
may  read,  under  September, 
'*  Now  is  the  proper  time  to  cut 
fern, called  in  lonie  places  brake>. 
This  is  moll  prohtdble  work,  and 
Ihould  never  be  ne^lcfc^cd.  Car- 
ry it  into  your  farm  yard,  and 
build  large  ilacki  of  it  for  cui- 


F   I   S  >J1 

ting  down  through  the  winter, 

:  as  t.:fl  as  the  cattle  will  tread  u 

\  into  dung  ;  alio  tor  littering  the 

I  Itables,  ox  houles,  cow  houfes, 

'  hogllics,  &c.     By   having  great 

plenty  of  it,  you  will  W  able  to 

I  raife  iininenlequantitirs  ot  dung, 

which  is  the  toundation  ot  all 

good  hufbandry  ;  and  it  is  well 

known  that  no  vegetable  yields 

fuch  a  Quantity  of  falt.<i  as  fern  ; 

trom  which  we  are  to  conclude, 

that    it  is   bcft  adapted   to   the 

making  manure." 

It  is  a  lamentable  thing  that 
we  Ihould  hitherto  be  fo  inatten- 
tive to  our  own  welfare,  as  to 
fuffer  this  weed  to  render  our 
lands  in  a  manner  ufelefs,  when 
it  might  be  turned  to  fo  great 
profit.  It  is  a  double  advantage 
to  cut  brakes,  as  they  not  only 
make  plenty  ot  good  manure, 
hut  every  cutting  helps  to  de- 
ftroy  them.  The  work  may  be 
done  after  the  hurry  ot  hay  mak- 
ing is  over  ;  and  perhaps  no  la- 
bour on  a  farm  can  turn  to  bet- 
ter account. 

FESCUE,  the  name  of  a  ge- 
nus of  grafs,  of  which  there  arc 
Icveral  Ipecies. 

FIELD,  a  piece  of  cultivated 
land,  whether  tor  tillage,  pafturc, 
or  mowing. 

FISH,  animals  that  live  in 
water.  All  the  parts  of  filh, 
Ihcll  fithandall  other,  are  excel- 
lent manures.  They  may  be 
ufed,  either  lalted  or  frefh  ;  fail- 
ed tilh  are  faid  to  be  bell.  The 
offals  of  filh,  and  fiOi  that  are 
Ipoilt  for  eating,  may  be  con- 
verted to  this  ufe  :  But  I  fhould 
prelcr  ufing  them  as  an  ingredi- 
ent in  compoll.  They  are  fo 
(Iroiig  a  nuiuiie,  that  it  has  been 
faid,  (jiie  iini;lc  alewite  will  an- 
Iwer  as  well  as  a  Ihovel  tull  cf 
the  heft  dung,  in  producing  In- 
dun  com.  But  they  Ciufe  land 
to  exert  itfelt  fo  much»  tliat  ir 

Will 


112  FLA 

Xk'iU  be  apt  to  grow  poor,  unlefs 
care  be  taken  to  prevent  it. 

FLAIL,  an  inftrument  for 
threOiing.  A  flail  confifts  of  the 
handfiaff,  the  fwiple  or  flyer,  tiie 
caps  or  capHns.  the  firing  or 
liand.  The  flaff  fhouid  be  cT  the 
lighteft  timber,  fuch  as  afii,  and 
made  perfectly  flraight ;  the  fly. 
er  Oiouid  be  of  a  heavy  kind  ot 
wood,  as  walnut,  elm,  or  beetle 
wood.  Some  make  the  caps  ol 
wood,  but  ftiff  fcfal  leather  is  bet- 
ter.. The  firing  or  thong,  wliich 
connects  the  cap  with  the  flyer, 
may  be  of  the  neck  of  deerfkin. 
But  the  fkin  of  an  eel  will  lafl 
much  longer  than  any  other 
firing  I  have  met  with. 

FLANDERS  GRASS,  a 
name  given  to  clover,  denoting 
the  country  from  whence  it  lirft 
came  into  England. 

FLAX,  or  LINT,  Linum,  one 
of  the  moft  important  ot  all 
plants,  the  culture  of  which  is  a 
needful,  if  not  a  profitable  piece 
of  hufbandry .  But  I  fufpett  the 
true  caufe  of  its  being  thought 
unprofitable  by  many,  is  their 
poor  management  ot  it.  It  is  a 
crop  that  perhaps  requires  the 
mofl  caie,  and  the  niceft  cul- 
ture, of  any  that  we  are  concern- 
ed with.  But  this  may  be  faid 
in  its  favour,  it  is  fo  ill  tailed  a 
plant,  that  it  is  feldora  deflroy- 
ed,  or  hurt  by  infects.  It  fhould 
never  be  fowed  on  a  foil  that  is 
not  rich,  and  well  wrought  ;  for 
if  the  crop  be  not  good,  and  do 
not  get  a  good  length,  and  a 
flrong  coat,  it  will  not  pay  for  the 
labour,  but  be  worfe  than  noth- 
ing, which  is  too  often  the 
cafe. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  foils  are 
by  no  means   fuitable  for  flax. 
It  is  not  a  plant  that  requires 
much  heat  ;  therefore  it  aaiwers  j 
well    in    cold    latitudes.     The  j 
cooler  kinds  of  foil,  luch  as  clay  I 


FLA 

and  loam,  and  the  black  earth  of 
drained  lands,  are  fuitable  for  it* 
But  they  fhould  be  well  pulver. 
ized  and  manured.  In  wet  fea- 
fons  it  commonly  does  better 
than  in  dry  ones :  So  that  though 
it  may  fometimes  do  well  upon 
high  land,  it  is  beft  not  to  run  the 
rifk  of  it,  but  rather  choofe  a  foil 
that  is  naturally  low  and  moifl.  It 
it  be  too  wet,  fomc  little  trenches 
may  be  made,  thirty  or  ionf 
feet  afunder,  to  drain  off  the  wa- 
ter. The  land  muff  be  in  good 
heart,  either  nattirally,  or  by  the 
help  of  manures.  But  new  dung 
fhould  not  be  laid  on  it  at  the 
time  of  fowing  ;  nor  any  thing 
elfe  that  will  make  weeds  in- 
creafe ;  for  in  no  crop  are  weeds 
more  pernicious  than  in  flax.  It 
is  often  found  that  they  entirely 
kill  mofl  of  the  plants  ;  and  the 
remaining  ones  will  be  bufhy  and 
misfhapen,  and  have  a  weak  coat 
on  them,  being  too  much  depriv- 
ed of  the  rays  of  the  fun. 

1  he  manure  for  flax  ground 
fhould  rather  abound  with  oils 
than  othcrwife,  and  be  rather 
cooling  than  hot.  The  old  rot- 
ten dung  of  black  cattle  and 
fwine  is  mofl  fuitable,  or  a  corn- 
poll  in  which  thefe  dungs  are 
the  principal  parts.  A  top  drefT- 
ing  of  fea  weeds,  after  the  flax 
is  come  up.  is  geatly  recommend- 
ed. But  I  rather  choofe  to  en- 
rich the  ground  a  year  before, 
than  when  the  flax  is  fowed, 
A  crop  of  potatoes  is  good  to 
precede  one  of  flax.  I  plough 
up  green  fward  land,  dung  it 
well  with  fuch  manures  as  are 
fuitable  for  flax,  and  plant  it 
with  potatoes.  This  crop  does 
not  abate  the  flrengthof  the  foil, 
but  rather  increafcs  it.  It  makes 
the  ground  mellow,  and  does 
not  encourage  weeds  :  It  is 
therefore  in  fine  order  tor  flax 
the  ye,:r  fotlowing. 

Grcea 


FLA 

Grfcn  fward  will  fomctim(?s 
c'.o  well  the  firft  year  ;  but  it  mufl 
be  3  tat  deep  foil,  fiich  as  fomc  in- 
tervales are,  and  Ihoiild  Imvc  a 
drefling  ol  old  duiiR,  well  pul- 
verized, and  mixed  with  the  foil 
by  harrowing  :  For  if  it  be  not 
well  mixed,  the  crop  will  be  of 
various  lengths,  which  is  incon- 
venient, and   occafioMS  lofs. 

In  Englind  they  fow  two 
bufhels  ot  imported  feed  on  an 
acre.  When  they  fow  feed  of 
their  own  growing,  they  allow 
more.  In  this  c^uintry  fomc  af- 
ford hut  one  bulhel.  The  heft 
quantity  tnay  be  about  fix  or 
levcii  pecks,  or  a  little  more  or 
lefs.  according  to  the  ftrcngth  ot 
the  foil.  For  it  is  not  with  this 
crop  as  fomc  fay  it  is  with  grain. 
Of  grain,  rich  land  requires, 
they  fay,  lefs  feed  ;  bccaiife 
what  is  warning  in  feed,  is  made 
up  in  ftooling.  But  liowever 
this  may  be,  it  is  moft  certain 
fhat  the  ftooling  ot  flax  will  be 
hurtful.  That  is  the  bcit  flax, 
where  a  root  bears  but  one  fpire, 
or  ftalk.  It  will  be  ftraighter 
and  taller,  as  well  as  more  ibft 
and  pliant.  The  ground  Ihould 
be  pliiughed  in  the  fall,  and  a- 
|»ain  in  the  fpring,  the  clods 
broken,  and  the  ftones  taken  out. 

Flax  ftiould  be  fowed  early, 
unlcfs  the  foil  be  too  wet.  Afmall 
degree  of  froft,  happening  after 
it  is  up,  will  not  kill  it.  That 
which  is  fov.cd  early,  has  the 
ftrongeft  coat,  as  it  is  Dower  in 
its  growth. 

A  calm  time  Oiould  be  taken 
to  low  the  feeds  :  Otherwifc  it 
cannot  be  fowed  even,  it  being 
more  diificult  to  fow  than  moJl 
other  feeds. 

Fla.x  feed  (hould  be  chanj^ed 
once  in  two  or  three  years,  or  i: 
will  fo  degenerate,  as  to  be  unlit 
fotfowing.  It  is  worth  while  to 
change  it  every  ycA,     It  is  cer- 

O 


FLA 


^«3 


tain,  that  feed  from  lefs  than  a 
hundred  miles  diftance,  has  been 
known  to  make  a  crop  more 
than  double  in  value.  It  has 
done  fo  in  this  counirv.  After 
the  feed  is  fown,  it  fhould  be 
covered,  either  by  bufli  harrow, 
ing  or  by  rolling,  or  both. 

When  ilax  comes  to  he  about 
four  inches  higli,  if  weed  appears 
among  it,  they  fhould  be  pulleti 
up  by  careful  hands  :  And  to 
prevent  wounding  the  flax,  the 
wecders  fhould  be  barelooted. 
If  they  Ihould  tread  it  down  at 
this  age,  it  will  foon  rife  up  a- 
gain.  The  weed,  commonly 
known  by  the  name  of  falfeflax, 
is  not  in  bloffom  till  the  flax  is 
nine  inches,  or  a  foot  high.  At 
this  time  the  weed  i  sea  fily  found 
by  its  yellow  bloffoms  ;  and 
what  efca])ed  at  the  firft  weed- 
ing, Ihould  at  this  time  be  care- 
fully eradicateil.  Otherwifc  it 
will  he  troublel'omc  infprcadinK 
the  flax,  and  in  dreflTmg  it,  ana 
(he  feed  will  be  foul. 

The  next  operation  in  the  cul- 
ture of  flax,  IS  pulling  it :  In  do- 
ing which,  care  fhould  be  taken 
not  to  mix  long  and  Ihort  to- 
gether in  the  fame  hands  :  But 
to  keep  all  ot  the  fame  length  by 
itfelf.  -The  reafon  of  which  cau- 
tion is  fo  obvious,  that  I  need 
not  mention  it. 

The  time  of  pulling  flax  de- 
pends upon  its  growth  and  ripe- 
nefs,and  upon  the  pi  opofcd  meth- 
od ot  managing  ii  alterwards. 

That  which  is  to  be  watered, 
fhould  be  pulled  as  foon  as  the 
blolfoms  are  generally  fallen  off*. 
Some  think  the  harl  is  ftronger 
at  this  time  liian  afterwards,  as 
none  of  the  oily  particles  are  yet 
i'P  into  tlie  feed.  It  is  un- 
•Iv  better  for  the  foil,  thaD 
a  be  pulled  <it  this  tunc,  than* 
when  the  ieed  is  ripe.  The 
longer  it  Aands  to   lipcn,   tlwa 

jsure 


/ 
iH 


FLA 


wioreoiiy  particles  it  will  dr3%v 
^om  the  earth. 

Being  pulled,  and  tied  up  in 
liands,  the  flax  fhould  be  put  in- 
to the  water  without  ddax^  A 
pond  is  preferable  to  running 
water,  both  as  it  is  ^••arme^,  and 
not  fo  apt  to  deprive  tlie  flax  of 
its  oily  and  glutinous  fubftance. 
In  four  or  live  da\s,  according 
to  the  warmth  of  the  water,  it 
will  be  time  to  take  ii  out.  But 
that  the  true  time  may  not  be 
iTiifTcd,  it  raufl  be  carefully 
watched,  and  trials  made  by  dry- 
ing and  breaking  a  little  of  it,- 
that  fo  the  harl  may  not  get  too 
much  weakened  by  fleeping. 

After  it  is  taken  out  and  has 
Iain  dripping  a  few  hours,  irmuft 
be  fpread  on  a  grafly  fpoi,  and 
dried.  If  it  fliould  happen  to  be 
EOt  watered  enough,  the  want 
may  be  made  up  by  letting  it  lie 
in  the  dews  for  a  fe^^"  nights  ; 
and  if  a  gentle  rain  happen  to 
fall  on.  it,  it  will  be  the  whiter 
and  cleaner. 

The  flax  that  goes  to  feed 
fhould  not  ftand  till  it  appears 
])rown,  nor  till  the  feed  be  quite 
ripe.  It  is  not  neceffary  on  ac- 
count of  the  feed  ;  becaufe  it 
will  ripen  after  pulling.  When 
the  leaves  are  tailing  from  the 
flalks,  and  the  (lalks  begin  to  have 
a  bright  yellow  colour,  the  boils- 
iufl  beginning  ta  have  a  brownifii 
cafl,  is  the  right  time  for  pulling. 

The  rind  is  to  be  loofened 
from  the  flalks.  not  by  watering, 
left  it  be  too  har^^h,  but  by  fpread- 
ing  it  on  tlie  grafs  to  receive  the 
nightly  dews.  When  it  is  done 
enough,  the  rind  will  appear  fep- 
arated  from  the  ftalk  at  the  (len- 
der branching  parts  near  the  top 
ends.  \\'hen  it  is  alraoil  done 
enough,  it  fhould  be  turned  over 
©ncc  or  twice. 

It  was  formerly  the  praftice, 
after  dr)-ing  the  flax  in  the  field, 


FLA 

to  houfe  it  till  fome  time  in  Sep- 
tember ;  and  then  to  beat  off  the 
feed  and  fpread  the  fiax.  But 
tills  often  interfered  with  fall 
feeding  :  And  it  was  necef- 
fary  it  fliould  lie  the  longer, 
the  weather  being, cool.  Some- 
times it  has  been  overtaken  by 
(iiows. 

I  prefet  the  method  I  have 
lately  gone  into,  as  it  faves  la- 
bour ;  which  is,  to  fpread  the 
flax  as  foon  as  it  is  pulled.  I  do 
it  on  a  fpot  where  the  grafs  is 
not  very  fhort,  which  prevents 
fun  Burning.  And  I  avoid  an 
evil  which  1  once  experienced. 
In  a  wet  feafon  the  flax  was  fpoilt 
in  the  field  after  pulling,  before 
I  could  get  it  dry.  As  the  weath- 
er is  hot,  it  will  be  done  in  about 
ten  days  or  a  fortnight.  I  then 
take  it  up,  bind  it  in  fraall  bun- 
dles, beat  the  feed  off,  and  lay  it 
up  in  a  dry  place  till  winter. 
While  it  lies  on  the  ground,  moft 
of  the  falfe  feed  will  (hell  out, 
which  is  a  confiderable  advan- 
tage. It  will  be  the  fitter  for 
market :  But  the  feed  referred 
for  fowing  mufl  be  cleaned  with 
a  proper  fieve. 

In  the  moft  frofly  clear  weath- 
er, flax  will  drefs  eafily  v.ithout 
roafting  it  before  a  fire,  or  bak- 
ing it  in  an  oven.  Thefe  prac- 
tices aie  not  approved,  as  they 
make  the  flax  too  brittle  ;  and 
caufe  it  to  wafte  a  great  deal  in- 
the  dreffmg.  They  are  needlcfs 
in  this  country,  whatever  they 
may  be  in  fome  parts  of  Europe, 
where  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
moifl,  dull  weather. 

If  the  above  directions  were 
ftrictly  followed,  I  ha%e  no  doubt 
but  an  acre  of  good  land  would» 
in  a  favourable  feafon,  produce 
four  hundred  \\-eight  of  flax- 
On  this  fufpofition,  we  may 
confider  what  the  profit  of  the 
crop  will  be» 


FLA 

One   third   of    the   flax    will 
pay  lor  the  drcffing.     The  oili- 
er  two  thirds,  at  nine 
pence  per  pound,  will     /.  s.  J. 
come  to        -        -  lo  o  o 


FLO 


11 


8  o 


Dedu6l  two  ploughings  "1 

ot  potatoc  ground,     / 
Six  Jo^ds  ot  diinc  laid  \ 

on  the  year  before,    J         ■* 

Harrowing  and  fowing,  040 

Bufhing,  or  rolling,  040 

Weeding,  perhaps,  040 

Pulling  and  Ipreading,  1     40 

Taking  up,«uid  fecur-"!  „  ^o  o 


mg  It, 


o  o 


Whole  expcnfc,  5 
The  profit  of  the  acre  1 

then  is  /   ^ 

To  which  I  might  add^ 

for    the    feed,   over  I 

and  above  the  quan-  | 

tity  fown,  J 

Whole  profit,  600 
I  believe  there  are  but  few  fin- 
gle  acres,  in  this  country,  which 
bring  a  greater  profit  than  this 
would  be- 
To  prevent  the  ill  effe6l  of  fo 
fevcre  a  crop  as  flax  is  to  the 
foil,  it  Ihould  be  ploughed  with- 
out delay,  after  the  crop  is  taken 
olF,  As  flax  is  pulled  early,  the 
ground  thus  gets  a  kind  of  ium- 
mer  fallow,  which  will  do  much 
towards  recruiting  it ;  and  weeds 
are  prevented  from  going  to  feed, 
at  the  fame  time  that  Uicy  ferve 
as  a  green  drcfLng. 

FLAX  BRAKE,  a  machine 
ufed  in  drelfmg  flax.  New  im- 
provements of  It  are,  placing  tlic 
teeth  fo  as  to  converge  towards 
the  fore  part,  and  laymg  the  up- 
per teeth  higher  at  the  hinder 
{tart.  That  this  machine  may 
all  for  any  confiderable  lime, 
care  fhould  be  taken  that  it  be 
not  cxpofed  to  the  injuries  of 
xjic  weather. 


Biakes  may  be  conflru£led  in 
go  by  water.  Either  a  null  may 
be  built  for  that  purpofe  ;  or, 
which  is  attended  with  lels  ex- 
peiiff,  the  machineiy  may  be  an 
apjjendage  to  foiMc  larger  mill, 
and  moved  without  a  dillinct 
water  wheel.  But  fucli  brakes 
are  attended  with  fundi  y  uicon- 
veniences,  be  (ides  extra  coil  in 
building  them,  and  wading  of 
the  flax  :  Though  it  cannot  be 
denied  thi<t  tlie  work  may  be 
performed  v.ith  icucli  greater 
exnedition. 

Not  only  brakes,  but  fcutchers, 
or  fwingling  mills,  have  been  in- 
vented, to  be  moved  by  the  fool. 
Part  ot  xlie  exertion  of  tiie  la- 
bourer may  undoubtedly  Le  l^v- 
ed  by  them.  At  leaff,  when 
they  are  ufed  by  way  of  change, 
the  work  may  be  lightened  ou 
the  whole.  They  who  think 
it  expedient  to  bave  thefe  ma- 
chines, may  find  them  defcribed. 
with  cuts  annexed,  i,!i  the  Co.n- 
p!df  Farmer. 

FLOODING,  FLOATING, 
or  DROWNING,  covering  of 
low  laads  with  water,  when  a 
rivulet  paffes  iluough  them,  by 
making  a  ddJU  at  the  outlet. 
WJicn  there  is  a  fufficiency  of 
V'ater,  and  a  fliori  dam  will  an- 
fwer,  this  is  a  piece  ot  hufband- 
ny  that  ought  not  to  l>c  neglect- 
ed. Qtteutimes  it  may  be  of 
great  fd vantage. 

Sometimes  it  is  done  for  the 
purpofe  oi  deffroying  the  natuir 
al  grov.'tU  ot  trees,  bullies,  ii:c. 
The  water  not  only  miJces  au 
eflcntial  alteration  in  their  food, 
but  alfo  excludis  them  from  the 
free  air,  which  is  ellentially  ncc- 
ellary  to  vegetation.  It  is  no 
wonder,  theteforc,  tliat  it  proves 
tlieir  deftruiiion. 

The  flowin;',  of  two  fummers 
IS  found  fuihcicnt  to  kill  every 
plant  of  the  woody  kind,  fo  that 

it 


ii6 


FLO 


it  will  not  fprout  any  more. — 
But  feme  advife  to  drawing  off 
the  water  in  Auguft,  that  the 
ground  may  be,  for  a  few  days, 
heated  by  the  fun.  The  plants 
thus  fuddenly  pais  from  one  ex- 
treme to  another,  which  will 
doubtlefs  tend  to  deftroy  thera 
the  fooner.  But  when  the  fea- 
fon  is  fo  dry  that  another  pond 
of  water  could  not  be  immedi- 
ately raifed,  the  drawing  off  had 
better  be  omitted. 

Another  intention  of  flooding 
is,  to  enrich  the  foil.  Some  lay 
their  lovr  grafs  lands  under  wa- 
ter during  the  whole  of  the  win- 
ter. This  may  be  a  good  meth- 
od for  lands  which  are  fo  low 
and  wet,  that  none  of  the  beli 
gralTes  can  be  made  to  grow  on 
ihem.  The  poor  v.ater  graffes 
■will  grow  the  fafler  ;  and  the 
crops  of  hay,  fuch  as  it  is,  will 
be  the  larger. 

But  places  where  cloyer,  or 
herds  grafs,  or  red  top  will  flour- 
ifh,  fhould  not  be  flowed  during 
the  winter  :  Becaufe  the  winter 
frofts  are  known  to  be  neceffary 
to  the  production  of  thefe  grades. 

Flooded  lands  fhould  aKsays 
be  laid  bare  early  in  the  fpring, 
that  the  grov.'th  of  the  grafs  be 
r.ot  prevented  :  Or  th«!t  the 
ground  may  be  dried  fo  early  as 
to  be  fit  for  tillage  crops.  And 
ditching  of  flooded  lands,  at  Icalt 
round  the  herders,  will  be  necef- 
fary  to  lay  them  dry  enough  for 
tillage. 

As  ftanding  M^ater  catches  duft 
from  the  atmofphere,  and  ahvays 
contains  more  or  lefs  of  the  fln- 
eft  particles  of  foil,  it  depofits  a 
rich  fediraent ;  a  fat  flime.  there- 
fore, will  remain  on  the  furface 
after  the  water  is  removed.  And 
a  time  fhould  be  chofen  for  draw- 
ing it  off,  when  the  air  is  calm, 
and  the  water  cleareft,  that  as  lit- 
tle a  quaiidty  as  poflSble  of  tlie 


FLO 

food  of  plants  may  pafs  off  wkk 
it.  Such  land  is  no  more  liable 
to  fuffer  by  drought  than  the  fer- 
tile land  of  Egypt,  which  is  year- 
ly enriched  by  the  overflowing 
of  the  Nile. 

Though  winter  flooding  do 
not  fuit  the  nature  of  good  graff- 
es, a  few  days  flooding  in  the 
fpring  and  fall  will  not  hurt 
them  ;  but  will  enrich  the  foiJ, 
and  fo  promote  their  growth. 
The  foil  will  have  the  fame  ad- 
vantage as  intervale  land,  which, 
is  made  rich  and  fmitful  by  oc- 
csfionaJ  flooding  :  Yea,  a  great- 
er advantage,  as  the  water  may  be 
applied  and  removed  at  pleafure. 

f  LOUR,  the  edible  part  of 
corn.  The  name  is  chiefly  giv- 
en to  the  meal  of  wheat  com,  af- 
ter it  is  cleared  from  the  bran, 
by  fifting  or  bolting.  The  flour 
of  wheat  is  the  beft  fubftance  for 
making  bread  that  is  known  iii 
the  world. 

That  flour  may  continue  good 
and  fit  for  ufe,  it  Ihouid  be  put 
into  dry  cafks,  and  then  kept  in  a 
place  that  is  cold  and  dry.  Oth- 
erwife  it  will  be  apt  foon  to  turn 
four.  And  if  it  be  paffed  through 
a  fieve  once  in  a  while,  it  wil! 
keep  good  the  longer. 

It  is  greatly  to  be  regretted 
that  this  country  does  not  pro- 
duce flour  in  greater  plenty. 
That  it  may  do  fo,  I  fliould  think 
nothing  is  neceffary  befides  the 
following  things :  i.  To  procure 
new  feed  of  wheat  from  fome  re- 
mote place,  once  in  three  or  four 
years  ;  and  from  the  northward, 
tliat  it  m.ay  ripen  the  earlier  : 
2.  To  give  the  land  three  or  four 
ploughings  before  fowing,  fo  as 
to  make  it  very  mellow  and  fine, 
like  gaiden  mould  :  3.  To  pre- 
pare the  feed  in  fuch  a  manner 
as  to  prevent  fmut.     See  Sjnuf. 

FLOWER,  or  BLOSSOM, 

the  moft  beautiful  part  of  a  plant, 

many 


F  O  A 

in»ny  of  which  have  an  agreea- 
ble llavour. 

'I'he  flower  cont.uns  the  or- 
gans of  generation,  the  Jarina 
jecundam,  which  is  neceHaiy  to 
fruitfahiefs,  ;ind  the  iiutimcnts 
of  the  fruit  itfcU  contaimng  the 
feed  of  a  future  nbrit. 

FLY,  an  infect  that  cats,  cor- 
rupts and  ilollroys  young  plants. 
See  In  fed. 

rOAL,  a  colt.  ••  Foals  are 
ufually  foaled  ahout  the  hcgui- 
ning  of  funimcr,  and  it  is  tlie 
cuitom  to  let  them  run  till  mich- 
aehnas  with  the  mare,  at  which 
tune  they  are  to  he  weaned. — 
When  firfl  weaned  they  nnill  he 
Jiept  in  a  convenient  houfe,  with 
a  low  rack  and  manger  ior  hay 
and  oats  ;  the  hay  mull  be  very 
fwcet  and  fine,  elpccully  at  firll, 
and  a  little  wheat  bran  Ihould  be 
mixed  with  their  oats,  in  order 
to  keep  their  bodies  open,  and 
make  the.u  eat  and  drink,  freely. 
When  the  wmtcr  is  fpenr,  they 
fliould  be  turned  into  ibuie  dry 
ground,  where  the  grals  is  fweet 
and  Ihort,  and  where  there  is 
good  water,  that  they  may  drink 
at  picafure.  1  he  winter  atier 
this,  they  may  be  kein  in  the 
flable,  without  any  further  care 
than  that  which  is  taken  of  oth- 
er hoifes  :  But  after  the  firfl 
year,  the  mare  loals  and  horfe 
foals  arc  not  to  be  kept  togefher. 
There  is  no  difhculty  to  know 
the  fhape  a  foal  is  like  to  be  ol  ; 
lor  the  fame  Ihape  he  carries  at 
a  month,  he  will  carrv  at  fix 
years  old,  ii  fic  be  not  abuled  in 
alter  keeping." 

We  olten  hear  it  lamented, 
that  f'Ur  breed  of  horles  is  fo  bad. 
But  I  am  convinced  tliat,  as  our 
colts  arc  managed,  if  we  hatl  any 
other  breed,  we  ihould  fix)n  make 
it  appear  to  be  us  n:can  as  our 
own,  li  noiworfc.  'riieabuling 
«f  colts  iu  the  fiiil  winter,  is  the 


F  O  D  117 

principal  caufc  ct  their  proving 
?o  bad.  For  our  farmers  fcldom 
allow  their  waned  colts  any 
l«)()(l  hcfides  hay,  and  that  is  not 
alw.iysof  the  bell  kind.  So  tliat 
ihey  leldom  tail  of  bring  ilintcd 
in  their  growth,  in  the  tirft  win- 
ter, to  iuch  a  degree  that  they 
never  get  the  better  of  it.  A 
colt  that  is  foaled  laie,  Ihould  not 
be  weaned  till  February  or  March, 
and  Ihould  have  oats  during  the 
whole  of  the  winter.  In  Ionj« 
countries  they  allow  a  young 
colt  fifteen  bufhcls.  We  need 
not  grudge  to  feed  them  with 
meal,  oats  and  bran,  befides  the 
belt  of  clover  hay  ;  for  they  will 
pay  for  it  in  their  growth.  Af- 
ter the  firfl  winter,  they  wiJl 
need  no  extraordinary  feeding 
till  they  are  grown  up. — Were 
the  above  direttions  cbfcrvcd, 
we  Ihould  foon  fee  an  improve- 
ment of  our  breed  of  horles. — 
They  would  be  capable  of  doing 
n;uch  greater  fcrvicc,  and  be 
likely  to  huld  out  to  a  greater  age. 

FODDLU.dry  food  for  horfes 
and  other  cattle.  The  term  in- 
cludes corn  or  grain,  luy  and 
flraw,  the  llalks  and  leaves  of 
Indian  corn,  the  haulm  of  peafc 
and  beans,  &c.  Dried  weeds, 
and  leaves  of  trees,  may  alio 
fer^•e  %s  fodder  for  hungry  and 
fiardy  cattle. 

Mr.  Lille  recommends  elm 
leaves,  dried  on  the  ima'l  branch- 
es, as  a  great  relief  to  cattle  in 
winter.  He  fays  the  cattle  will 
eat  it  before  oats,  and  tlirive  ex- 
ceedingly with  It.  Alf«),  the 
chaff  of  all  kinds  o!  grain,  in  the 
old  countiies,  is  referved  tor  ttul- 
der,  and  made  more  account  of 
than  the  ftraw.  In  this  coimtry 
it  is  fuffered  to  be  driven  away 
by  winds.  This  is  an  inllance 
ol  ouf  want  ol  economy. 

In    fuch   a   country   as   ours 
where  the  winters  arc  long  an4 

cold, 


ii8 


F  O  D 


coid,  and  where  grafs  does  not 
ferve  for  the  cattle  fo  much  as 
half  the  year,  providing  fodder, 
.and  preferving  it,  are  matters  of 
high  confequence.  In  this  bufi- 
nefs,  a  great  part  of  the  farmer's 
care  and  ilrength  is  employed. 
For  there  is  not  more  than  two 
months  in  a  year,  in  which  farm- 
ers are  not  either  preparing,  and 
Jaying  up  fodder  for  their  Itock, 
or  elfe  deahng  it  out  to  them. — 
But  this  need  not  difcourage  the 
Kewengland  farmer.  For  the 
cafe  is  very  much  the  fame  in 
niofl  parts  of  Greatbritain,  where 
the  nation  has  become  rich  by 
hufbandry,  and  where  lands  will 
bear  a  high  rent.  One  guinea 
per  acre  per  annum,  is  not  ac- 
counted high  rent  for  good  land, 
in  tillage  or  grafs,  in  that  country. 
Lands  that  lie  near  to  great  towns 
and  cities  are  rented  much  higher. 

The  ways  to  increafe  the  quan- 
tity of  fodder,  will  be  found  un- 
der other  articles.  The  ways  to 
preferve  it,  fo  as  to  make  the 
greatell  advantage  from  it,  may 
be  here  confidered. 

One  important  caution  to  be 
obferved  is,  that  hay,  which  is 
the  principal  fodder,  Ihould  not  be 
fo  much  dried  as  to  occafjon  its 
wafting.  When  it  has  been 
properly  made,  it  fhould  not  be 
carted  in,  if  it  can  be  avoided,  at 
a  tim.e  when  the  weather  is  dry 
and  windy,  nor  in  the  hottefl 
part  of  the  day.  Mornings  and 
evenings  are  the  beft  times  for 
removing  it,  as  there  is  a  damp- 
iiefs  in  the  air  which  prevents  its 
being  too  crifpy.  The  leaves 
ivill  not  crumble,  nor  the  feeds 
fliatter  out.  The  beft  parts  of 
the  hay  are  often  loft  by  not  ob- 
fei-ving  this  caution  ;  or  at  leaft 
jnuch  diminifhed. 

The  hay  which  is  to  be  ftored 
in  fmall  or  narrow^  mows,  and  on 
fcaffolds,  will  keep  well  with  lit- 


F  O  D 

tic  drying.  That  which  g08» 
into  a  large  mow,  will  need  to 
be  dryer,  as  the  air  will  not  pen- 
etrate fo  near  to  the  centre  of  it. 

To  prevent  the  hay  from  tak- 
ing damage,  by  overheating  in 
a  large  mow,  fome  recommend 
a  barrel,  bafket,  or  a  fluffed  fack, 
to  be  placed  in  the  centre,  and 
gradually  raifed  as  the  mow  rifes. 
This  forms  a  kind  of  chimney, 
which  takes  away  the  fteam  of 
the  hay  when  it  is  overhot,  fup- 
plies  frefh  air  to  the  hotteft  part, 
and  keeps  the  hay  from  turning 
mouldy.  But  as  good  a  meth- 
.od  may  be  to  pitch  fome  of  the 
drieft  hay  in  each  load,  into  the 
centre,  and  the  greeneft  round 
the  fides.  In  this  way  no  room 
will  be  loft. 

In  difpofing  of  the  different 
kinds  of  hay  and  other  fodder, 
fome  regard  fhould  be  had  to  the 
places,  or  parts  of  the  barn,  in 
which  the  different  forts  of  cattle 
are  kept.  The  clover  hay,  for 
inflance,  fhould  be  laid  up  near 
to  the  ftable  where  horfes  are 
kept,  as  this  is  the  moft  fuitable 
fodder  for  them.  The  good  hay 
of  otlier  kinds,  fhould  be  put 
where  it  can  be  handily  given  to 
the  calves,  milch  cows,  and  work- 
ing oxen.  The  meaneft  fodder 
neareft  to  the  apartment  of  the 
growing  young  flock,  on  which 
it  is  commonly  beftowed,  and 
which  is  more  proper  for  them 
than  for  the  reft. 

In  thofe  parts  of  the  country 
where  fait  hay  cannot  be  had,  it  is 
a  good  method  to  apply  fait  to  hay 
that  has  been  damaged  in  mak- 
ing, and  to  ftraw,  and  hay  of  low 
meadows,  as  it  is  put  into  the 
mow.  The  fait  will  make  it  more 
palatable  both  to  horfes,  and 
neat  cattle.  One  peck  of  fait  is 
enough  for  a  ton  of  hay. 

Some  choofe  that  a  barn  fliotild 

have    large   gaps    between    the 

boards 


F  O  D 

"boards  on  the  fides,  that  the  hay, 
8<.c.  may  have  air.  This  is  fure- 
ly  a  miftakcn  notion  ;  for  the 
liay  that  is  ncarcU  to  the  gaps 
will  lofe  its  fwcctncfs.  Tlic  roof 
of  a  barn  fiiouMalfohc  kept  very 
tight ;  and  none  of  the  hay  fhould 
he  laid  very  near  to  the  ground. 

I  do  not  approve  of  ftackingany 
kind  of  fodder,  excepting  in  cafe 
of  necclTuy.  For  fome  inches  of 
the  oiufidc  of  a  ftatk  is  certainly 
fpoilt  by  the  weather.  It  is  wcfl 
if  ilie  refl  happen  to  be  well  fav- 
ed.     It  often  proves  othcrwife. 

When  a  farmer  has  more  hay 
tlian  his  barn  will  hold,  let  him 
flack  it  near  to  the  barn  ;  and, 
as  foon  as  he  has  made  room,  in 
fomc  damp  or  calm  day  take  it 
in.  There  will  be  the  lefs  dan- 
ger of  its  getting  damage. 

Farmers,  who  mean  to  Jceep 
good  their  flocks,  and  to  have 
plenty  of  manure,  fliould  not  be 
fond  of  feHing  hay.  If  they 
fhould  have  fomc  left  in  the 
fpring,  it  will  not  grow  worfe, 
hut  fomc  forts  will  he  better,  by 
keeping.  Aik\  if  a  (hort  crop 
fliould  happen,  (hey  will  be  glad 
tliey  have  kept  it. 

Straw  that  is  refervcd  for  hnl- 
dcr,  may  help  to  prcferve  the 
liufksand  bottom  flalksoi  Indian 
corn,  v'iiich  conimonlv  have  too 
much  fap  in  them  to  be  niov/ed 
by  thcnifcUes.  If  they  are 
mowed  together,  in  alternate 
thin  layers,  the  ftra\v-  wilt  prc- 
ferve the  corn  ftalks,  and  the 
ftalks  will  impregnate  the  l^raw 
with  their  fweclncfs,  fo  that  the 
cattle  will  eat  them  together 
with  a  good  rclilh,  and  be  well 
nourifhcd  by  them. 

Another  inciliod  of  managing 
flraw,  which  I  have  found  to  be 
ol  fingular  advantage,  is  to  m\x  \ 
it  with  fdit  hay  which  is  not  more 
than  half  dried.  The  hay  i-; 
thus  kept  from  heating,  and  the  i 


F  O  D  419 

ftraw  is  fo  tinflurcdwitli  tl»c  fait 
and  fa'poi  the  hay.a-;  to  be  render- 
ed an  agfrceable  fodder  for  cattle. 

It  is  well  known  th.-»t  cattle 
prefer  fhort  ftnw  to  that  vhicli 
IS  long  :  Therefore  fome  farm- 
ers I  ui  their  flraw  ai  fliort  as  oats, 
and  to  tempt  the  horlVs  to  cat  it, 
mix  fomc  oats  or  barley  among 
it. 

FODDERING,  fcedirtg  cat- 
tle with  dry  food.  We  have 
occafion  to  begin  to  fodder,  mof? 
commonly,  about  the  beginning 
oi  November  ;  and  to  continue 
doing  it  till  the  middle  of  May, 
and  mmetimes  fatcr. 

We  fhould  take  care  not  to  be- 
gin to  fodder  till  it  is  realJy  neccf- 
iary  :  Becaufe  cattle  that  are  fod- 
dered, will  notgra^cc  fodihgcntly. 
When  it  is  once  begun,  the  cat- 
tle will  cxpeft  it,  and  i:  mufl  be 
continued.  When  we  firfl  be- 
gin, we  fhould  fodder  early  in 
the  morning  only  ;  for  at  that 
time  of  the  day  the  froff  is  ufual- 
fy  on  the  gnfs  ;  fo  that  the  cat- 
tic  wiir  not  graze.  They  fhould 
not  yet  be  houfed,  horfcs  except- 
ed ;  But  in  wet  weather  the  whole 
flock  fhould  be  houfc<i;  lor  they 
bear  cold  better  than  wctncfs. 
Or  if  not  put  into  the  barn,  they 
fjjould  have  a  fhcd  in  the  yard, 
under  which  (hey  may  fhclter 
themfefves. 

The  mcjnefl  fodder  fhould 
not  be  dealt  out  fiifl  of  all.  The 
hufks  and  flalks  of  Indian  corn 
arc  faitablc  for  this  feafon.  The 
flraw  and  the  woift  hay  fliould 
be  refervcd  to  give  them  in  the 
coldcft  weather  ;  for  it  is  then 
that  they  have  the  kecneft  appe- 
tites. The  hay  ot  low  ground, 
flraw  and  liaidm,  if  fait  hay  be 
noLto  be  had,  may  be  fjprinklcil 
with  faltcd  water,  if  falling  it  in 
the  mow  has  been  ncgUHed. 
They  v.'ill  not  only  est  it  hcarti- 
Iv,  but  live  well  upon  it. 

Wild 


126 


O  D 


Wild  gials  hay  is  not  fit  ior 
liorfes,   nor   any    of  the    \\'ater 
gralTe?.     They  will  need  fonie 
grain,  if  they  be  fed  on  any  other 
nay  befides  clover.    They  Ihould 
have   a  fmall    window    again fl  \ 
their  rack,  to  let  in  frefh  air  to  j 
fheir  fodder,  arid  at  the  fame  time  i 
give  them  light.     They  will  eat  i 
Inow  with  their  hay,  if  you  fet  j 
it  hy  them  :  They  will  take  a  i 
mouthful   of  each  alternately  ;  [ 
and  the  fnow  feems  to  incrcafe 
their  appetite.     If  horfes  ha\-e 
not  grain  through   the   winter, 
they  fhou'.d  have  it  at  lead:  in  the  i 
fore  part  of  winter  ;  for  the  com- 
ing on  of  winter  is  the  mod  try-  j 
ing  feafon  for  them.     If  they  be  | 
fed  with  Indian  corn,  it  fhould  j 
be  well  foaked  and  fwelled  ;  it  j 
will  give  theui  the  more  nourifh-  I 
ment. 

Neat  cattle  and  horfes  fhould  I 
not  have  fo  much  hay  laid  betore  j 
them  at  once,  as  will  quite  ferve  j 
to  fill  them.    The  hay  they  have  i 
breathed  on  much,  they  will  not  j 
eat  up  clean,  unlefs  \vhen  they  j 
are   very   hungry.      It   is   bell,  • 
therefore,  to  fodder  them  twice 
at  niglit,  and  t'vice  in  the  morn-  ; 
ing.     Let  neat  cattle  as  well  as 
horfes  have  both  light  and  frefh  i 
air    let   in    upon   their   fodder,  • 
wheu   the   weather  is    not   too  , 
cold,  or   ftormy,   to   allow   the 
windows  to  be  open.     What  one 
fort  of  cattle  leave,   fhould  be 
throv.-n  to  another  fort.    Thofe 
that  chew  the  cud   will  eat  the 
leavings  of  thofe  that  do  not,  and  ; 
vice  vtrfa. 

It  is  alio  well  known  to  farm-  i 
ers,  that  v.-hat  cattle  leave  in  the 
barn,  they  will  eat  abroad  in  the  , 
open  air  ;  and  moft  freely  when  j 
it  is  laid  upon  clean  fnow.  Not  ; 
only  this,  but  the  raeanefi:  of  ; 
ifraw  fhould  be  given  them  in  i 
this  way.  What  is  left  will  help  j 
toiucreafe  the  manure  in  the  yard.  ' 


t^  O  D 

But  fome  of  the  young  zha 
hardy  of  the  flock  Ihould  bd 
kept  wholly  on  flraw,  when  a 
farmer  has  great  plenty  of  it,  and 
not  be  fuffered  to  tafte  any  other 
fodder  during  the  whole  v/inter. 
For  their  getting  a  tafte  of  other 
fodder  will  fpoil  their  appetite 
tor  flraw.  But  if  they  be  kept 
entirely  to  it,  it  is  faid  by  farm- 
ers of  great  experience,  that  they 
will  winter  very  well.  If  this 
be  attempted,  there  raufl  be  a 
diftinft  yard  for  them. 

Every  farm  yard,  where  any 
confiderable  flock  is  kept,  fhould 
be  furnifhed  with  a  large  fhed, 
and  a  rack  under  it.  For  where 
there  is  no  clean  fnow  to  lay  the 
flraw,  and  other  mean  fodder 
upon,  it  fliould  be  put  into  the 
rack.  A  larger  proportion  of  the 
dung  \\''\\\  be  dropped  under  the 
fhed,  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  yard.  And  this  dung  will  be 
better  than  the  refl,  as  it  will  not 
be  wafhed  by  rains,  nor  fo  much 
dried  by  the  wind  and  fun. 

Sheep,v;hen  they  are  under  cov- 
er, ihould  draw  their  hay  through 
a  rack,  made  fo  clofe  as  jufl  to 
admit  their  nofes.  They  ihould 
have  good  hay,  and  a  cool  and  dry 
houfe.  Beans  is  a  fort  of  food 
they  cat  vei^■  greedily,  and  even 
the'  flraw.  But  it  is  faid,  that 
ewes  with  young  fhould  not  be 
allowed  to  eat  many  beans ;  as  it 
will  make  their  lambs  grow  too 
large  within  them.  Neither  fhould 
they  be  fed  too  generoully,  nor 
to  the  full,  till  near  the  time  of 
lambing. 

When  a  farmer  thinks  that  hff 
has  too  much  flock  for  his  fod- 
der, as  will  fometimes  be  the 
cafe,  it  is  not  bell  to  pinch  them 
in  tlieir  allowance  lo  much  in 
the  fore  part  of  winter  as  in  the 
latter  part.  For  the  cattle  are 
more  liable  to  be  pinched  with 
the  cold,  in  Decemb  er  and  Jan- 
uary, 


FOG 

Uary  than  afterwards.  And  no 
man  knows  how  favourable  the 
lattrr  part  of  winter  may  be. 
Advantage  alfo  may  be  made 
ot  browfiiig  in  the  latter  more 
than  in  the  former  part  ot  win- 
ter, as  tlie  buds  then  begin  to 
fwcll,  and  the  twips  have  more 
fap  in  them  than  before. 

vVhen  browfing  is  depended 
on,  the  farmer  wIjo  has  fah  hay, 
fhouhl  prefervc  a  fufiieient  quan- 
tity of  it  to  the  hitter  part  of 
winter.  It  will  give  the  cattle 
a  high  relilh  for  browfe.  If  they 
have  no  fait  hay,  they  fhould 
have  fait,  to  incrcafe  their  appe- 
tite. 

Cows  that  arc  near  calving, 
fhoutd  not  be  driven  out  after 
the  browfe.  for  fear  of  accidents. 
They  fliould  be  kept  on  the  bcft 
fodder  :  Not  be  tied  up  with  the 
other  cattle  ;  but  each  one  Ihould 
he  fed  in  an  apartment  by  her- 
fclf,  without  tving. 

FOG,  FOGGE,  or  FOG- 
AGK,  lonj?  grafs  and  ftuinps  of 
grafs,  remaining  in  mowing 
grounds  and  paflures  till  winter. 
This  is  accounted  in  general  a 
benefit  to  the  land  ;  efpecially 
when  the  grafs  is  not  of  a  bad  and 
four  kind.  The  fnow  prcfles  it 
down  clofc  to  the  furface,  where 
it  flicltcrs  the  roots  of  the  grafs, 
corrupts  it,  and  turns  it  to  ma- 
hurc.  Butwhen  mowinggrounds 
are  fed  very  clf)fe  in  the  fall,  the 
enfuiiig  crop  is  poorer,  the  roots 
being  more  injured  by  the  feet 
and  teeth  ot  cattle,  and  more  cx- 
pofcd  to  the  weather.  1  he  dung 
they  drop,  though  it  be  conHd- 
crablc.  will  not  wholly  repair  the 
damage  of  clofc  tecdiug  and 
trampling. 

But  tog  ismoft  elfentially  fer- 
viceable  on  a  foil  of  the  clay 
kind.  It  forms  a  covor  which 
retains  tfie  rains  and  dews,  in  the 
iollowing  fpring  and  fummer,  fo 


^   OX  121 

as  to  give  the  furface  a  mord 
equable  and  conllant  moifture  ; 
and  prevents  the  binding  ancl 
cracking  of  the  furface  by  t!ic 
heat  oi  the  fun.  Nothing  can 
hrlter  oppofc  the  ill  effects  of  a 
dry  feafon  on  Inch  a  foil. 

FOLDING  of  land,  confin- 
ing fhcep,  or  other  cattle,  nighu 
ly,  in  a  Imall  lot  or  yard,  for  thi; 
purpofe  of  cMiriLhing  the  foil, 
f  he  benefit  ariling  fioni  this  is 
fo  great,  that  it  ought  not  to  be 
negletfcd,  efpecially  in  tliofe 
parts  of  the  country,  where  the 
wolves  do  not  come. 

Some  turn  in  their  other  cat- 
tle with  the  iliecp.  This  is  good 
condud,  when  the  foil  is  warni 
fand  or  gravel  ;  and  not  bad 
when  it  is  loamy.  But  it  may- 
be better  to  yard  the  black  cattle 
without  fheep,  on  a  very  dry 
foil  ;  fuch  as  hungry  land  or 
gravel  ;  and  the  Iheep  without: 
the  black  cattle,  on  a  foil  that  is 
heavy  and  cold.  Thus  both 
thcfe  kinds  of  manure  will  be 
applied  to  the  foil  which  will 
be  molt  helped  by  them. 

P'olding  is  a  much  better 
method  than  carrying  dung  from 
the  barnyard,  when  the  feafon  is 
fuitable  tor  doing  it.  One  great 
advantage  ot  it  is,  that  none  of 
tije  Hale  is  walled,  hut  every 
drop  of  it  inflantly  abforbed  by- 
the  lo:l  that  needs  it,  and  will 
make  a  good  return  for  it. 

Folding,  or  yardin:^,  is' hut  lit- 
tle attended  to  in  this  country  ; 
and  not  half  the  advantage  is 
made  froin  it  that  might  be, 
when  it  is  attempted.  It  is  faid 
that  one  luindred  Ihecp  in  a  fum- 
mer will  earicli  eight  acres,  fo  as 
to  need  no  othv.r  manuring  for 
(ix  years. 

1  his  matter  is  certainly  mif- 
condu6ted,  when  a  farmer,  either 
to  fave  the  J  tbour  ot  fencing,  or 
tiuuugh  ijnoiaiKcof  the  advan- 
tage 


122  F  O  L 

tage  of  folding,  makes  his  irv- 
cjofurcs  too  fmall,  and  folds  the 
land  too  much  for  his  ovvn^^rofit. 

Let  a  fpot  of  half  an  acre  be 
plonghcd  and  fenced.  Ti;rn  in, 
each  night,  a  dozen  he^d  of  neat 
cattle,  and  fifty  (heep.  Continue 
to  do  it  for  three  weeks,  harrow- 
ing the  furface  once  in  three 
da}s.  to  mix  the  excrements  with 
the  foil.  The  ground  will  be 
fufficiently  folded  to  produce  a 
fine  crop  of  turnips,  or  almoft 
any  other  good  crop.  It  is  reck- 
oned by  fome  that  a  fheep  will- 
fold  one  yard  fquare  in  a  night  ; 
or  rather  one  rod  fquare  in  about 
a  fortnight. 

A  yard  for  cabbages  or  titr- 
nips,  may  be  begun  about  the 
m:ddie  of  May  ;  or  when  the 
cattle  firft  go  to  grafs.  Abiuit 
a  month  after  will  be  nearly  the 
Tight  time  to  tranfplant  cabbages ; 
and  fix  weeks;  or  about  two 
months  after,  to  fow  turnips. 
And,  for  a  general  rule,  it  is  befl 
that  a  crop  Ihould  fucceed  the 
rrianuring  as  foon  as  poflible. 

When  a  crop  of  wheat  is  want- 
ed, the  ground  may  be  folded  in 
July,  as  the  feed  is  to  be  fown  in 
Auguft.  And  frequent  ploughing 
and  harrowing  for  this  crop 
Ihould  not  be  neglected.  If  the 
land  he  wettifli,  do  it  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  day  ;  if  dry,  in  the 
morning  before  the  dev/  is  off. 

Low  grafs  grounds,  'which  are 
cold  and  four,  and  produce  bad 
hay,  may  be  furprifingly  melio- 
rated by  a  little  folding.  L  kills 
lern  and  mofles,  and  roots  out 
the  wi'd  and  watery  graffes,  even 
without  breaking  up  the  foil. 
At  the  fame  time  it  encourages  the 
growth  of  better  kiiKfs  of  graffes; 
This  may  be  done  at  certain  fea- 
fons  that  are  unfuitable  for  the 
folding  of  ploughed  lands,  they 
being  too  wet  and  dirty  tor  the 
fheep  to  lie  upon,  as  ;n  Oftobcr, 


F  O  O 

November,  March  and  April. 
Sheep  are  more  proper  for  this 
fort  of  folding  than  larger  cattle, 
as  their  excrements  are  hotter. 

FOOD  of  plants,  the  matter 
which  enters  into  them,  and 
gives  them  their  nourjfhmenf 
and  growth. 

It  has  been  much  difputed 
among  naturalifts,  what  the  food 
of  plants  confifts  of.  It  is  agreed, 
that  the  food  enters  the  pores  of 
plants  in  a  liquid  form.  But  of 
what  kind  of  matter  this  fluid  is 
compofed,  is  the  queftion. 

I  fhall  pafs  over,  for  the  fake 
of  brevity,  the  arguments  of  thofe 
who  have  fuppofed  this  food 
wholly  to  confift  of  air,  of  earth, 
or  of  water  ;  or  of  any  one  un- 
mixed fubftance  whatever.  And 
J  fhall  not  trouble  my  readers 
with  an  account  of  any  of  the 
futile  experiments,  by  which 
they  imagined  they  had  proved 
their  hypothefes.  For  I  believe 
fhey  have  all  been  wide  of  the 
truth,  and  their  experiments  im- 
perteft  and  fallacious. 

I  fhould  think  there  cannot  be* 
a  more  likely  way  to  afcertaii> 
the  nature  of  this  aliment,  than 
to  examine  what  plants  contain, 
or  what  they  are  made  up  of. 
For  they  almoft  entirely  confift 
of  what  pafles  into  them  during 
their  groA\th,  The  fee^  is  fo 
fmall,  that  the  fubftance  contain- 
ed in  that  can  make  but  little  al- 
teration in'  the  nature  of  the 
whole  plant  produced  from  it. 
Or,  if  it  did,  feeds  may  be  re- 
duced to  their  firft  principles,  as 
eafily  as  the  plant  that  bears 
them. 

Plants  have  been  found  by 
chymical  analyfesto  contain  air, 
water,  earth,  fait,  and  oil.  But - 
any  one  may  convince  himfelf 
of  it,  without  the  aid  ot  a  chym- 
ical procefs.  If  we  take  notice 
of  wood  that  is  burning,  we  fhall 

find 


F  O  O 

find,  by  its  hKTing  ajxd  riMpi»ing, 
that  it  dlfcharges  no  (mall  ijuaiu 
tity  of  air  :  Water  is  fctn  palf- 
ing  out  at  the  ends  ot  the  flicks 
on  the  fire  :  The  llame  prove* 
tlie  exiftcnce  of  the  oily  part  : 
And  falts  are  eafily  p*-o<Iuccd 
from  the  alhcs,  by-cxini'rting  the 
lie,  and  boiling  it.  The  aihes 
that  remain  aic  the  caput  mor- 
tuum,  or  earth.  It  is  natural  to 
fuppofe  that  the  foixi  ol  plants  is 
niaue  up  of  thefe  ingredients,  to 
which  plants  are  fo  eafily  reduc- 
ed. For  it  leerns  irrational  to 
think,  that  the  nature  ol  the  UmkI 
is  totally  changed  in  a  plant,  or 
by  concoction  changed  into  a 
fubftance  ot  a  quite  different  na- 
ture. It  it  were  fo.  rotten  vege- 
tables would  not  give  fuch  good 
nourilhment  to  growing  plants 
as  we  find  they  do. 

But  then  it  is  found  that  the 
fubftances  of  which  plants  are 
compofed,  are  varioully  combin- 
ed in  different  plants.  Some 
plants  abound  moll  with  oil, 
lomc  with  fait.  &c.  And  this 
variation  is  fufficient  to  coniH- 
tute  an  almoft  endlels  variety  in 
the  natures  of  plants  ;  although 
there  were  no  diflcrent  concoc- 
tions in  plantN,  alter  the  entrance 
ot  the  ingredients  ot  their  food, 
which  adimilates  them  to  their 
particular  natures. 

The  lood  ot  pUnts  is  provid- 
ed by  niturc,  in  a  greater  or  lels 
degree,  m  every  part  of  the  earth, 
near  the  furlacc.  In  places 
where  it  is  found  to  be  karco, 
the  defect  may  be  fupplied  by 
tdlage,  dung,  and  other  manures. 
Tillage  adds  to  the  food  of  phm's, 
by  'opening  the  pores  of  the  eaj  th, 
and  difpoling  it  to  abforb,  ami 
retain  the  vegetable  food  i!:.i: 
floats  in  the  atniofphcre;  and  al- 
fo,  by  mixing  the  ingrediL-iiis, 
andcaufingatcnnenijtion.wliich 
prepares  the  ingredients  to  enter 


F  O  O 


2J 


the  pores  in  the  ioot.<sof  plants. 
Dung,  and  many  other  manures, 
increafe  the  tood,  as  tney  contain 
it  in  greater  plcn'.v  :!\jn  theedrtU 
does.  Some  ol  the  manures  do 
alnioll  cTiiirely  conhllof  it. 

1  he  qucflion  has  been  much 
rontelled.  whether  the  food  of 
all  plants  be  the  fame.  It  feems 
to  be,  in  general,  nearly  the 
fame  :  i.  liecaufe  all  plants  con- 
tain more  or  lefs  of  each  of  ilie 
ingredients  :  2.  Bccaufe  molt 
kinds  of  plants  will  floiirilh  ou 
any  piece  of  ground  that  is  v.cli 
cultivated,  when  it  has  the  de- 
gree of  nioiflure  that  fuits  them  : 
3.  Becaufe  ahnoff,  or  quite,  eve- 
ry plant  will  rob  all  others  of 
their  tood,  Avhich  Hand  near  it  ; 
and  one  ot  its  own  kind  not  per- 
ceptibly more  than  one  ot  an- 
other kind. 

But  it  may  re.u'onably  be  fuf- 
peCted,  that  the  orilices  ia  the 
/oots  Will  not  f<j  readily  adiiiit 
any  particles  which  do  not  fuit 
the  nature  of  the  plants,  as  thofc 
that  do.  For  the  flavour  cf  the 
root  IS  ottcn  very  different  from 
tliat  of  the  earth  nearcfl  to  jt. 
But  it,  on  the  contrary,  we  lup- 
pofe  the  roots  to  take  in  ail  the 
ingredients   of    ve;;etable    food 

f)ronnfcuouny,  as  they  are  pre- 
ented,  they  are  not  all  equally  re- 
tained. On  this  fuppofition,  a 
plant  miift  have  the  power  of 
fending  out,  by  perfpiration,  or 
excrei'.on,  a  greater  proportion  of 
one  kind  ot  ingredient  of  its 
tood  than  another,  that  ttie  re- 
maining fap  may  be  more  fuita- 
bie  to  the  nature  of  the  plant. 

Which  of  thcfe  hypothefes  is 
nearelt  the  tiuth,  I  will  not  un- 
dertake at  prelent  to  determine. 
But  there  is  a  remarkable  anal- 
i>;;y  betwixt  animals  and  plants,  fo 
tar  as  their  natures  arc  invriliL^st- 
ed.  Thcreiore,  as  animaU  have 
difTerent  appetites,  why  may  we 

not 


124  F  O  O 

not  fuppofe  fomething  fimilar  in 
plants  ?  Or,  that  fome  roots  may 
rejeft  one  kind  of  particles  in  the 
general  food  that  nature  provides, 
and  other  roots  rejeift  other  par- 
ticles. A  flag,  for  inilance,  may 
imbibe  more  Abater,  than  a  bufli 
of  the  whortleberry  of  the  fame 
bulk.  Why  may  we  not  fup- 
pofe  further,  that  as  fome  ani- 
mals feed  on  airaoft  any  thing 
that  comes  in  their  way,  fo  fome 
plants  may  be  deftitvite  oi  any 
Tiicenefs  ot  appetite,  and  admit 
all  food  proraifcuoufly  ?  But 
whether  the  difagreeable  parti- 
cles are  rejected,  without  enter- 
ing the  roots,  or  expelled  aker 
they  have  entered  ;  yet  the  real 
nourilhment  ot  different  plants, 
as  well  as  of  different  parts  of 
the  fame  plant,  mult  needs  be 
foniewhat  difrerent.  For  that 
which  nourifhcs  a  plant,  muft  be 
rr^de  up  ot  nearly  the  fame  par- 
ticles of  matter,  that  the  plant 
is  when  it  is  grown.  As  there 
is  a  real  difference  in  the  latter, 
there  mufl  be  alfo  in  the  iormer. 
So  that  there  is  a  real  difference 
in  their  nounfhment ;  though  not 
fo  great  a  difTerence,  but  that  the 
food  of  all  plants  may  be  con- 
fidered,  in  general,  as  being 
much  the  fame.  So  a  company 
of  men  are  faid  in  general  to 
feed  alike,  when  they  all  eat  of 
the  faine  number  of  difhes  at 
one  table,  though  one  take  a 
greater  proportion  of  his  m.eal 
from  one  dilh,  and  another  from 
another  :  Or  though,  taking  e- 
qually  of  all,  one  fl^omach  digelts 
that  which  another  does  not,  but 
thrcv.'s  it  oS  as  unfuitable  ali- 
mei'.t. 

If  the  above  reprefentation  be 
agreeable  to  truth,  it  will  follow, 
that  as  all  foils  do  not  contain 
the  ingredients  of  vegetable  food 
in  the  fame  proportions,  fome 
fbils  duil  be  fitter  to  uouriih  oiic 


FOG 

kind  of  plants,  and  others  anoth- 
er kind  ;  and  the  fame  may  be 
faid  of  manures.  And  as  expe- 
rience proves  that  this  is  fo,  it  is 
favourable  to  my  theory,  Butffill 
the  food  ot  plants  is,  in  general, 
nearly  the  fame.  In  confirma- 
tion of  this  opinion,  it  may  be  ob- 
ferved  that  fallowing  always  en- 
riches a  foil  ;  and,  for  ought  that 
appears  to  the  contrary,  m.akes  it 
more  fit  to  produce 'all  forts  of 
crops.  But  the  food  which  en- 
ters into  fallowed  land  from  the 
air  muft  be,  in  general,  nearly 
the  fame. 

It  has  been  afked,  whether  a 
piece  of  ground,  which  has  borne 
the  fame  crops,  year  after  year, 
till  it  will  bear  the  fame  no  long- 
er, may  not  be  in  a  good  condi- 
tion for  bearing  fome  other  crop 
that  requires  equal  ffrength  in  the 
I  foil  ?  I  think  it  doubtful  wheth- 
j  er  tliis  has  ever  appeared  to  be 
the  cafe  in  ia£i.  But  have  ob- 
ferved,  that  a  piece  of  ground, 
tired  of  producing  white  crops, 
as  they  are  called,  v>'hich  require 
much  nourifhment  from  the  foil, 
may  be  in  a  fit  condition  for 
crops  that  require  little  :  Not 
becaufe  the  food  of  different 
plants  is  effentially  different, 
but  becaufe  the  latter  takes  from 
the  air  a  greater  proportion  of  its 
nourifhment  than  the  former. 
Thus  land  which  appears  to  be  ex- 
haufled  by  cropping  with  wheat 
or  oats,  may  be  fufficiently  rich 
for  peafe  or  potatoes.  And  a- 
gain,  as  fome  plants  draw  their 
nourilliment  from  a  greater  depth 
in  the  foil  than  others,  a  fpot 
that  feems  to  be  exhaufled  by  fi- 
brous rooted  crops  may  be  in  a 
condition  for  tap  rooted  ones. 
And  this  is  perfe6^1y  confiftent 
with  the  opinion  that  the  food 
of  both  kinds  may  be  nearly  the 
fame.  And  on  the  whole  it  ap- 
pears, thit  there  niay  be  fufii- 

cieiit 


FOR 

It   reifon    for  a    rotation   of  | 
« rops,   though   the   food   ot  a!l 
plants  were  the  fdinir,  or  ncaily 
i'o,  as  I  fuppolc  thfiii  to  Lc. 

FORKSr,  a  tra^t  of  ;jroun(l 
prodiuing  wood.  Karli  larni  of 
any  confidcralilo  fiiwiicls,  Ihould 
Jiavc  a  forclt  to  aflurd  a  fuoply 
of  fcwel  and  timber.  lu  clear- 
ing farms  in  a  new  country,  due 
rcgiifd  Ihould  be  had  to  prelerv- 
ing  a  perpetual  toreft.  Some 
have  milfaken  tlu-ir  intereU  To 
much,  as  not  to  leave  a  lulfieient 
ouantity  ot  land  uncleared.  So 
tnat  they  arc  put  to  the  difagree- 
able  neccflity,  either  of  buying 
their  fire  wood,  or  cHe  of  go- 
ing fonie  niiles  after  it.  That 
part  of  a  farm  Ihould  be  let  apart 
for  this  purpofe,  whicli  is  lead 
adapted  by  nature  tor  tillage,  or 
grals.  Land  which  is  fwampy, 
with  a  very  thin  foil  over  a  lan- 
dy  bottojn  ;  land  that  is  rocky  and 
mountainous,  or  which  will  but 
poorly  bear  a  dry  fealun,  cre\en 
the  mod  fandy,  or  gravelly 
heights,  or  Ueep  declivities  whicli 
cannot  be  ploughed,  may  an- 
fwer  well  tor  a  foreft.  tore f I 
trees,  having  long  roots,  fome 
of  which  penetrate  dteply,  will 
find  fufficicnt  nourilhment,  in 
places  where  corn  andgrafs  can- 
not be  cultivated  to  advantage. 
So  that  it  is  very  bad  economy 
to  fuffer  any  fnch  places  to  be 
deftitute  of  growing  trees.  For 
if  they  do  not  produce  wood 
they  are  in  a  manner  ufelefs. 
Or  if  they  produce  any  grafs, 
trees  will  not  hurt  them  for  paf- 
turago,  but  in  fomc  cafes  make 
ibem  better. 

The  quantity  of  ground  that  I 
fliould  be  fet  apart  tor  this  ulc, 
intift  vary  according  to  the  large- 
nefs  ot  the  farm  it  belongs  to, 
and  accordins;  to  the  demand  for 
wood,  tlic  quality  of  the  foil,  and 
tiic-  luiure  uf  llic  I  Iii;;..t'-,     If  ;hc 


FOR 


12- 


climate  be  hot,  the  forcll  may  be 
final  ler. 

A  fmall  farm  cannot  fo  well  ad- 
mit of  a  large  lot  foi  wo(,d  as  a 
larger  one.  Some  inteil!t;cnt  farm- 
ers iii  ihis  country  iiave  thought 
tliry  could  make  a  lot  of  ten  or 
a  do/en  acres  anlwer  the  purpofe 
ot  fupporling  one  conilant  kitch- 
en tire.  But  it  certainly  will  not, 
unlefs  the  (oil  be  uncommonly 
fruitful,  and  the  trees  fucli  as  are 
of  the  (juickeft  growth.  If  land 
be  poor  and  dry,  it  will  require 
twenty  acres  or  more,  to  hipply 
one  (ingle  fire,  and  keep  the 
(lock  of  trees  undiminilhed. 

To  thicken  a  ioieil.or  to  pre- 
vent its  becoming  too  thin,  cattle 
(hould  be  kept  out  at  all  lealons, 
that  all  the  trees  which  Ipring 
out  ot  the  groiiiid  may  live,  and 
grow  up  to  maturity.  And  \A\cii 
u  is  found  needful,  acorns,  or 
other  feeds,  Ihould  be  planted,  (o 
that  none  of  the  ground  may 
continue  unoccupied. 

In  our  nioft  fouthcrn  climates, 
I  find  that  hard  wood  is  n»ore 
rapid  in  its  growth  than  in  the 
northern.  And  fpiouts  oftener 
grow  up  from  Humps  ot  trees 
that  are  felled.  'Ihe  trees  that 
grow  up  quickelt  in  general 
lliould  be  moll  cultivated. — 
Thole  of  thefe  kinds  Ihould  be 
more  generally  left  (landing  than 
others  ;  fiicii,  for  i:illance,  as  the 
red  and  grey  oaks,  aji,  whito 
maple,  &c. 

That  a  foreft  may  be  prcferv- 
cd  from  wade,  as  lew  trees  as 
po{rible  (hould  be  felled  in  fum- 
mer,  orfpring  ;  not  only  becaulc 
the  wood  and  tin:bcr  is  of  lels 
Naiue,  but  bccau(b  no  fuckers 
will  be  fo  apt  to  come  up  from 
their  roots.  It  is  a  frugal  meth- 
od to  fell  all  wood,  an.l  timber 
trees,  in  December  and  January, 
ur  a  little  before  and  after  th'->rc 
•T.onihs.  'J'lic  wood  will  lalt 
longer, 


126 


FOR 


longer,  will  be  more  durable  on 
the  fire,  and  burn  better  :  And 
the  timber  w\\]  be  more  lading. 
When  a  number  of  fuckers  fpring 
up  from  a  ftump,  all,  excepting 
one  or  two,  fliould  be  taken  a- 
v»ay  as  early  as  pofTible  ;  then  the 
remaining  ones  will  grow  with 
rapidity.  Thofe  are  to  be  left 
which  are  tallcft,  and  mo»l  rap- 
id in  their  growth. 

When  a  farm  is  quite  deftitute 
of  a  foreff,  fome  fpot,  or  fpots, 
the  mo  ft  barren  of  any  part  of 
the  farm,  Ihouldbe  converted  to 
this  ufe,  and  be  planted  with 
fuch  trees  as  may  be  expecled  to 
thrive  beil. 

If  thefe  fpots  be  tillable,  "  cat- 
tle of  all  kinds,  and  fwine  fhould 
be  fenced  out  ;  and  the  ground 
ivell  ploughed  and  harrowed, 
and  made  mellow.  Acorn-3  may 
be  put  in,  in  rows  four  feet  afun- 
der,  t^vo  inches  apart,  and  two 
inches  deep.  The  intervals  may 
bear  fome  hoed  crops,  while  the 
trees  are  fmall.  They  fhould  be 
hoed  the  firfl  year  with  the  hand 
hoe  ;  the  fecond  with  the  horfe 
hoe,  and  (o  on  afterwards.  When 
they  are  a  year  old  begin  to  thin 
them.  When  they  are,  by  re- 
peated thinnings,  as  they  grow 
larger,  reduced  to  the  diflance  of 
eight  feet,  all  the  reft  may  ftand 
for  timber,  till  fome  of  them  are 
fit  for  fome.ufes.  But  the  final 
diftance  for  large  timber  trees,  is 
from  twenty  to  thirty  feet." — 
Cotnplete  Farmer. 

But  if  places  defigned  for  for- 
efts  cannot  conveniently  be  till- 
ed, the  trees  fhould  be  raifed  in 
&  nurfery,  and  tranfplanted  into 
fuch  places.  The  coft  of  doing 
it  will  be  ulfling,  to  compare 
with  the  advantage  to  be  obtain- 
ed by  doing  it,  efpecially  in  thofe 
parts  of  the  country'  where  wood 
is  become  a  fcarce  article.  Small 
clumps  of  trees   on  little  emi- 


F  O  U 

nences,  have  an  excellent  ef- 
feft  on  the  beautv  of  a  country. 

FOUNDERING,  a  very  pain- 
ful  difeafe  in  the  feet  of  horfes. 
A  horfe  affetted  with  this  difeafe 
draws  himfelf  up  in  a  heap,  and 
is  loth  to  move.  It  is  faid  to  be 
occafioned  by  bruifes  on  the  legs, 
by  bad  fhoemg,  by  ftanding  in 
cold  water  after  being  heated 
with  exercife  ;  or  even  by  ftand- 
ing ftill  in  the  ftable  for  feveral 
days.  As  the  diforder  is  in 
the  feet,  covered  by  the  hoofs 
and  foles,  it  is  difficult  to  make 
application  to  the  parts  affefted. 
But  drawing  out  the  fole  Mr. 
Snape  does  not  approve  of,  with- 
out paring  the  hoof.  Something 
muft  be  done  without  delay,  left 
impofthumations  come  on  in  the 
feet,  by  which  the  hoofs  will  be 
caft  on  :  In  which  cafe,  the  horfe 
muft  lie  by  ufelefs  for  a  number  of 
weeks  betorc  the  new  hoofs  will 
be  grown.  The  fame  writer  di- 
re6ts  that  the  hoofs  be  razed  from 
the  coronet  or  top  to  the  bottom, 
quite  through  the  hoofs  to  the 
quick,  fo  as  to  make  the  blood 
ran.  Thefe  channels  in  the 
hoofs  may  be  readily  made  with 
a  common  marking  iron. 

To  cure  the  wounds  made  in 
the  hoofs,  apply  to  them  tar,  tur- 
pentine and  honey,  melted  to- 
gether, with  a  fourth  part  of  fpir- 
it  of  wine,  foaking  pledgits  of 
clean  flax,  or  tow,  in  this  mix- 
ture, and  laying  them  upon  the 
chinks,  not  opening  them  till 
two  days  after  the  firft  drefling  ; 
afterwards  making  frelh  applica- 
tions every  day,  till  the  channels 
in  the  hoofs  are  grown  up. 

The  fame  applications  muft 
be  made  to  tlie  fole,  it  that  has 
been  drav.-n.  But  fimilar  chan- 
nels in  that,  as  I  apprehend,  may 
anfwer  well  enough,  and  paring 
the  fole  thin.  They  muft,  how- 
ever, have  the  fame  drcCTings  as 

the 


F  R  E 

the  hoofs.  A  piece  of  leather 
fhoiilil  bf  laid  over  the  fole,  and 
the  whole  foot  fo  bound  up  with 
flrong  bandages,  that  the  appli- 
cations may  not  get  difplaced. 
See  Gil'fon's  Farrury. 

FRHKZIN'G,  or  congelation, 
the  fixing  of  fluids,  or  turning 
them  into  ice,  by  their  being  ex- 
pofed  to  vcrv  cold  air. 

"  PhiJofophcrs  are  by  no  means 
agreed  as  to  the  caufc  of  this 
phenomenon.  The  Cartefiaus 
account  for  it  by  the  recefs,  or 
going  out  of  the  ethereal  matter 
Irom  the  pores  of  the  water. — 
The  Corpufcularians,  on  the 
other  hand,  attribute  it  to  the  in- 
grefs  of  fiigorifick  uarticles,  as 
they  call  them.  Hi)bbcs  alTcrts, 
that  thcfe  particles  arc  nothing 
clfe  but  common  air,  which,  en- 
tangling ilfeif  with  the  particles 
of  water,  prevents  their  motion. 
Others  will  have  a  kind  of  ni- 
trous fait  to  be  the  caufe  of  con- 
celaiion,  by  infinuating  itfelf 
between  the  particles  of  water, 
and  fixing  them  together  like 
nails.  And  indeed  it  fcems  prob- 
able, that  cold  i^xtii  freezing  do 
arife  from  fome  fubftances  of  a 
faline  nature,  floating  in  the  air  ; 
Hnce  all  falts,  and  particularly 
nitrous  ones,  when  mixed  with 
ice  and  fnow,  greatly  increafe 
their  cold,  and  even  bulk." 
Did.  of  Arts. 

The  trcezing  of  the  groiind  ii 
that  in  whch  the  farmer  is  chief- 
ly intcrcftcd.  But  when  wc  fay 
the  ground  Ircczcs,  wc  mean  that 
the  watery  and  moifl  partiiles  in 
the  groimd  are  turned  to  ice,  by 
which  thi!  particles  of  the  ft»il 
are  fo  ftrongly  bound  together, 
thai  tlie  ground  is  harder  to  pen- 
etrate than  ice  ftfelf.  As  to  the 
ground  itfcll,  it  would  be  inca- 
pable of  C"  ■  I,  if  wholly 
divcflcd  of  Wc  fee 

iio  &£Qs  of  Irwli  iu  dxe  fands  of 


f   R  E 


»»7 


an  hour  glafs,  however  cxpofc*! 
to  cold.  When  the  ground  is 
,  bare,  it  commonly  freezes  to  as 
great  a  depth  as  water  does, 
which,  in  this  country,  ii  foniQ- 
times  not  lefs  than  30  inriicc. 
But  in  Britain,  the  cieateU depth 
to  wliicli  Mr.  Boyle  ever  couKl 
find  the  ground  frozen  in  any 
fituaLi<»n,    was   only    14   inches. 

The  farmer  is  m  fome  refjte^rU, 
greatly  benefited,  and  in  other 
reipehs,  feems  not  a  little  injur- 
ed, by  frofts. 

He  is  certainly  benefited  bf 
the  winter  frofls,  as  they  are  tl^ 
means  of  the  growth  of  his  heft 
gra (Fes.  Such  is  their  nature, 
that  the  affion  of  froll  upon  the 
foil,  is  needful  to  fit  it  to  nourifli 
them.  Thus  Providence  has 
wifelv  and  mcrcitully  contrived, 
that  the  beft  gralFcs  Ihall  be  pro- 
duced in  cold  countries,  where 
they  are  moll  needed,  for  the 
fupport  of  bcafts  in  the  winter. 

Prufls  ferve  to  open  and  foftcix 
the  foil,  and  fo  ferve  to  increafs 
the  pafture  of  plants,  making  it 
more  eafy  for  the  roots  of  grallcs 
I  and  other  plants  to  extend  thcm- 
fc'lvcs  in  qucfl  of  their  loo<l. — 
At  the  f.inie  time  they  make  it 
more  cafy  to  pulverize  by  the 
plough  and  the  harrow  ;  and 
confequently  fitter  for  tillage. — 
And  perhaps  where  the  ground 
freeze*  fo  much  as  it  does  in  this 
country,  Icfs  labour  may  be  rc- 
quifitc  in  till2»ge,  than  in  coun- 
tries where  the  winters  are  mild- 
er. But  this  will  not  wholly  ex- 
cufe  the  negligence  in  culture  of 
which  our  iarmers  in  general  are 
giiihy. 

As  it  appears  very  prr.bable 
that  Ircczmg  is  raufed  by  f-ilinc 
1  more  in 
^,  than  in 
<i:iy  other,  ;i.».ic  p.u  tides  pene- 
trate the  foil  in  winter,  fome  of 
which  get  entangled  in  it,  lo  .is 

p.ot 


128 


F  R  E 


not  to  efcape  out  by  tlia-.vlng, 
but,  remaining  in  the  foil,  in- 
creafe  the  food  of  plants.  Ac- 
cordingly, it  has  long  been  ob- 
ferved,  that  the  more  land  is  ex- 
pofed  to  the  action  of  froft  in 
winter,  the  more  fruitful  it  be- 
comes. Hence  the  practice  has 
become  general  in  feme  parts  of 
Europe,  to  lay  the  foil  up  in 
ridges,  and  make  it  as  rough  and 
uneven  as  poflible,  during  the 
winter,  that  the  froft  may  pene 
trate  the  deeper  ;  and  not  only 
ptiJverize  it  the  more,  but  fill  it 
the  more  with  nitrous  fait. 

Another  advantage  we  have 
from  the  freezing  of  the  ground 
is,  that  it  helps  to  kill  weeds  ; 
and  efpecially  when  their  roots 
are  turned  up  to  the  furface  by 
autumnal  ploughing.  Many 
weeds  that  in  other  countries  arc 
]x:rennial,  in  this,  by  means  of 
our  great  frofts,  are  only  annual. 
They  are  only  propagated  by 
the  ieed  ;  and,  therefore,  are  the 
more  eafy  to  fubdue. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  a- 
bounding  ot  frofl  in  this  coun- 
try, is  detrimental  to  the  farmer, 
by  preventing  his  working  the 
foil  for  the  fpace  of  almoft  four 
months  fr.cceffively,  that  is,  from 
the  beginning,  or  middle,  of 
December,  to  the  latter  end  of 
March.  During  this  long  froft, 
the  farmer  has  often  but  little 
employment  tor  himfelf  and  his 
domefiicks,  and  ftill  lefs  for  his 
working  cattle  ;  the  neceffar}- 
confequence  oi  which  is,  that 
both  man  and  beaft  muft  be  more 
hurried,  and  fatigued,  in  the  oth- 
er parts  oi  the  year. 

Ihe  Britifh  farmers  feem  to 
liave  greatly  the  advantage  of  us 
in  this  refpe^t,  as  their  ploughs 
may  be  going  fome  part  of  each 
month  in  the  "".vinter,  which  has 
rarely,  if  ever,  happened  to  be 
poffible  in  any  part  of  Neweng- 


F  R  E 

land.  But  whether  the  increaf- 
ing  mildnefs  of  our  winter,  as 
the  back  wildernefs  is  more  clear- 
ed and  cultivated,  will  not  re- 
move this  inconvenience,  I  un- 
dertake not  to  determine. 

Another  inconvenience  of  fe- 
•vere  froft,  is  the  deftruclion  of 
our  winter  grain,  which  w^e  have 
not  yet  found  out  any  fure  way 
to  prevent.  Sudden  and  violent 
freezing,  when  the  ground  is  bare 
and  very  wet,  caufes  a  quick  and 
violent  expanfion  of  the  foil, 
which  fnaps  the  tender  roots  of 
the  corn  to  pieces.  This  hap- 
pens ofteneft  in  our  ftiff  loaifis 
and  clays,  foils  which  expand 
moft  by  the  froft. 

Our  long  continued  froft  feems 
to  be  againft  us  alfo,  as  our  ma- 
nures remain  unaltered,  during 
the  whole  winter.  Nothing  can 
be  done  to  mix,  fhorten  or  pul- 
verize them.  The  cattle  can  do 
them  no  good  by  trampling  J 
There  is  no  fermentation,  nor 
corruption,  going  forward  in 
them.  So  that  we  arc  underno 
fmall  difadvantage  as  to  making 
and  increafmg  manures.  But 
this,  by  the  way,  fhould  ferve  to 
excite  us  to  be  the  more  careful 
and  induftricus  in  this  bufinefs, 
in  thofe  months  which  are  fa- 
vourable. Perhaps,  we  ftiall  find 
this  laft  inconvenience  in  fome 
meafure  balanced  by  the  great 
heat  of  our  fummers,  fo  favoura- 
ble to  the  putrefaction  ot  ma- 
nures. And,  to  avail  ourfelves 
of  this  advantage,  we  fhould 
never  fail  in  finnmer  to  have 
manures  rotting  in  dunghills,  or 
in  yards,  &c.  The  greater  plen- 
ty ot  them  the  better. 

I  may  add,  that  what  we  call 
untimely  frofts,  are  often  hurt- 
ful to  us,  either  by  killing  our 
tender  plants  in  the  fpring,  or 
the  biofloms  ori  our  fruit  trees  ; 
or  by  corrupting  our  unripe  crops 

early 


r  R  U 

Iflily  In  autumn,  or  evpn  before 
liwnmer  is  ended.  The  truth  is, 
that  though  our  funinicrs  are  hot, 
there  is  nut  one  month  in  the 
year,  that  is,  July,  in  which  we 
ran  (l<«j>end  uj)ori  liring  unmo- 
h'fted  by  troll.  Such  is  the  un- 
evrnnols  ot  our  clinjatc. 

On  the  whole,  I  rather  think 
ihc  incor1\enientes  of  our  fe- 
veic  frolic,  more  of  which  I 
mi;i;ht  have  mentioned,  are  mucli 
more  than  a  balance  for  the  ad- 
vantages of  them.  But  the  gifts 
of  Providence,  on  the  whole,  are 
dealt  out  more  equally  to  the 
people  of  each  hjnitable  coiiri- 
try  on  this  globe,  than  fome  arc 
readv  to  imagine.  What  makes 
the  difference  app<*ar  the  greater, 
to  a  curfory  obferver,  may  be, 
fhat  till*  people  of  one  country 
do  not  lo  well  improve  natural 
advanfage<;,  v^".  thoJe  of  another. 

FKL'IT  TREES.  The  forts 
which  are  moil  common  in  this 
country,  are  apple,  pear,  peach, 

f)lum  ani  cherry.  And  per- 
laps  there  are  no  others  that 
would  be  more  profitable.  Biit 
a  greater  variety  might  be  cafi- 
ly  had  ;  ;md  would  be  a  real  im- 
provement. 

The  apple  tree  I  mention  firft, 
as  being  of  the  moll  importance 
of  all  our  fruit  trees.  In  about 
five  or  fix  years  alter  the  leeds 
are  (own  in  the  nurfery,  the 
young  trees  may  be  fit  for  tranf- 
planting  into  the  orchard.  Mr. 
Donaldlon  advifes  that  ihey  be 
planted  thirty  feet  apart.  But  I 
nave  known  orchards  anlwcr 
verv  well,  that  were  planted  as 
clofe  as  twenty  five  feet.  No 
Hated  luir,  however,  (houid  be 
alfigi?e<l  for  the  diRance  of  thr 
trees,  unlefj  it  be  this  general 
one,  that  the  diflar.cc  flumld  be 
fuch,  that  the  tiecs  wliich  are 
largeR  (hould  not  crowd  each 
•thcr,  whf  n  they  arc  full  grown  ; 


t"  R  V  12^ 

uor,  on  the  other  hand,  that  any 
oi  the  ground  in  an  orchard 
fhould  be  mioccupied.  For  I 
think  it  is  better  that  a  fpot  of 
ground  be  well  covercfi  with 
trees,  when  they  hare  got  to 
their  iargcR  growth,  than  to  have 
a  Imgor  fpot  fpoiled  tor  tillage, 
by  trees  th^t  are  too  Ur  afunder. 
As  fome  fpecies  of  apj)lc  trees 
are  apt  to  grow  larger  than  oth- 
ers, a  due  regard  Inould  be  had 
to  this  in  planting  an  orchard. 
And  a  conjetfuie  may  be  formeJ 
from  the  foil  to  what  fizc  trees 
will  grow.  If  apple  trees  were 
to  grow  to  fuch  a  fize  as  they 
commonly  did  at  the  firll  fettle- 
ment  of  this  country,  when  the 
feeds,  or  the  young  trees,  were 
newly  imported  from  Europe, 
it  might  be  proper  to  fet  them  as 
far  apart  as  from  thirty  to  forty- 
five  feet.  But  the  iizc  to  which 
they  ufually  grow  of  late,  will 
not  require  more  than  twenty 
five  feet,  in  common  foils.  But 
fome  foils  being  peculiarly  fa- 
vourable to  the  growth  of  this 
kind  of  trees,  the  diflancc  in 
them  may  be  greater,  as  it  may 
be  expected  the  trees  will  grow 
large.  The  molt  fuitable  foil 
is  allowed  to  be  that  which  is 
rocky  and  moift,  confiiling  of 
fcsndy  or  gravelly  loam. 

In  tranfpianting  of  trees,  the 
large  roots  muft  of  nccclTuy  be 
fliortcTied,  and  the  fmall  fibrous 
roots  Ihould  be  inofMy  or  whol- 
ly cut  off.  For  if  ihcy  are  left 
on,  they  will  probably  be  dead 
and  dry  beb>re  the  tree  is  plants 
cd,  cfpecialiy  if  it  is  carried  to 
any  diflancc,  or  cxpofed  at  all  to 
the  fun  or  air  :  Hut  ilie  mouths 
v.-herc  they  are  gut  off  will  re- 
ceive fome  lap  irom  the  earth, 
though  the  dried  fibres  would 
not.  But  if  trees  are  planted 
without  any  delay,  it  is  next  to 
impcftblc  to  pi  event  ihcfe  (len- 
der 


tjO  F  R  U 

der  roots  from  being  twilled  or 
turned  out  of  their  natural  pofi- 
tion,  antl  if  this  (hould  be  the  cafe 
they  woilI.I  neither  inhale  nor  con- 
vey fap  to  tlie  tree.  There  mult 
be  lome  lofs  of  roots.  There- 
fore, to  balance  the  lofs  of  nour- 
ilhment  by  the  roots,  when  the 
head  is  large,  a  proportionable 
part  of  the  limbs  fhould  be  taken 
away.  The  tr^es  may  be  tranf- 
planted  in  fpring  or  autumn.  I 
have  generally  had  the  beft  fuc- 
cefs  in  the  fpring,  and  rather  pre- 
fer that  feafon.  I  do  it  at  the  time 
v^^hen  the  buds  are  juft  beginning 
to  open  into  leaves.  The  holes 
fhould  be  made  fo  broad  as  to 
allow  the  roots  to  have  their  nat- 
ural fituation,  wdthout  contor- 
tion. And  if  dead  earth  be 
thrown  out,  rich  earth  from  the 
furface  fhould  fupply  its  place. 
If  tlie  earth  be  not  rich,  a  little 
old  dung  may  be  mixed  with  it.. 
But  dung  unmixed  will  be  hurt- 
ful. Trees  are  fometimes  killed 
by  having  dung  heaps  lying  near 
to  their  roots,  which  ihcAvs  that 
they  ought  to  be  dunged  fpar- 
ingly,  and  with  caution. 

If  the  trees  be  planted  in  a  fit- 
uation much  expofed  to  winds, 
ihey  Ihould  be  made  fteady  with 
itakes  during  the  firft  year,  that 
the  roots  may  not  be  loolencd, 
and  the  air  let  into  them,  by  the 
motion  of  the  tops.  And  fome 
woollen,  or  other  foft  fubftance, 
fhould  be  put  between  the  flake 
and  the  tree,  to  prevent  galling 
of  the  tree. 

Pear  trees  require  much  the 
fame  management  as  apple  trees. 
But  as  their  tops  are  more  coni- 
cal Ihaped,  and  not  fo  broad, 
they  may  be  fet  .rather  nearer  to- 
gether. Perhaps  twenty  feet  or 
lefs  may  be  fumcient  in  a  foil 
that  is  not  rich.  One  thing  that 
recommends  them  is,  that  they 
will  thrive  well  in  fome  of  the 


F  R  U 

moft  vmpromifing  foils,  and  even-' 
in  a  fliff  clay.  The  moft  crab- 
bed natural  fruit  is  valuable,  a» 
from  it  may  be  made  the  agreeable 
liquor  called  perry.  But  for 
eating  they  muft  be  grafted.  See 
Fear  Trees. 

When  apple  and  pear  trees- 
need  pruning,  it  fhould  be  done 
betcne  the  middle  of  winter,  in 
November  'or  December.  A 
gradual  pruning,  from  year  to 
year,  is  generally  better  than 
greatly  diminilhing  their  tops  at 
once.  But  fuckers  that  grow 
rapidly  fhould  be  taken  off  at  any 
feafon,  as  tail  as  they  appear; 
or  they  will  bring  on  fterility, 
either  partial  or  total,  and  a  fpeedy 
decay  of  the  tree.  In  pruning, 
every  dead  and  decaying  limb 
lliould  be  removed,  and  cut  off 
clofe  to  the  trunk,  or  where  it 
originates.  It  is^  recommended 
that  wounds  made  by  large  am- 
putations fliould  be  made  fmooth, 
and  fmeared  with  clay  mortar. 
It  w^ould  be  better  ftill  to  fmear 
the  wounds  with  a  little  melt- 
ed pitch,  which  would  form  a 
coat  impenetrable  by  the  weather. 

With  regard  to  ftone  fruits» 
as  plums,  peaches  and  cherries, 
they  do  not  w-ell  bear  much- 
pruning.  They  fhould,  howev- 
er, be  cleared  of  their  fuckers, 
both  round  the  roots,  on  the 
flems,  and  in  the  tops.  See 
Peac/i  Trees,  &c. 

Cherry  trees  grow  luxuriantly 
in  this  coimtry,  and  are  apt  to 
live  long.  But  peach  trees  are 
foon  pall  bearing,  and  on  thede- 
'Cay.  The  early  decay  of  peach- 
trees  is  fuppofed  to  be  partly 
owing  to  worms  in  their  roots. 
For  it  is  a  certain  faft,  that  a 
tree,  apparently  part  bearing,  has 
been  fpeedily  recovered,  by  re- 
moving the  earth  from  above  its- 
roots,  and  layingrOn  alhes  and' 
earth  over  them, 

Plum 


FUR 

Plum  trees  of  tho  dam.»fr<*:ic  i 
kind,  will  boar  no  Jriiit.   it  the  | 
j^round  about  tbein  be  luar<led,  | 
irnlefs  it  be  in  a  wet.  lpriuj»y  foil. 
Perhaps  this  may  be  the  cale  with  1 
all    the   other     kinds    ol    plum 
trees  ;    unlels   when    thev    arc 
planted  in  a  loil  that  is  bot)i  rit  h 
and  loore,  with  the  right  degree 
<A  humidity. 

FURROW,  ly  trench  made 
bj  a  plough  in  going,  alfotliccarih 
thrown  out  of  the  trench.  The 
European  writers  otten  ufe  the 
word  iurrow,  to  fij»n»ly  a  plough- 
ing. They  tell  ot  lowing  on 
one  furrow,  that  is,  alter  only 
one  ploughing  ;  on  the  fcconJ 
furrow,  or  on  two  turrows,  that 
is,  after  two  i)loughings,  &c. 
1  hough  I  lee  no  need  ot  our  a- 
doptmg  this  way  ot  fpeakinp,  I 
think  it  not  amifs  to  mention  it, 
to  prepare  readers  to  undeiiland 
tliofe  writers  the  better,  when  it 
fdlls  in  their  wav  to  perufe  them. 

FURROWIi^G.in  thiscoim- 
try,  is  underlloo.l  to  mean  mark- 
ing ground  intoJittle  tjuares  with 
a  bode  plough, in  order  to  nlantln- 
dian  corn,  or  any  other  pLat  that 
requires  the  like  culture.      The 

?;oodncfs  ol  this  operation  con- 
ifts  in  making  the  turrows 
flraight,  equidiitaiu,  and  at  right 
angles;  neither  too  deep  nor  too 
ihallow  ;  that  the  dung  and  feed 
may  lie  neitlicr  too  4ow  lUM  too 
high.  When  dung  is  to  be  laid 
in  the  furrows,  they  Ihouid  be 
deeper  ;  when  groimd  is  lo  be 
feeded  without  putting  dtmg  in 
the  turrows,  or  holes,  the  tur- 
rows fhould  be  very  (hallow. 
The  nearer  the  time  ol  plant- 
ing this  work  is  done  the  better.  It 
a  n\n  tall  between  furrowing  and 
planting,  it  is  detrimental.  It 
loddens  the  ground,  or  makes 
it  more  heavy  and  compact,  and 
caufes  the  furrgws  to  be  Icfs  vif- 
il>le. 


GAR 


131 


G  ARDEX^', "  J  pieceof  ground 
cultivated   an<l    properly    orna- 
mented with  a  variety  of  plants, 
flowers,    fruit  trees,    &c.     Gar- 
dens are  »ifually  chftingiulhed  in- 
to  flower  garden,  truit  garden,- 
and  kitclien  garden  :    Ihe  hrlf  of 
v*Iiich,  being  delii^aed   tor  orii»-r 
mcnt,  is  to  be  placed  in  the  molt- 
conJpicuous  part,  that  is,  next  t«. 
the  back  front  ot  the  houfe;  and 
the  fecQnd  and  third,  being  dc- 
figned  for  ufe,  thooid  be  placed 
Icis  in  fight."     JJui.  vf  Arts. 

1  coniider  the  kitchen  gar- 
den as  of  very  conlidcrable  im- 
portance, as  pot  herbs,  lallads, 
and  roots  ol  various  kinds,  arc 
uietui  in  houfckceping.  Having 
a  plenty  ot  them  at  hand,  a  tani- 
ily  will  not  be  lo  likely  to  run 
into  the  error,  which  is  too 
common  in  this  country,  of  eat- 
ing ficrti  in  too  great  a  proportion 
for  health.  Farmers,  as  well  a« 
others,  fhouM  have  kitchen  gar- 
dens :  Andihcy  need  not  grudge 
the  labour  ot  tending  them, 
whidi  may  be  done  at  odd  in- 
tervals of  time,  which  may  oth- 
erwile  chanc*:  to  be  conlumcd  iu 
needlets  loitering. 

It  is  belt  tii^c  a  garden  fhould 
he  on  a  declivity.  If  it  be  very 
llecp,  it  may  be  thrown  into 
banks,  and  level  plat'.  There  is 
commonly  a  variety  ot  foils  on  u 
declivity  of  any  coniiderable  ex- 
tent. This  \vill  give  a  material 
advantage  to  a  garden,  as  a  vari- 
ety of  difTeient  phnts  may  have 
each  the  loil  that  tK.'llfuits  them. 

A  kitchen  garden  Ihoidd  not 
he  fituatcd  at  any  great  diftance 
from  the  houfp,*-Ieil  bein?^  t(^(> 
much  out  of  light,  it  ll; 
out  of  mind,  .uid  the  n 
cultupc  of  tt  too  much  neglctu 
ed. 

A  garde* 


132  GAR 

A  garden  Oiould  have  a  clofe  j 
fence,  that  the  \\nnds  may  not  j 
drive  feeds  ot  weeds  into  it.  The  j 
fence   fhould  be  at  leaft  feven  j 
feet  high,  and  picketed,  to  pre- 
vent   the   entrance   of    thieves.  | 
The    height    and    clofenefs  of  [ 
the  fence,  will  increafe  the  veg-  j 
etation  by  increafmg  the  warmth 
of  the  air  in  the  garden,  except- 
ing perhaps   in  the  pans  which  j 
are  Ihaded  by  the  fences.     The 
rage  of  high  winds  will  be  fo  op-  I 
pofed  as  to  prevent  the  tearing  j 
and   di Sorting  of  tender  plants  ;  j 
3nd  fowls  may  be  the  more  eafiiy  I 
kept  out. 

A  garden  fhould  have  a  bor-  ■ 
der  of  about  three  ieet.  and  next  | 
to  the  border  a  walk  of  the  fame  j 
width  or  one  toot  wider.  The  \ 
v.alk  through  the  middle  may  be 
from  fix  to  eight  feet  as  the  owner 
pleales.  This  may  be  croifed  by 
one,  tA\"o,or  three  narrower  ones, 
if  the  fhape  of  the  ground  re- 
quires it  ;  or  if  it  is  half  as  long 
again  the  one  way  as  the  other, 
which  is  more  elegant  than  an  e- 
qiiilateral  fquare.  On  thefe  crofs 
walks  may  be  efpaliers  for  grapes. 
Trees  Oiould  not  be  in  the  outer 
border,  but  on  the  oppofite  fides 
of  the  outer  walks  ;  not  two  ma- 
ny of  them  ;  perhaps  one  of  the 
dwarf  kind  in  20  or  30  feet. — 
Standard  trees  in  gardens  give 
too  much  fnade.  Dwarfs  are 
commonly  cut  into  efpaliers. — 
But  this  torruring  of  trees  makes 
them  lefs  fniitful,  and  fborter 
lis'ed.  Thofe  who  prefer  it  may 
make  this  facrifice  to  elegance 
and  beauty.  In  fruit  trees  which 
jieed  much  heat,  and  placed  a- 
gainft  northern  walls,  I  object 
not  to  it. 

GARDENING,  a  kind  of  ag- 
ricidture,  ufually  called  horti- 
culture. It  may  be  confidertd 
as  farming  in  miniature.  It  is 
coaverfant  in  preparing  ground 


GAR 

for  different  kinds  of  feedi,  and 
in  treating  them  proj>erly  during 
their  growth.  The  garden  is  the 
fittefl  place  to  make  the  firft  ex- 
periments in,  with  exoiick  roots 
and  feed*,  as  the  lofs  is  mconfid- 
erable,  ii  they  fhould  not  prove  a- 
greeable  to  the  climate.  If  they 
pro.^per  well  in  the  garden,  they 
fhouid  afterwards  be  tried  in  the 
field  :  And  even  then  not  at  firfl 
on  a  very  large  fcale. 

He  who  would  make  his  gar- 
dening profitable,  fhould  have 
his  kitchen  garden  near  to  the 
dupghiiis,  that  the  manure  may 
be  applied  without  too  much  la- 
bour. Dung  that  is  old,  and  de[- 
titute  ot  feeds,  iliould  be  ufeu, 
that  100  many  weeds  may  not  be 
propagated.  And  that  a  garden 
may  be  kept  clean,  no:  one  weed 
fhouid  be  iuffered  to  have  its 
ieedi  ripened  in  it  :  And  every 
rootweed  that  appears  in  autumn, 
fhould  be  extirpated  in  fuch  a 
manner  that,  if  pofhble,  no  parts 
of  its  root  may  remain  in  the 
ground.  The  feeds  of  many 
weeds  may  alfo  be  deftroyed,  by 
Uying  the  ground  in  high  ridgts 
during  the  winter.  At  the  fame 
time,  it  will  help  to  enrich  the 
foil  ;  and  many  of  certain  kinds 
of  infetts,  or  their  eggs,  will  be 
deftroyed  :  Efpecially  if  the 
ridging  be  performed  aboiU  the 
iaft  of  November,  or  the  begin- 
ning of  December.  Ground  that 
is  fo  managed,  will  be  dried  the 
earlier  in  the  fpring,  to  fuch  a 
degree,  as  to  be  fit  for  digging 
and  feeding.  It  is  of  more  ad- 
vantage in  land  that  is  apt  to  be 
too  wet,  tb.an  in  that  which  is  fan- 
dy  and  drv. 

GARGET,  a  difeafe  in  cattle. 
Cows  foraeumes  have  their  ud- 
ders greatly  diflended,  and  indu- 
rated, with  this  dillemper  ;  of 
which  they  will  pine  away  and 
die.  unlsfs  a  remedy  be  fpeedily 
applied. 


i)i  the  glaud 
and    tongue. 


O   O  A 

applied.  The  incihtKlof  cure  is,  • 
to  mike  an  ojx:iiing  tii  the  dew- 
ld|),  and  inlert  iaro  it  a  picrc 
o\  the  root  ol"mechodcan,  a^  bij5 
as  a  niituieg,  uith  a  iliwig  niauo 
iaU  to  It,  that  it  may  be  diawu 
out  when  the  cure  is  effected. 
The  humour,  in  abotit  tuenty 
tour  hours,  will  be  jcvulfed  trom 
the  udder  to  the  de«vlap,  and 
loon  diichar^e  iilell  at  the  oiirice, 
which  compleies  the  cure. 

GIGvS,  httic  tuuiours  or  blad- 
ders in  the  mouths  ol  horles.  To 
cure  ilit  them  open  to  diftharge 
the  matter  ;  and  waihthem  with 
iajt  <ut<l  \  iiK'g.ir. 

GLANDl.US,  a  very  foul 
and  often  tatal  diieafe  in  horles. 
It  is  always  accompanied  with  a 
copious  dilchargc  ot  nrucus 
trom  the  nollriU,  arvd  rwclling 


G  O  A 


»33 


un:ier  the  tiiront 


In  its  advanced 
Uages  the  dilcharge  bectuiies  pu- 
lulent.  And  when  the  bones 
l>ccome  carious,  the  difeafe  is  at- 
tended with  an  intolorable  llench, 
and  may  be  pionuunced  incur- 
able. 

In  the  firft  and  fecond  fi-iges, 
Gibfon  directs  to  purges,  diaph- 
oreiicks,  and  rowclhng  in  tiK: 
binder  parts  by  way  ot  jxvulfio.i. 
To  clear  his  uoflrils,  burn  brim- 
jlune,  feathers  and  bits  oi  leath- 
er under  hts  noitt,  paflin^  the 
ivHnes  into  ins  noRriis.throiiU^h  a 
iwinel.  And  when  much  mat- 
ter ift  dilchar^ed  by  Incc'.invj, 
fyringe  the  noltnls  with  bramly, 
or  rca  wine.  Atterwar  J.>  a  linall 
quantity  Uiujucntum  Kgypiia- 
curii,  dilHdved  m  oil  ol  turpen- 
tine, may  be  injected  tluough  a 
large  pipe,  wliifh  will  be  help- 
ful towards  ckMnfing  the  iilcei- 
atetl  part).  See  /K  Gibfon  on 
furntry. 

GOATS,  a  well  known  lamo 
kmd  ot  ^innL,  n.  .   tor 

climbiug.     Tkc  c.  ;  L.cai 


twins.  1  hey  aie  hanly,  rtot  fub- 
jctl  to  many  dil^.dts,  but  the 
kuls  arc  apt  to  ])oiioti  tliemlelvcs 
by  earing  launl,  or  Uuib  poifou, 
as  it  is  otien  calleil.  I  he  colt  of 
tetding  goats  is  ne.xt  to  nothing 
in  a  utA'  country,  as  tlicy  pre- 
ter  mt>ls,  leaves,  twij^s  and  bark 
ol  trees,  to  all  oiher  IchkI.  But 
they  inuy  be  eafily  made  veiy 
lat  \\  ah  corn. 

They  wouUl  be  a  profitable 
anin^ial  to  keep,  efpecially  in  4 
new  country,  were  it  not  ihatnu 
tence  ol  a  common  height  will 
coiirine  them.  The  kids  arc  ex- 
cellent for  the  table  ;  and  the 
old  ones  are  eatable,  and  apt  to 
be  well  filled  with  tdlowofan 
excellent  quality.  Their  milk, 
is  e.Kirciiiely  nourifiiinj;,  good  to 
mix  witli  cow's  milk  in  chcefe  ; 
an  excellent  reilorative,  highly 
valued  in  comfumptive  cafes. 
1  hey  give  a  greater  quantity  of 
milk  than  any  cither  anunal  <4 
ihcir  ti/.c.  And  their  ikins  make 
a  much  llrongcr  leather  than 
thole  oi  flieep  :  It  is  nearly  of 
the  fame  Urength  as  dec  is  ikin. 

They  may  be  made  grcMtly 
ufetul  in  lubduing  new  land. 
1  he  meihod  ot  managing  them 
ior  this  purpofe.  is  as  tollows. 
When  tlie  large  trees  «ire  all  tell- 
ed,  let  ten  acres  be  eucloled  tor 
thirty  goats,  or  in  that  pr'J^w'r- 
titm.  i'he  fence  thouM  be  lev- 
en  Icet  high,  and  leamng  a  little 
inwards  towaids  tlie  top.  Tliis 
pafturc  will  feed,  and  evai  tat- 
tt  n  them  the  firU  year  ;  tor  they 
wiji  cat  the  bulhes  and  giH.lc 
the  finall  trees  ;  and  in  tb;ee 
years  every  finall  tree,  bulh  and 

f)lant,  of  tlie  woody  kind,  will 
)e  totally  killed.  After  which, 
when  fufhcieiit  time  has  been  al- 
lowed for  the  roctts  to  decay,  the 
land  may  be  (  loughcd  with  as 
linall  1  leain  as  is  uied  tor  plough- 
ing ot   common   green   iward  ; 

and 


i3'4 


G  R  A 


and  it  will  be  in  excellent  heart. 
The  fhnib  oak  land  is  very  prop- 
er tor  thera,  and  difficult  to  fub- 
4r.e  Avithout  thera. 

In  v.inter,  goats  fhould  be  driv- 
en into  a  thick  wood,  fomewhat 
diftant  from  inhabitants,  and  a 
flight  fhelter  made  for  them,  a- 
bout  •'A'hich  they  wiil  haunt,  and 
live  well  upon  the  mofs  of  trees 
and  browie,  till  fpring.  Or, 
they  may  be  kept  in  a  pen  af 
home,  and  fed  with  the  meanefi: 
fodder.  The  kids  will  be  apt  to 
die  if  they  come  too  early  ;  there- 
fore, the  ram  fliould  Pe  kept  from 
the  ewe";  tiil  the  lal^  of  November. 

GOOSE,  a  well  known  bird. 
The  tame  kind  are  fome  of  them 
entirely  white, but  they  are  inoit- 
Iv  particoloured,  grey  and  white. 
The  belly  and  wing  feathers  are 
white,  even  in  thofe  that  have 
moft  of  the  grey  colour. 

Geefe  are  m.ore  profitable  than 
BToft  other  <an:>e  fowk,  on  ac- 
count of  the  cheapnefs  of  their 
feeding,  and  the  value  of  their 
flefh  and  their  feathers,  befides 
their  greafe  and  quills.  Some 
ftrip  them  of  moft  of  their  feath- 
ers twice  ayear.  But  this  buns  the 
animals,  and  is  on  the  whole,  no 
profit  to  the  owner.  Moulting 
time  is  the  right  feafon  for  pluck- 
ing them  ;  for  then  the  feathers 
are  loofe.  and  begin  to  fall  off  of 
themfeNcs.  Geefe  begin  to  lay 
their  egg5  in  March  ;  and  begin 
to  fit  on  them  in  March  or  i^prii. 
The  time  of  incubation  is  four 
■weeks. 

GRAFTING,orEKGRAFT- 
IXG,  the  taking  a  ihoot  from 
one  tree,  and  inferting  it  into 
another,  in  fuch  a  manner,  that 
both  may  unite  and  become  one 
tree. 

Trees  which  are  of  the  fame 
genus  will  unite.  Nut  trees  will 
take  on  each  other.  Apple  and 
pear  will  fonietimes  unite  ;  ihe 


G  R  A 

latter  will  grow  on  the  commoa 
thorn.  Plumb,  peach,  almond, 
nettarine,  and  apricot  wiil  unite. 
But  peach  and  ne6tarine  fiiould 
be  inoculated.  The  general  rule 
of  grafting  is,  ftone  fruit  on  ftone 
fruit,  and  feed  fruit  on  feed  fruit. 

The  methods  of  grafting  are 
various  ;  as  grafting  in  the  rind, 
or  crown  grafting — whip  graft- 
ing, or  tongue  grafting — root 
grafting — i-narchmg,  or  grafting 
by  approach — and  cleft  grafting. 
The  laff  is  moft  commonly  prac- 
tifed  in  this  countrv",  and  is  at- 
tended with  ftiecefs.  it  is  done 
on  the  flocks,  in  a  nurfer)',  or 
on  the  iinaU  limbs  of  trees,  in 
an  orchard,  or  garden.  The  lat- 
ter part  of  April,  or  beginning 
of  May,  is  the  feafon  for  doing 
it,  beiore  the  leaves  open,  and 
when  the  fap  flow*  upwards  iR 
abundance.  The  head  of  the 
flock,  or  branch,  muft  be  cut  off 
floping,  and  a  flit  made  the  con- 
trary- way  in  the  top  of  the  flopc, 
deep  enough  to  receive  the  cion, 
which  fhould  be  em  like  a  wedge, 
with  a  very  {harp  knite,  the  out- 
fide  of  the  wedge  being  muc^ 
thicker  than  the  other.  The 
rind  of  the  cion  mml;  exactly 
join  to  the  rind  of  the  flock. 
The  flit  fhould  be  opened  by  a 
wedge  of  hard  wood,  that  the 
cion  may  be  gently  put  in  its 
place.  The  whole  fliould  be 
clofely  covered  with  clay,  or 
with  a  mortar  of  ftiff^  loam  and 
horfe  dung,  fo  as  to  keep  out  the 
air  from  the  joint  for  feveral 
months.  It  (hould  be  confined 
with  rags  or  tow,  to  guard  it  a- 
gainfl  rain  and  winds.  Two 
buds  of  the  cion,  at  leafl,  fliould 
be  left  above  the  mortar.  For  a 
more  particular  account  of  graft- 
ing, fee  Did.  of  Arts. 

GRAIN,  a  general  name  for 
all  forts  of  com,  as  wheat,  rye, 
maize,  barlev,  oat*.  rcilLet.  &c- 
GIL-^N.IRY, 


G  R  A 

•  CRANARY,  a  norehoufe  foi* 
thi  edied  corn.  A  granary  Ihoultl 
tc-  fo  conftrurtcd,  that  corn  may 
hi-  kept  tree  troni  dampiiefs,  ii>- 
ictis,  and  vcrniine.  To  avoiil 
the  lall  of  fiteff  evils,  us  being 
mounted  on  blocks,  capped  with 
flat  flones,  like  ioiiie  oi  the  hoiilcs 
for  liidian  corn,  is  no  ill  expe- 
dient. But  tor  laf^c  granaries 
this  will  not  be  convenient. 

In  granaries,  where  corn  is  in- 
tcndeu  to  be  kejrt  lor  years,  a 
very  particular  care  thould  be 
taken  in  tl>eir  conftruftion.  Tlie 
root  ftioiild  be  made  perfectly 
tight,  that  iK>  rain  nor  fiiow  may 
enter.  /The  lfor.*es  fliould  be 
low,  that  too  much  room  may 
not  be  unoccupied.  Each  floor 
Ihould  be  covered  with  boxes- 
;4bout  lour  feet  fqiiare,  leaving  a 
l>anage  all  round  between  them 
and  the  outward  walls,  tor  the 
convenience  <)f  coming  at  the 
windows,  and  to  prevent  any 
wet  trom  penetrating  to  the 
boxes. —  The  Ihitting  and  tofTing 
ot  grain  tram  one  box  to- anoth- 
er, will  help  to  prevent  or  cure 
dampncfs.  In  England,  where 
they  are  worn  to  keep  grain  in 
lacks  tor  a  long  time,  they  turn 
the  facks  bottom  upwards,  which 
anfwers  the  end  ot  Ihittmg,  as  it 
gives  a  new  fituation  to  every 
kernel  conuined  in  them. 

To  prevent  the  heating  of  corrv 
in  granaries,  the  windows  (hould 
be  opened  when  tlic  air  is  dry, 
and  the  weather  windy,  but 
clofed  at  other  times.  •  The  graji> 
Hiould  be  laid  thin  at  hrl\,  not 
more  tharv  three  inches  deep,  and 
kequently  llured.  After  it  is 
well  dried,  it  may  be  laid  in 
thicker  heans  ;  or  put  up  in 
calks,  or  faclts,  as  may  be  louiul 
convenient.  But  if  it  lie  long 
in  large  bodies,  it  Ihould  be  fre- 
quently attended  to,  that  it  may 
•oi  be  fuffcrcd  to  hrat,  and  take 


C  R  A  135 

I  damage.  To  find  whether  the 
:  Ixjttoin  or  centre  of  a  heap  be  hot, 
I  puUi  a  lath,  or  other  Itick,  into 
It,  and  let  it  remain  a  few  min- 
utes. If  there  be  heat  in  the 
grain,  it  wiH  be  communicated 
to  the  lath.  If  it  be  found  to  be 
hot,  It  Ihould  be  (hificd  and  laid 
thin,  or  ventilated.  When  the 
degree  of  heat  is  fmall,  ventilat- 
ing may  be  fuflicient  to  cool  it. 
See  J'tniiidtor. 

"  They  have,  near  Grand  Cai- 
ro, a  nva^azi-ne,  or  granary,  de- 
fended with  good  walls,  and  call- 
ed  Joleph's   granaries.      Many 
parts  of  Atrica  abound  with  gra- 
naries ot   this  kind.     They  are 
io  many  deep  pits  made  in  the 
folid    rock.     The   dcfcent    into 
them  is  but  jufl  large  enough  for 
a  man  to  go  down  into  them  ; 
but  they  grow  larger  as  you  de- 
fcend,  and   are    ufually    fquare, 
trom  20  to  40  teet  in  diameter. 
In  thefe  the  great  men  ot   the 
country     prefervc     their    cori^ 
They  firft  llrcw  over  the  floor 
with   ftraw,    then   they   lay   oii 
their  corn,  flLll  as  the  heap  rife* 
placing  a  thin  lied  of  flraw  be- 
tween the  corn  and  the  (ides,  as 
they  did  at  the  bl)ttoin.     In  this 
manner   they    proceed,  till    the 
whole  cavity  is   filled.     When 
this   is    done,   they    cover    the 
mouth  ot   the  erurancc  with  a 
lort  of  hurdle  of  green  boughs 
ol   trees,  interwoven   one  with 
another.    This  they  cover  with 
Mboiii  two  feet  thick nefs  of  fand ; 
and  over  this  raife  a  ridge  of 
earth,  well  beat  together,  in  or- 
der to  throw  off  the  rain  both 
ways,  tlut  nunc  may  fettle  on 
the  place,  and  loak  into  the  mag- 
azine.    The   corn   thus    Uored, 
keeps  three,  four,  or  more  years. 
All  the  care  they  lake  with  re- 
gard to  the  corn  is,  to  cxpofe  it 
two-  or  three  days  to  the  fun's 
heat,  to  dry  it  tliorouglily  bcloie 

they 


136 


G  R  A 


they  put  11  into  the  magarine. 
Great  care  is  to  be  taken  in  open- 
ing thefe  ftore  rborr.s  ;  tor  if 
people  defcend  into  them  be- 
fore they  have  had  fuificient 
eommunication  with  the  frefh 
air,  they  are  killed  by  ^he  damps." 
Conp/efe  Farmer. 

GRASS,  a  genera}  name  for 
rnort  of  thofe  plants  which  arc 
ufed  in  feeding  cattle,  both  in 
their  green  and  dry  flate. 

"  The  land  on  which  grafs 
feed  is  intended  to  be  fown, 
fhould  be  well  ploughed,  and 
cleared  from  the  roots  of  nox- 
ious weeds.  Before  the  feed  is 
fown,  the  furface  of  the  ground 
fnould  be  made  level  and  fine  : 
Otherwife  the  feeds  will  be  buri- 
ed unequally.  When  the  feed 
is  fown,  it  Ihould  be  gently  har- 
roM'ed  in,  and  the  ground  rolled 
>ith  a  wooden  roller,  which  will 
make  the  furface  even,  and  pre- 
vent the  feed  being  blown  into 
patches.  It  is  the  comrnon  way 
of  proceeding ;  if  a  farmer  wants 
to  lay  down  his  land  to  gi"afs,  he 
either  takes  his  feeds  indifcrim- 
inately  from  his  own  hay  rick, 
or  fends  to  his  neighbour  for  a 
fupply.  By  this  means,  befides 
a  certriin  mixture  of  nibbifh, 
which  n^ufl  necellarily  happen, 
it  is  not  unlikely  but  that  which 
he  intends  for  dry  land,  may 
have  come  from  moift,  where  it 
grew  naturally,  and  fo  on  the 
conrrary  :  And  the  confequence 
of  this  floveniy  method  trequent- 
ly  is,  that  the  ground,  inftead  of 
being  covered  in  one  year  with 
a  good  feed,  is  filled  with  weeds, 
net  natural  to  it,  which  would 
never  have  fprung  up,  if  they 
had  not  been  brought  thither. 

"  Some  fay  thai  if  you  ma- 
nure your  ground  well,  good 
graffes  will  come  in  of  them- 
leives.  1  own  they  will.  But 
tiJe  queftioa  is,  hov/  long  will  it 


G  R  A 

DC  before  that  happens  ?  And 
why  will  you  be  at  the  exp>enfe 
of  lowing  what  you  muft  after- 
wards try  to  kill  ?  Which  muft 
be  the  cafe,  fo  long  as  people 
fow  all  kinds  of  rubbiih  under 
the  name  ot  hay  feeds.  Others 
fay  it  \s-ill  be  better  to  have  a 
mixture  of  different'  feeds.  I 
fuppofe  this  to  be  true.  But  can- 
not a  mixture  be  had,  though  th<! 
feeds  be  gathered  and  feparated  ? 
And  is  not  a  mixture  by  choice 
more  likely  to  be  proper  than  one 
by  chance  ?  Efpecial!}^  after  fuffi- 
cient  experience  has  been  had  of 
the  particular  virtues  of  each 
fort,  and  of  the  different  grounds 
where  they  will  thrive  beft  ? 

"  It  is  faid  by  forae,  that  weeds 
vill  coine  up  along  with  the 
grafs,  though  U'hat  is  called  clean 
feed  be  fowed.  N»  doubt  of  it. 
Can  any  one  imagine  that  grafs 
feeds  fhould  be  exempted  from 
M'hat  happens  to  every  other 
kind  of  feed  ?  But  I  will  ven- 
ture  to  fav,  that  not  near  the 
quantity  of  weeds  will  fpring  up 
which  they  imagine,  if  the  grals 
be  fown  thick."     Stiliingjleet. 

It  is  undoubtedly  belt  to  fow 
clean  feed,  which  is  known  to 
be  fuitable  to  the  foil,  when  land 
is  laid  down  to  grafs.  For  though 
grades  will  gradually  come  in^ 
no  great  crop  is  to  be  expected 
the  firft  year,  unlefs  it  be  a  crop 
of  rank  and  ufelefs  weeds.  And 
he  that  miffes  of  the  firfl  year's 
crop,  iofes  much,  as  the  longer 
the  land  lies,  the  more  compaft, 
or  lx>und,  it  will  become,  and 
produce  the  fmaller  crops. 

Of  profitable  grafies  there  are 
many  forts,  fome  of  which  thrive 
befl  in  one  country,  and  forae  in 
another.  The  grafies  which  are 
moft  ufcful  in  this  country,  be- 
fides red  clover  and  bird  grafs, 
which  have  been  mentioned  in 
their  places,  are  herds  grafs,  red 

top, 


G  R  A 

tip,  or  what  is  called  Kiiglifh 
grals,  honey (uckle,  or  white  clo- 
\  rr.  and  wire  graf^.  There  arc 
(rvenj!  other  grades  produced  in 
this  countiy,  as  quich  gi'afs,  dogs 
grafs,  and  fcratch  crals,  relern- 
Bling  arfinart,  on  the  uplands  ; 
and  in  low  places,  blue  joint 
Rrafv,  J/fipfi  anef  frrtica/^ftts,  and 
goole  grafs,  Gahum,  which  arc 
Bccoufjtcd  good  fodder,  bcfide 
many  other  kinds  of  Ids  value, 
which  delcrvc  not  a  particular 
mention. 

The  herds  grafs.  or  fox  tail, 
AKohfCftrai  prndn/tf,  is  a  native 
ot  tliis  country,  and  is  perhaps 
as  valuable  as  nfiy  that  we  cul- 
tivate. The  cattle  arc  fond  of  it 
both  groen  and  dry.  It  is  eafi- 
ly  matia^ed,  and  makes  a  nour- 
ifhing  kind  of  hay.  It  often 
grows  very  rwH,  and  conuiionly 
produces  a  larger  crop  than  grafs 
of  any  other  kmd.  It  is  not  apt 
to  lodge  when  it  grows  rank, 
and  it  thrives  well  on  any  kind 
of  foil,  except  hungry  faiid  and 
gravel  ;  more  cfpccially  in  the 
nortlrern  parts  ot  Ncwengland. 

In  inmc  foils  it  does  well  to 
mix  this  grafs  with  clover.  For 
it  will  be  found  that,  as  the  lat- 
ter diminifhes  from  year  to  year, 
tliis  will  itureafe,  fo  that  the 
crops  will  rv)t  Kul  tor  a  confider- 
ablc  ntmiber  of  years.  The  time 
i<)  cut  herds  grafs,  is  when  it  is 
juft  out  of  blofTom  ;  but  when 
it  is  mixed  with  cloxer,  svhich 
rtpcas  earlier,  it  nuid  be  cut  a 
little  f<x)ner. 

The  red  ton  grafs,  Poa  trivi- 
nhi  rt  prat<'Hjts,\s  fo  nuural  to 
every  foil  in  this  coimtry,  that 
all  our  old  fields,  which  h.i\e  l.iin 
long,  are  full  of  it,  as  well  as  our 
nafturcs.  It  inakes  a  profitable 
nay  for  fpendine,  thotigh  the 
crop  i.s  fel.iom  fo  large  as  that  of 
lienls  grafs.  It  is  more  certain 
•rid  durable,  and  bfin  the  une- 


C  R  A  137 

vennefs  of  our    climate  belter 
than  almofl  any  other  grafs.     In 

fKiftures  it  fht»uld  be  {cA  clofc  ; 
or  when  it  is  run  up  to  feed,  the 
cattle  are  not  fond  t>f  eating  it. 

White  clover,  or  honcyfuekle, 
io  called  for  the  remarkable 
fweetnefs  of  its  tafte,  Trifolium 
rfpens.  Itbloffoms  in  June,  and 
is  ripe  eaily.  It  is  good  feeding 
in  paffures  in  the  beginning  ot 
fumincr.  Rut  when  it  grows  by 
itfelf,  it  does  not  ufually  rife  to 
a  height  fufHcient  tor  mowing. 

Wire  grafs,  Pea  compirfja^  \% 
of  a  bluifh  colour,  and  fnaped 
much  like  the  red  top  grafs,  but 
is  more  folid  and  heavy,  having 
fcarccly  any  cavity  in  the  flalk. 
It  would  be  highly  prized,  could 
it  be  made  to  produce  largely. — 
It  grows  bell  where  the  groimd 
is  baked,  or  hard  trodden,  and 
where  the  foil  is  not  deep,  as  in 
a  thin  fward  over  a  flat  rock  ;  and 
it  bears  drought  to  admiration. 

Rhodeifland  Bent,  Agrojfis 
intcrrnpla,  is  allowed  to  make 
a  very  excellent  hay. 

Lucern  and  St.  Foin,  have 
been  tried  a  little  in  this  coun- 
try ;  but  it  feenis  they  will  not 
prof^per  well  in  our  climate,  as 
our  winter  froffs  arc  too  hard  for 
them  ;  though  they  do  extreme- 
ly well  in  fome  countries  that 
are  in  tlie  fame  latitude. 

The  burner,  which  is  now  up- 
on trial,  will  be  found  to  anfwcr, 
I  think,  very  well. 

GRAVEL,  earth  of  the  fame 
nature  with  fand,  only  more 
coarfe  and  harfn.  Both  fccm  to 
confifl  wholly  of  minute  pebbles. 
Gravel  is  ufeful  in  mending 
roads,  in  making  dams,  and  for 
walks  in  gardens,  &c. 

A  foil  of  mere  gravel  is  tlitf 
meaneft  ot  all  foils  ;  and  will 
produce  next  to  nothing,  till  it 
be  mended  with  fbmethinLj  mix- 
ed  with   it  ;  and   even   then    if 

Will 


.j8 


G  R  E 


viil  need  a  wet  feafon,  unlefs  it ! 
be  in  a  wet  fituation,  as  at  the  toot  1 
of  a  hill,  or  watered  with  fprings.  ' 

The  bcft  manures  for  this  fort  [ 
of  land  in  general,  are  mai  1,  clay,  ! 
the  mad  ot  fwamps.  ponds,  riv-  i 
ers  and  creeks.     If  applied   in- 
large  quantities,  they  will  meli- 
orate it  for  a  long  time.     The 
heft  yearly  dreffings  are  the  dung 
of  cows  and  fwine,  fea  weeds,  ; 
ihaw  partly  rotted,  bits  of  leath-  i 
er,  woollen  rag";,  and  almoft  any  | 
ipungy  fnbftances  which  retain  ! 
jrioifture  for  fome  time.  J 

This  kind  of  foil,  well  manur-  ! 
ed,    fometimes    produces    good 
crops  of  luch  plants  as  require 
much  heat,  as  Indian  corn  and 
tobacco.     And  it  does  well  in  a  I 
good    feafon,   for    rye,    clover,  | 
beans,  peafc  and  potatoes.  ; 

GREASE,  a  diftemper  fo  do-  ! 
nominated,  is    a    fwellmg    and  I 
gourdincfs  of  the  legs  of  hones,  i 
which    frequently    happens    to  ; 
them    after    a    journey.      Moit  '. 
lieople  have  believed  their  greafe 
to  be  melted  by  hard  riding,  and  ! 
fallen  into  their  legs  :  And  that  i 
which  may  have  given  encour- 
agement to  this  opinion,  is  the  : 
colour  ot  the  nvatier  iiluing  from 
'he   chinks   and    lores   in   thofe 
nans,  when  they  come  to  break, 
iomcwhat   refembling   greafe. — 
The  diftemper  may  arife  irorri 
V  arious  caufes.     If  the  greafe  be 
an  attendant  on  fome  other  dif- 
temper.    the    cure   will    be   the 
more  difficult,  and  it  will  be  in 
v^m  to  expett  a  recovery,  until 
the  difeafe  is  removed  which  oc- 
cafioned  it.    Therefore,  methods 
for  the  cure  of  Aofe  diftempers 
iriuft  be  followed,  and  applica- 
tions made  outwardly  for  this.  But 
ii  it  be  an  original  diforder,  and 
if  the  horfe  have  been  pamipered,  , 
©r  well  ted,  the  cure  ought  to  be  : 
begiui  by  bleeding  and  purging,  ! 
to  leiTea  the  i  edunddncy  gi  hu- ' 


G  R  E 

mours.  Neitlier  fhould  thcfe  be 
too  often  repeated  :  But  what  is 
wanting  imhat  way  had  much  bet- 
ter be  eifettuated  by  a  more  fpare 
diet,  w-ith  daily  exercife.  After 
moderate  evacuations,  a  rowel 
may  be  made  on  the  iufide  of 
the  thigh,  or  on  the  belly ;  which 
may  be  continued  for  a  month, 
or  longer  if  necefrar}\  In  the 
mean  time  the  cinaber  or  anti- 
monial  balls  ought  to  be  con- 
ilantly  given.  And  while  thefe 
things  are  doing  internally,  the 
legs  Ihould  be  trequently  nibbed, 
not  with  hard  inflruments,  but 
with  a  good  wifp  of  hay,  or  a 
brufh.  Baths  and  fomentations, 
fuch  as  may  caufe  the  humours 
to  go  off  by  perfpiiation,  or  ren- 
der them  fit  to  return  in  the  cir- 
culations, are  alfo  to  be  made 
ufe  of.  For  tliis  pitrpofe  the  iol- 
lowing  is  recommended. 

Take  wormwood  eight  hand- 
tuls,  Johns  won,  centaury,  cam- 
omile, of  each  four  handiuls,  el- 
der flowers  two  handiuls,  bay- 
berries  half  a  pound  :  Boil  them 
in  two  gallons  of  water  till  one 
third  is  confumed,  and  make  a 
tomentaticn. 

The  horfe's  legs  are  to  be  bath- 
ed diree  or  four  times  a  day, 
with  woollen  cloths  \^Tung  out 
of' the  liquor,  and  applied  as  hot 
as  he  can  bear  them,  adding  a 
little  of  the  fpirit  ot  wine  or 
brandy.  And  if  they  be  much 
inflamed,  as  happens  when  the 
finews  are  afFefted,  a  good  quan- 
tity of  the  athes  of  the  green 
twigs  of  A'ines,  walnut  or  oak, 
may  be*  boiled  in  the  decoction^ 
adding  more  water,  when  the  oth- 
er ingredients  are  eaCly  to  be  had. 

The  lees  of  wine,  with  a  mix- 
ture of  foap.  are  alfo  ver}'  proper 
to  be  applied  warm  :  As  alfo 
cow's  dung  boiled  in  vinegar. 

Suitable  cataplafms  in  bad  cafes 
are  proper.    The  camphorated 

fpirit- 


G  R  E 

fpirit  of  wine  alone  is  good,  viz. 
an  ounce  of  camphirc  fo  a  pint  of 
fpirit.  Frequently  ufcd,  it  will 
anfwer  well  when  the  fwelling 
is  new.     Sec-  CI- fen's   Far ri fry. 

GREEN  DRESSING,  turn- 
ing a  crop  of  j;rccn  plants  into  the 
f [round  in  funinicr,  to  enrich  the 
oil,  and  fit  it  to  produce  a  good 
crop  ot  wheat.  By  repeating 
this  culture,  poor  or  worn  out 
land  may  be  brouclu  to  any  de- 
gree of  richncfs  that  is  dclired, 
witiiout  any  otlier  manure.  Buck 
wheat,  rye,  peafe  or  oats,  may  be 
fowcd  in  the  fpring,  and  in  June 
ploughed  in,  when  they  are  tull- 
eft  of  fap,  and  moll  eafily  rutted. 
The  ground  Ihould  be  again 
ploughed  in  the  tall,  G)wedwiih 
winter  grain,  and  well  harrowed. 
The  cort  of  ploughing  and  feed, 
is  not  fo  much  as  th.^t  of  dung, 
when  it  can  be  had,  and  carting 
i<.  This  management,  therefore, 
may  ottcn  appear  eligible,  efpc- 
cially  in  places  where  manures 
are  not  plenty.  On  account  of 
the  cheapnels  of  the  feed,  Mr. 
Eliot  recommends  millet  as  a 
moft  fuitabic  crop  for  green 
drefTing  ;  and  fome  have  ufed 
clover  and  rye  grafs.  In  Britain, 
buck  wheat  is  much  ufed,  as  the 
flalks,  when  gre«n,  are  very  large 
and  juicy,  and  as  they  require 
but  a  fhort  time  to  rot.  It  is  af- 
ferted,  that  about  ten  days  ^re 
fufficient  ior  it  lo  lie  under  the 
furrows. 

The  chief  difficulty  J  can  think 
"^f,  which  tends  to  dWcoura.cje 
this  practice,  is,  the  choking  of 
the  plough  in  going  among  a 
ull  growth  of  plants.  It  may 
be  needlul  for  a  boy  to  tend  it. 
But  in  Bnnin,  t'j  pieveni  chok- 
ing, they  ncommend  to  pa's-  a 
roller  over  the  crop  to  be  turn- 
ed in,  whicli  iays  it  flat,  and  m 
the  fame  direction  that  the  pic  tgli 
k.  to  pafs. 


G  R  1  139 

GREENS,  the  general  natne 
of  thofc  pot  herbs  which  are 
boiled  lor  foo<l  when  they  are 
young  and  tender.  Some  of  the 
moll  ufeful  of  them  known  in 


thi 


s  country,  arc 


.  kale. 

.  purr- 


French  turnips, 

lain,  white  and  .  :<i...  ;  iillaid. 
There i>  a Scoth  kale  whichniav 
be  reared  earlier  than  alinoft  any 
other  greens,  and  is  equal  in 
goodncis  to  any.  To  have  greens- 
early,  let  kale  and  French  tur- 
nips be  fowed  in  Oclober,  and- 
the  young  plant  covired  clofely 
with  ccl  grafs,  or  llraw,  during 
the  winter,  and  till  the  iiifuicncc 
ot  the  iun  be  fufficient  to  renew 
their  vegetation. 

GREEN  SCOURING,  "a 
difeafe  to  which  fheep  and  bul- 
locks arc  often  fubjett.  The  bcft 
remedy  tor  this  diflempcr  is  ver- 
juice :  A  vine  glafs  full  is  e- 
nough  for  a  {lieep,  nnd  a  pint  for 
a  bullock."     CombUu-  Farmer. 

GRIPES,  cr  ckolick  p^:rjs. 
Horfes  are  very  fubjcFt  to  grip- 
ing, or  cholick  pains.  They 
may  proceed  from  flatulencies, 
or  wind  pent  up  in  the  ftomach 
and  bowels,  from  inflammanon 
of  the  coats  of  the  ftoinadi  and 
intellincs.orfrom  worms,  ipafms, 
&c.  In  fuch  cafe  it  is  very 
wrong  to  give  Iwm  heating  things 
by  the  moutji,  as  is  too  common- 
ly practifed.  fiiccding  (hould 
be  the  ^irll  thing  in  thefe  cafes, 
it  the  diforder  be  violent,  which 
may  be  known  by  the  creature's 
motions,  Irequeacy  of  lying 
down,  and  llarting  up  again,  &c. 
As  horlts  are  coflive  in  thefc 
cafcs,ihe  rectum  Ihould  be  clear- 
ed of  the  h.ird  dung,  by  back 
•.  as  it  is  called,  that  is,  it 
.  ne  taken  out  by  a  hand, 
\»luch  gives  a  horfe  great  relief. 
For  the  prrirurc  on  the  nrrh  of' 

,    ..  -} 

*» 


140  G  R  O 

ent  clyftcrs  are  then  of  great  ad- 
vantage, as  they  not  only  bring 
away  the  excrements,  which  at-* 
lords  a  paflage  for  the  wind 
backwards  ;  but  they  at\  as  an 
internal  fomentation,  to  remove 
fpafms  from  the  bowels.  They 
iTiay  be  frequently  repeated,  till 
the  confined  air  finds  a  palfage 
backwards.  If  it  Ihould  be 
found  neceffary,  a  fpoontul  of 
lawdanum  may  be  given  in  a  pint 
of  watergruel,  either  by  the  a- 
nus  in  a  clyfter,  or  by  the  mouth. 
See  Clar/i's  Farriery.  Nearly 
the  fame  treatment  is  proper  for 
horned  cattle  under  the  fame 
diforders. 

GROUND,  a  general  name 
for  land,  be  the  foil  what  it  may. 
Ground  that  is  fit  to  produce 
crops  is  neither  too  fott  nor  too 
hard  ;  neither  too  wet  nor  too 
dry.  It  is  light  and  eafily  puU 
verized.  It  is  not  fo  tenacious 
as  to  clea\-e  to  the  fpade,  which 
enters  eafily.  That  is  the  beR 
mould  which  cuts  like  butter, 
and  yet  eafily  crumbles,  and  has 
no  ill  fmell.  It  does  not  crack 
in  dry  weather.  It  is  dark  col- 
oured, or  quite  black  ;  does  not 
foon  poach  with  wetnefs.  It 
fhines  after  the  plough  :  Flocks 
ot  crows  follow  the  pioughman, 
and,  as  Pliny  expreiles  it,  peck 
at  his  heels. 

GROVE,  a  row  or  walk  of 
trees,  'planted  clofe  cr  a  little 
open,  for  ornament  and  fhade. 

Formerly  a  grove  made  in  reg- 
ular lines,  was  conlidered  as  mofl: 
ornamental.  But  modern  im- 
provers are  rather  difguiied  with 
the  uniformity  ot  a  grove,  and 
prefer  thofe  which  appear  as  if 
they  were  the  work  ot  nature  or 
chance.  As  tafte  alters  from  time 
to  tim.e,  I  fhall  not  undertake  to 
determine  which  are  moll  grand 
or  beautiful.  As  my  great  ob- 
je6l  is  real  improvement  and  ad- 


G  R   O 

vantage,  I  fhall  here  only  attend 
to  groves  in  regular  lines. 

Groves  in  gardens  are  both 
ornamental  and  ufeful,  if  th« 
trees  be  not  too  large.  They 
fhade  the  walks  in  the  borders  ; 
fo  that  we  may  walk  in  gardens 
with  pleafure.  in  the  hotteil  part 
of  the  day.  It  is  fcarcely  need- 
ful to  fay  thefe  garden  groves 
fliould  confifl  of  fruit  trees  ;  and 
they  fhould  be  of  the  fmaller 
kinds,  if  in  a  garden  of  a  fraall 
or  middling  fize.  A  double  row 
has  the  belt  effect,  as  it  refpefts 
fhade,  one  near  the  wall,  the 
other  on  the  oppofite  fide  of  the 
walk.  But  this  on  the  whole  I 
do  not  recommend,  unlefs  it  be 
in  gardens  uncommonly  large. 

In  other  fituaiions  groves  oi 
larger  trees  arc  preierrea.  Lanes 
and  avenues,  leading  to  manfion 
houfes  and  other  buildings,  may 
be  ornamented  with  rows  of  trees, 
either  on  one,  or  on  both  fides  : 
It  only  on  one,  it  fhould  be  tlie 
fouthernraoft,  on  accomit  of  the 
advantage  ot  fhade  in  the  lane. 
Such  trees  are  beii,  the  limbs  of 
which  are  not  apt  to  be  low  ; 
fuch  as  elm,  aft,  raaple,  poplar, 
&c. 

Lots  and  enclofures  fhould  be 
bordered  with  rows  of  trees,  ei- 
ther f J  uit  trees  or  timber  trees, 
in  clofe  order.  They  will  do 
better  a  yard  or  more  from  the 
ience,  than  in  hedges  accord'ing 
to  the  Englifh  method,  a^  rec- 
ommended by  Mortimer.  But 
fuch  trees  fhould  be  choien,  as 
are  not  apt  to  propagate  and 
multiply,  left  the  borders  be  foon 
filled  with  fhrubs. 

It  would  be  advantageous  to 
the  publick,  as  well  as  to  the 
owners  of  adjoining  farms,  it  all 
our  roads  were  lined  with  groves, 
of  barren  or  timber  treei>.  They 
might  be  either  within  or  witli- 
out  the  fences.  Jn  the  laik^r  c^e, 
goveiaraent 


G  R  O 

"'  '  >  rnmc'itTnisht  interpofc,  and 

u  ...1  in  t!ic  roads  aK^inll  their 
i.ci-is  ;  an<l  obliiic  Idrnicis  tu 
plant  in  tlu;  roads  ai^.iwili  their 
own  lands.  I  Ihoiild  prcter  this 
to  planting  within  tin*  tcnccs,  <d- 
pccially  where  the  Piads  have  a 
flood  width.  But  tlic  tree** 
fliould  he  lo  ull  when  planted, 
9.S  to  be  above  the  reach  o\  cat- 
tle ;  and  be  Haked,  or  othcrwilc 
fcciired,  till  thc^'  arrive  to  a  ccr- 
Uui  bigncfs.  The  cxpenle  of 
thus  fecunng  them  need  not 
amount  to  much,  when  compar- 
ed to  the  advantages  ariiiiigtrom 
luch  groves. 

Or,  if  tliey  were  planted  along 
the  foutherly  fides  oi  roads  only, 
the  advantage  to  the  public k 
would  be  great.  Bcfides  provid- 
ing a  flock  of  wood  and  timber 
for  future  generations,  tlie  pref- 
eiU  would  receive  the  benchi  of 
their  Ihadow,  caA  into  the  roadii 
in  the  hottell  part  oi  our  ftnniucr 
days.  This  would  be  extremely 
letreihing  to  travellers,  t-»  teams 
that  pafs  uiide^  them,  and  lo 
many  tame  aaimaU  that  live  ia 
the  roads.  In  this  cafe,  tii«  ad- 
joining lots  would  tUDt  be  injur- 
ed with  the  fhade  ;  but  for  (ho 
beauty  oi  thf  ir  appearance,  ii^es 
on  both  f'des  ot  tbe  road  would 
be  befl. 

It  the  country  were  well  flock- 
ed wuh  tJH'Ie  gropes,  tiicir  per- 
ipiration  would  help  to  abate  the 
torching  heat  of  the  fun,  in  a 
«Iry  feafon,  by  moiftcnin^  the  at- 
rnofphere.  They  would  fcrvc 
to  impede  the  force  ol  high, 
driving  winds  and  florins  in  lum« 
mcr,  \%  hicb  uiten  tear  our  tender 
vcgfla!)l<rs,  or  lay  our  crons  flat 
to  the  ground.  Our  buildmgi 
would  be  alfu  in  lefs  danger 
from  them.  The  winds  in  win- 
ter wotdd  not  l»e  fu  keen  and  vi- 
olent.   Tiic  lofcc  of  fca  \viad> 


H   A  R  141 

on  oui  fruit  trees  would  be  abat- 
ed.  The  fnows  that  fall  would 
be  laid  more  e\  en  on  the  ground. 
Roads  would  be  iefs  blo;:k.ed  tip, 
and  icldomer  vcnderod  impilla 
blc  by  ihcm.  But  for  iheie  Lit 
purnolcs,  groves  of  evergreen* 
wilf  iiave  the  crcatcil  cflctK 

Groves  fhould  be  planted  thick 
at  tirfl,  that  the  above  advanta- 
ges  may  be  had  from  them  while 
young.  When  the  ticcs  become 
fo  large  as  to  be  crowded,  they 
fhould  be  thinned.  And  thus 
a  con lidei able  quantity  of  fewel 
and  limber  may  be  foon  realis- 
ed by  the  proprietors. 

The  increafing  fcarcity  and 
dcamefs  of  wood,  efpe.cially  in 
thcoMefll'ettlcmcnLsinthiscwun* 
tryjalToidsan  unanlworahle  argu- 
ment in  fa\our  ot  fuch  a  piece 
ot  good  hufbandry. 

GRUB,  "  the  name  of  a  large 
maggot  produced  from  the  eggs 
ol  a  certain  fpccics  ol  biiticrily. 
It  is  of  a  laigc  li/.c,  and  often 
docs  great  injury  to  the  corn  by 
unJei mining  it,  and  preying  oii 
its  loots.  It  produces  tlie  beetle, 
and  is  by  fome  called  the  rook 
wgrm,  becauie  rooks  are  partic- 
ularly fond  ot  it.  The  belt  way 
to  dedroy  the  grub,  is  good  and 
trequent  ploughing,  which  will 
clear  ilie  ground,  however  in- 
f«tted  with  this  infctt.  for  fome 
years  at  Uafl.  '  Lompl<'te  Farm- 
er, 


l\. 


HARROW,  a  kind  of  drag 
ufod  in  tillage.  By  drawing  a 
harrow  over  ploughed  ground, 
the  clods  which  remain  alter 
ploughing,  arc  broken,  and  the 
ground  made  ir.el Urvv  and  fine, 
ft  ferves  alio  to  ileflroy  wecd.s. 
by  pulling  out  their  roo(»,  and 
i.\p4)fing  them  to  the  fun  and 
witid.    And  it  is  ufed  to  cover 

feeds 


i42 


H  A  R 


feeds  newly  fown.  The  wood 
of  a  harrow  fhould  be  the  ftrong- 
cft  and  beft  feafoned  white  oak. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  har- 
rows commonly  ufed  ;  the  fquare 
barrow,  and  the  bifurcate  har- 
row ;  the  former  is  for  old  and 
clear  ground,  the  latter  for  land 
that  abounds  with  flumps  of  trees 
£ind  other  obflacles.  The  fquare 
harrow  is  armed  with  fixteen, 
or  with  twenty  fe'e  tuQies,  or 
teeth.  The  fharper  the.fe  teeth 
are,  the  more  they  will  pul- 
verize the  foil,  if  they  be  fteel- 
cd  at  the  points,  they  will  hold 
their  fharpnefs  the  longer,  and 
ftir  the  ground  more  effectually. 
And  the  co^  of  doing  it  is  fo 
little,  that  it  is  furprifmg  to  fee 
that  it  is  fo  generally  neglected 
fey  our  farmers. 

It  has  been  the  common  practice 
in  this  country  to  place  the  teeth 
in  the  ioints  of  the  fquare  har- 
row. But  this  has  a  tendency  to 
^•eaken  the  joints,  and  the  teeth 
are  more  apt  to  become  loofe. 
They  fhould  be  placed  in  the 
folid  parts  between  the  joints. 
The  befl  way  to  faften  them  is, 
^'ith  fhoulders  uHder  the  harrOM% 
and  nuts  fcrewed  on  above. 

Some  ufe  harrows  with  wood- 
en teeth,  but  they  are  of  fo  little 
advantage  to  the  land,  unlefs  it 
be  merely  for  covering  feeds, 
tiiat  they  may  be  confideied  as 
unfit  to  be  ufed  at  all.  The 
treading  of  the  cattle  that  draw 
them,  will  harden  the  foil  more, 
perhaps,  than  thefe  harrows  will 
foften  it. 

The  bifurcate,  or  triangular 
harrow,  is  either  a  fork  of  natural 
growth,  orelfe  made  artificially. 
The  artificial  one  is  commonly 
ifrongefl,  when  well  made,  as 
timber  may  be  chofen  which  is 
fufticiently  tough  and  flrong. 
The  two  legs  may  either  be  lap- 
ped together  at  the  angle,  or  elfe 


H  A  R 

framed  together  like  a  pair  <^ 
rafters,  excepting  that  the  butt 
ends,  being  tougheft,  and  flrong- 
efl,  mufl  be  put  together.  But 
the  joint  mufl  be  flrengthened 
by  a  good  iron  hoop  fmartly 
driven  on  to  the  nofe,  after  the 
wood  is  thoroughly  dry,  and 
faflened  with  flrong  nails  ;  and 
further  flrengthened  with  a  brace 
from  one  leg  to  the  other,  fram- 
ed in,  about  tM'o  feet  from  the 
junfture  of  the  legs. 

The  angle  may  be  more  or  lefs 
acute,  according  to  the  flate  of 
the  land  in  which  the  harrow  is 
raoftly  to  be  ufed.  For  the 
rougheft  ground  the  angle  mufl 
.be  more  acute  ;  bivt  for  well 
cleared  ground,  the  angle  may- 
be of  45  degrees,  or  more.  The 
more  obtufe  the  angle  is,  the 
more  near  together  the  teeth 
mufl:  be  placed.  In  this  kind  of 
hcUTOw  fome  pnt  9,1ome  ii,  and 
fome  13  teeth,  or  even  15.  The 
rougher  and  harder  the  land,  the 
fewer  the  teeth  ;  and  the  fewer 
they  are,  the  longer  and  flronger 
they  fhould  be.  Twelve  inches 
clear  of  the  wood  is  not  too  long, 
nor  three  pounds  too  heavy  for  a 
tooth  in  the  ftrongeit  harrows. 

To  prevent  thi*  machine  from 
faftening  itfelf  often  in  immovea- 
We  flumps  and  roots,  the  teeth 
may  be  fet  leaning  a  little  back- 
wards. But  where  there  are  no 
obflacles,  they  fhould  rather  in- 
cline the  contrary  way,  or  at 
leaftthey  fhould  be  perpendicu- 
lar. 

Some  make  ufe  of  a  horfe  har- 
row of  the  forked  kind,  and  very 
narrow,  to  mellow,  the  ground 
and  kill  weeds,  betwixt  rows  of 
Indian  corn.  But  the  horfe 
ploiigh  anfwers  the  purpofe  bet- 
ter in  general,  unlefs  it  be  upon 
green  fward  ground,  in  which 
the  horfe  plough  will  not  an- 
fwer  at  all.     The  fliffnefs  of  the 

014 


H  A  R 

oUl  lurrow*  will  prevent  its  reg- 
ular going.  Lord  Katmes  rec- 
ommends what  he  calls  a  clean- 
ing harrow  with  no  lefs  than  56 
teeth,  which  teeth  are  no  more 
Uian  fi\  inches  apart.  The  ufe 
of  it  is  to  clear  land  of  roots,  in 
an  expeditious  and  effetlual  man- 
ner. The  wcigiu  of  a  tooth-  is 
OHe  pound  only.  If  they  arc  fct 
wking  forward  they  will  pene- 
trate the  deeper,  aivd  iiavc  a  bet- 
ter cfFeft. 

HARROWTNG.workingthe 
(oil  with  a  harrow.  A  team 
that  travels  quirk,  is  heft  tor 
hairowing,  unlels  the  land  be 
loo  full  of  obftacles.  Horfcs, 
therefore,  arc  better  for  this  work 
than  oxen,  becaufe  their  motion 
a  quicker.  The  faller  the  har- 
row moves,  and  the  more  it 
jumps,  the  more  the  hard  cloda 
arc  broken,  and  the  turts  torn. 
The  teeth  will  alio  keep  cleaner 
and  go  deeper  ;  lo  that  the  land 
will  nc  more  mixed  and  mellow- 
ed. But  clayey  land  is  fo  apt  to 
be  cloddy,  that  it  is  often  necef- 
fary  to  follow  the  harrow  with  a 
maul,  or  a  hoe,  to  break  the  re- 
maining clods. 

Befidfcs  pulverizing  the  foil, 
covering  feeds,  and  drawing  out 
the  roots  of  weeds,  the  dcfigns  of 
harrowing  arc  to  make  the  land 
level,  or  fmooth  ;  and,  on  fal- 
lows, to  caufe  the  feeds  of  weeds 
to  vegetate  by  expofine  them  to 
the  air,  in  order  that  f  ney  may 
be  dcftroyed  by  after  operations, 
either  with  the  plough  or  the 
harrow. 

When  land  is  wet  and  poachy, 
or  at  all  muddy,  it  can  be  of 
no  fcrvice  to  harrow  it.  It  will 
rather  do  damage,  as  it  will  make 
it  more  coinpa6l  and  fliff. 

Land  that  is  too  light  and 
puffy,  as  drained  fwanips  often 
'♦re,  cannot  eafily  be  too  much 
harrowed.    The  rno»c  it  is  har- 


H  A  R  ii^ 

rowed,  the  more  compaft  it  wilF 
be  ;  and  this  is  what  \t  wants. 

The  harrowing  of  new  ground 
tor  feeding,  witiiout  ploughing, 
may  be  performed  in  ainioff  any 
weather,  if  the  ground  be  only 
dry  enough  to  be  mellowed  by 
the  harrow.  And  the  fooner.ai- 
ter  burning,  this  work  is  done,  fi> 
much  the  better,  as.  it  will  pre- 
vent the  afhes  being  blown 
away  by  high  winds,  and  as  it 
will  fpread  it  more  equally,, 
and  more  efleHually  mix  it 
with  the  foil.  Here  the  (liong- 
ell  harrow  niufl  be  ufcd  ;  and 
it  ought  to  be  heavy,  in  or- 
der to  make  any  confiderable 
imprefhon  on  the  foil.  It  is 
often  neccfTary  that  the  harrow 
pafs  feveral  times  in  the  fame 
place,  in  order  to  raife  a  fuffi- 
cie .  t  quantity  of  mould.  There 
is  no  reafon  to  fear  its  being  loit 
labour.  7  he  iuore  fuch  ground 
is  harrowed,  the  better  crop  may 
be  rationally  expected. 

On  furrows  of  green  fward, 
newly  ploughed,  the  harrow 
fhould  pafs  the  fame  way  that 
the  plough  did  :  Otiierwife, 
fome  of  the  tui  ro>\'s,  which  lie  a 
little  higher  tiian  the  reft,  will 
be  turned  back  again,  grafs  up- 
wards. This  fort  of  land  re- 
quires a  heavy  harrow,  or  one 
made  fo  bv  loading  it.  A-  light 
one  will  tink  into  the  fuiTow."; 
but  little,  aiid  be  of  iittjc  (ervice. 

On  old  ground,  ^ilouglied 
plain,  the  harrow  thould  pals  the 
firft  time,  acrofs  tlic  furrows, 
as  the  teeth  will  better  take  hold 
of  tlic  roots  of  weeds,  and  more 
dccolv  pencti^te  the  foil.  It 
wlllalfo  do  more  towards  level- 
ling tlic  ground.  Afterwards  u 
fhould  be  harrowed  tlie  (uhcr 
way,  lengtlr.vifcof  the  furrows. 

Harrowmg  conunonly  docs 
the  raoll  fcrvice  immediately  af- 
ter ground   is  ploughed,  is  the 


144  H  A  R 

teeth  godegperjad  raife  tha  more 
mould.  It  it  be  neglected  at 
this  jiinftiire,  a  time  fliould  be 
chofen  ^vhen  the  foil  is  not  too 
dry.  After  a  gentle  rain  the 
clods  win  crumble  the  more  ea- 
fily  ;  and  the  foil  underneatli 
beins;  drier,  ^v■lIl  not  be  harden- 
ed by  the  treading  of  cattle. 

In  light  fandy,  or  gravelly 
foils,  or  where  there  is  occafion 
for  harrowing  land  which  is  ex- 
ceffively  dry,  or  in  danger  of 
foon  becoming  fo,  it  fhould  be 
done  when  the  dew  is  on  the 
ground,  early  in  a  morning. 
This  will  increafe,  rather  than 
diminifh  the  moiflnefs  of  the  foil. 
And  on  the  contrary,  land  which 
is  apt  to  be  too  wet,  (liould  be 
harrowed  at  a  time  when  it  is 
drieft,  as  in  the  middle  of  a  fair 
day.  The  firft  fcratching  will 
caufe  it  to  dry  faft,  and  fo  pre- 
pare it  to  be  made  fine  and  mel- 
low by  the  fecond. 

The  European  farmers  r?com- 
Riend  harrowing  ground  once 
over  before  corn  is  fowed,  and 
then  to  harrow  in  the  feed  the 
contrary  way.  The  grain  will 
be  the  more  even,  and  not  ap- 
pear fo  much  in  rows,  as  if  it  were 
fowed  upon  the  fur^o^vs  ;  but  it 
^v^]\  not  be  fo  deeply  covered. 
Perhaps  fowing  upon  iurrows, 
both  winter  and  fummer  grain, 
may  be  generally  the  better  meth- 
od in  this  country,  which  is  fo 
much  more  liable  to  fufferby  fc- 
vere  frofts  and  droughts.  Some 
of  ourfarmers  even  think  itbeft  to 
plough  in  the  feed  with  a  Ihal- 
low  Kl^•o^v^  The  roots  will  lie 
the  deeper,  and  be  lefs  expofed 
to  fuffer  by  froft  and  drought. 

Harrowing  tallows  is  doubt- 
lefs  a  beneficial  operation.  If  it 
be  done  two  or  three  times  be- 
tween ploughings,  the  feeds  of 
weeds  will  be  encouraged  to  veg- 
etate, and  confequently  will  be 


H  A  R 

killed  at  the  next  plooghing  Of 
harrowing.  Thus  the  land  will 
become  very  clean  after  a  year 
ot  tallow  ;  and  the  food  and  paf- 
ture  of  plants  will  be  more  in- 
creafed  than  it  could  be  by 
ploughing  only.  For  every  weed, 
that  confumes  in  the  foil  is  of 
fome  advantage. 

Some  have  found  their  ac- 
count in  harrov^ing  moAnng 
grounds,  when  they  have  become 
bound  and  flifl".  Though  the 
roots  of  the  grafs  are  much  torn 
and  mangled  by  harrowing,  the 
foil  will  be  loofened  at  the  fur- 
face,  and  the  vegetation  of  the 
grafs  fo  much  increafed,  that  the 
excefs  of  the  next  crop  will  more 
than  compenfate  the  labour  of 
harrowing.  It  fiiould  be  done 
in  autumn,  and  before  heavy 
rains  fall,  but  after  a  gentle  one, 
when  the  furface  is  a  little  moift- 
ened.  It  would  be  belt,  before 
harrowing,  to  afford  the  land  a 
fprinkling  of  old  dung,  or  corn- 
poll  :  Or  elfe  imtned lately  after, 
and  bulb  it  in.  Its  fruitfulnefs 
will  thus  be  greatly  increafed. 

The  harrowing  of  land  that  is 
ploughed  in  ridges,  Ihould  be  per- 
tornied  lengthwife,  and  by  two 
harrows  abreaft,  or  three,  if  the 
breadth  of  the  ridges  require 
them,  that  the  trenches  may  not 
be  too  much  filled.  The  fecond 
harrowing  may  be  acrofs,  if  the 
land  needs  to  be  laid  even  for 
mo:.ing.  But  then  the  trenches 
fliould  be  cleared  out  with  a 
fliovel  or  plough,  if  the  land  be 
fo  flat  and  wet  as  to  make  it 
proper  or  necelfary  to  lay  it 
down  in  ridges. 

Harrowing  of  winter  grain,  in 
the  fpring,  is  approved  of  be- 
yond the  AtlanticK.  When  tha- 
roots  are  well  fet,  and  in  fuffi- 
cient  plenty,  I  think  this  may 
be  a  laudable  piece  of  huiband- 
ry.      The  harrow  will  deftroy 

but 


tt  A  R 

but  a  few  of  the  plants  ;  and 
the  lofs  of  tlicin  will  be  more 
than   made   up  in  the  increafed 

Srowrth  of  the  reft.  But,  in  or- 
er  to  make  the  loofened  plants 
take  rooting,  Mr.  Lidcadvifes  to 
I8rivc  a  llocK  of  (heep  about  over 
the  field.'  Others  ad vife  to  roll- 
ing the  ground,  which  appears 
tnore  rational. 

HARVEST,  the  feifon  when 
corn  is  cut  down,  and  fecured. 

In  this  countrN',  there  arc  two 
feafons  which  are  called  harvcft  : 
tnglilh  h:u-veft  and  Indian  har- 
vcft. The  former  is  about  the 
tnd  of  July  or  beginning  ol  Au- 
gnil,  the  latter  in  October  or  No- 
vember. 

Wheat  and  rye  arc  harvefted 
in  much  the  fame  manner.    Both 

?rc  reaped  and  bound  in  Iheaves. 
t  is  ufual  to  cut  rye  rather 
Rreencr  than  wheat,  that  the 
flour  may  be  the  whiter. 

When  a  fevere  blight  or  ruft 
has  ftruck  the  ftcms  of  wheat,  or 
rye,  it  anfwers  no  purpofe  to  let 
it  ftand  longer  to  ripen,  or  grow 
hard.  It  is  agreed  that  it  fhould 
be  cut  though  lull  in  milk.  And 
afterwards  it  may  lie  on  the 
ground,  e.xpofcd  to  the  fun  and 
weather.till  thegrain  is  hardened. 
But  the  heads  Ihould  lie  lo  as 
not  to  touch  the  ground  ;  which 
may  be  eafily  done,  it  the  reaj)- 
«rs  will  only  take  care  to  lay  the 
top  end  of  each  handtul  on  the 
lower  end  of  the  preceding  one. 
Some  fay  it  will  anfwcr  to  cut  it 
three  weeks  before  the  ufual 
time,  and  before  the  ftems  are 
turned  yellow. 

It  grafs  or  weeds  grow  among 
train,  it  ftiould  be  cut  high,  that 
fo  the  lefs  quantity  of  tralh  may 
be  bound  up  in  the  (heaves. 
And  when  taking  weeds  with  the 
grain  cannot  be  avoided,  it 
ihould  be  reaped  a  little  the  car- 
her,  that  it  mav  have  time  to  lie 
S 


H  A  R  145 

in  the  field,  till  the  weeds  are  well 
dried, without  danger  of  fcattering 
the  corn  by  its  being  over  dried. 

The  bands  Ihould  be  made  in 
a  morning  early,  when  the  dew 
is  greateft.and  the  ftraw  moft  fup- 
ple.  But  the  beft  time  to  bind 
the  (heaves,  is  when  the  air  begins 
to  be  damp  toward.^  evening,  as 
the  leaft  degree  of  moifture  will 
toughen  the  ftraw  and  ])revent 
the  Icattering  of  the  grain  :  And 
there  is  fome  degree  of  damp- 
nefs  in  the  air,  for  an  hour  or 
two  before  funfet. 

A  late  writer  advifcs  to  make 
the  flieaves  with  only  one  length 
ot  ftraw. 

After  binding,  it  fhould  be 
made  up  into  Ihocks  without  de- 
lay, or  after  ftanding  in  theaves 
one  day,  if  the  weather  be  fettled 
and  dry  ;  where  it  is  to  ftand  in 
the  field  till  not  only  the  ftraw, 
but  the  grain,  be  thoroughly 
dried  ;  and  till  a  fuitable  oppor- 
tunity prelent  for  carting  it  in. 
It  Ihould  be  done  v;hen  the  air 
has  a  fmall  degree  ot  dampnefs, 
to  prevent  the  fcattering  of  the 
grain. 

It  woiild  be  beft  on  fome  ac» 
counts,  that  grain  ftiould  be 
thrafhed  as  foon  as  it  is  carted  in. 
But  as  it  is  ufually  a  hurrying 
feafon,  it  is  but  fcldom  that  the 
farmer  can  fpare  time  for  it.  It 
muft,  therefore,  be  ftored  moft 
commonly. 

The  beft  method  of  ftoring  it, 
is,  to  lay  the  Iheaves  up  in  the 
barn.  But  it  want  of  room  re- 
quire them  to  be  ftacked,  care 
Ihould  be  taken  th;tt  the  grain 
may  not  draw  moifture  from  tlie 
ground,  by  laying  boards,  ftraw, 
or  rubbilh  under  the  ftack.  A 
better  way  ftill  is  to  have  a  tight 
floor  of  tx>ards  mounted  on  four 
blocks,  fet  in  the  ground,  and  fo 
high  from  the  ground  as  to  pre- 
vent the  enteriiig  ot  ver::Mri, 

In 


1^6  MAR 

In  building  a  ftack,  care  fliould 
be  taken  to  keep  the  feed  ends 
ot  the  iheavcsin  the  middle,  and 
a  little  higher  than  the  outer 
ends.  No  fowls  nor  birds  can 
then  come  at  the  grain  ;  and  the 
rainthatfallsontheftraw  ends  will 
run  off,  and  not  pafs  towards  the 
centre.  The  ftack  Ihould  be  well 
topped  with  ftraw,  that  the  rain 
may  be  completely  turned  off.  As 
to  the  harvelfing  of  barley,  oats 
snd  peafe,  fee  thcfe  articles. 

With  refpect  to-harveft^mg  In- 
dian corn,  I  would  obferve,  that 
many  do  it  much  too  early,  to 
their  own  damage  and  lofs.  As 
long  as  there  is  any  greennefs, 
or  fap,  remaining  in  the  %vhole 
length  of  the  ft:alk^  below  the  ear, 
or  even  in  the  cob  ;  fo  long  the 
corn  improves^  by  ftandirig.  Tor 
the  fap  will  continue  to-  dif- 
charge  itfelf  into  the  grain> 
Though  a  crop  harvefted  earlier 
may  meafure  as  much  in  ears,  or 
more,  when  it  rs  newly  hulked^ 
it  will  fhrink  a  great  deal,  fome- 
times  lo  much  that  not  two  corns 
on  an  ear  will  toiich  each  other. 
Befides,  there  will  be  the  great- 
,er  difficulty  in  drying  and  keep- 
ing it.  Corn  that  is  harvefted 
early,  will  not  be  fit  to  ft:ore  in 
out  door  cribs,,  nor  in  our  com- 
mon corn  houfes,  unlefs  it  be 
firil  -fpread  thin  on  floors,  and 
dried.  And  this  is  troublefome, 
ar  leali,  if  not  impracticable. 

Squirrch,  and  rapacious  birds, 
dikrderly  cattJe  and  bad  fences, 
drive  perfons  to  harvefiing  early. 
But  there  is  commonly  more  loli 
than  faved  by  it.-  \Vhen  the 
corn  Hands  tolerably  fecure,  and 
is  in  no  danger  trom  froft,  nor 
from  thie\'es,  harvefting  early  is 
an  error.  I  ihould  not  think 
the  beginning  oi  November  at 
all  too  late. 

It  is  not  fafe  to  let  it  lie  long 
1  the  ixuiks  after  it  is  gathsr- 


H  A  T 

ed,  left;  it  fliould  heat,  or  cont5a£l 
dampnefs.  One  unripe  ear  or 
green  ftalk,  in  a  heap,  may  dam- 
age many.  The  common  practice 
of  collecting  large  companies  to 
hufk  the  corn  as  foon  as  it  is  gath; 
ered,is  a  laudable  one.  And  after- 
it  is  hulked,  it  fiiculd  have  a  dry 
place,  and  fo  much  benefit  of  the 
air,  that  it  may  be  fure  not  to 
grow  warm,  let  the  air  prove  to 
be  ever  fo  moift. 

Sometimes  a  fevere  early  froft; 
drives  the  farmer  to  harvefting, 
as  he  knows  the  froftbitten  corn 
is  apt  to  rot  in  the  hufks.  But  in 
fuch  a  cafe,  or  when  corn  holds 
its  greennefs  uncommonly  late, 
an  approved  method  is,  to  cut  it 
up  clofe  to  the  ground,  bind  it 
in  fmall  bmidles,  and  fet  it  up  in 
fmall  Ihocks  in  the  field.  It  will 
ripen  kindly,,  and  take  no  dam- 
age. By  this  method  the  grain 
has  the  benefit  of  all  the  fap  con- 
tained in  the  ftalks,  to  bring  it 
nearer  to  maturity. 

I  have  heard  of  fome  perfons 
in  the  county  of  Lincoln,  who, 
finding  their  Indian  corn  very 
green  at  harvefting,  have  boiled 
it  in  the  ears  after  hufking  :  By 
which  expedient  they  were  able 
to  dry  it  in  the  ears,  without  its 
rotting,  or  moulding.  This  may 
be  no  ill  method  at  a  pinch.  But 
rather  than  be  obliged  to  do  it 
yearly,  I  Ihould  think  they  had 
better  lay  afide  the  culture  of  this 
plant,  or  elfe  ufe  no  feed  but  from 
the  northwaid,  which  will  ripen 
in  feafon. 

HATCHEL,  an  inftrument 
called  fometimes  a  comb,  lull  of 
long  pins  of  iron  or  fteel  for  teeth, 
with  which  flax  and  hemp  ar£ 
combed.  They  who  manufac- 
ture thefe  articles,  as  perhaps  all 
the  families  of  farmers  ftiould, 
ought  to  be  provided  with  fever- 
al  hatchels  of  different  fineneiTes. 
•Where  onlv  fla.x  is  manufatlur- 

ed. 


HAY 

eJ.  two  comhs,  one  coarfe,  and 
the  other  fine,  will  be  luffi- 
cient. 

HAY,  dried  jjrafs. 

HAYHOOK.  an  inftrument 
to  pull  hay  out  ot  a  tnow,  or 
Hack.  This  inftrument  is  often 
made  of  wood  ;  but  an  iron  one 
h  far  preferable.  It  fhould  be 
ftarp  pointed,  armed  witha  fluke, 
and  have  a  fockct  to  receive 
the  wjoden  handle.  The  han- 
dle Ihould  have  a  turn  at  the  end 
for  the  eale  of  pulling.  There 
ran  be  no  better  handle  than  the 
half  of  an  old  ox  bow  :  Or  a 
little  more  than  half.  But  this 
inllrument  will  warte  the  hay, 
and  divclt  it  ol  much  of  the  feed. 
A  better  way  is,  to  cut  oH  dices 
ol  two  or  three  feet  in  thicknef<;, 
from  a  mow  or  (lack,  as  it  is 
wanted  for  ufe. 

HAY.MAKING,  the  cnrint;, 
or  dryiiijr  ol  grals  for  f(xlder. 
The  hrll  ihin^  to  be  confidored 
aboi;t  haymakmg,  is  the  time  of 
cutting  the  grafs.  It  fhould  not 
be  cut  too  early,  or  before  it  has 
got  its  growth  :  For  this  will 
caufe  it  to  (brink  too  much  in 
arying.  On  the  contrarA",  it 
fhould  not  ftand  too  late,  or  till 
the  feed  he  quite  ripe.  -It  is  not 
only  hardier  H)  cut,  but  the  ripc- 
nefs  ot  the  feed  will  catdc  h  to 
fhatter  oiK  while  dr^nng,  wliich 
will  l>c  a  confiderable  lols,  as  the 
Iced  is  the  moll  rich  and  n'nir- 
iihing  part ;  and  the  foil  will  be 
the  more  cvh.iufted  ly  nourilh- 
ing  the  (ccd  till  rt  come  to  ma- 
riirity,  and  the  next  faceted - 
ing  crop  will  be  the  poorer. 
There  never  can  be  any  advan- 
tage in  mowing  late,  unlcfs  it  be 
thickening  the  grafs  roots,  by 
fcattenng  fome  o!  the  feed,  where 
they  were  before  too  thin.  He 
th«t  mows  early  has  the  advan- 
tage of  longer  days  for  drying  his 
liay   ;    and    ol    fhor?or    nights, 


H  A  Y  14*7* 

when  the   dews   are  Icfs  detri- 
mental to  haymaking. 

The  right  time  for  anting 
clover  isw^hen  half  the  heads  be- 
gin to  lofc  their  bright  colour, 
and  turn  brown ilh  by  ripcncfs.* 
A  general  rule  for  other  gralfes 
is,  to  cut  them  foon  after  they 
have  blofTomcd,  or. as  foon  as  the 
feeds  are  forriied.  The  .^f>  is 
then  in  its  perfection,  as  it  is  full- 
ert  of.juices.and  the  juices  will  not 
evaporate  nor  the  fhaw  Ihrink 
too  intich  in  drying,  l-'our  pounds 
of  greL-n  grafs  will,  commonly, 
make  one  pound  of  dr\'  ha^'. 

Btu  the  furmerwho  ii?s  many 
acre>  of  the  rtine  kind  of  graf>, 
cannot  always  expert  to  cut  the 
whole  of  it  in  e.xattK'  the  right 
(rafon.  Tiiat  he  may  approach  as 
near  to  right  as  p<T{lible,  he 
Ihould  cut  the  thickell  grals  firll" 
of  all  :  efpecially  if  it  be  in  dan- 
ger of  lodging,  cr  fo  thick  thaf 
the  lowed  leaves  perilh,  orthf*. 
bottoms  of  the  (lalks  turn  yel- 
low. The  thinnell  of  his  grafs 
Ihould  be  cut  next,  which  is  apt 
to  be  ripe  loontll  :  And  laft  of 
all,  the  middling  fivicd  grafs,  or- 
that  which  is  on  u  medium  be- 
tween tliiek  and  thin. 

Where  a  fetond  crop  is  ex- 
pelled the  fame  year,  thick  grafs 
ihouJd  be  cut  a  little  the  earlier, 
that  the  roots  may  not  be  injtir- 
ed  fo  much  as  to  prevent  their 
fpeedy  reco\ei"y,  by  being  clole- 
ly  covered  too  long  by  the  firft. 
crop. 

Some  regard  fhould  be  had  to 
the  weather,  when  the  time  of 
cutting  is  in  contemplation. 
Thole,  efpecially,  Ihould  regard 
it,  who  are  able  to  call  in  as  much 
afFiftance  as  they  pleafc  in  hay- 
making. It  would  be  beft  for 
them  not  to  cm  any  grafs  jufl 
before  the  full  or  change  oC 
the  moon,  ai  failing  weather  is 
to  be  looked  for  at  thefe  times- 
more 


i4S 


HAY 


iTxOre  efpecially  :  Thoi;^h  in 
faft  it  does  not  always  fo  hap- 
pen. 

Grafs,  which  has  not  been 
waihed  by  rain  for  feveral  days, 
Uas  a  kind  of  gum  on  ii,  which 
is  knov.'n  by  its  adhering  to  the 
fiiae.  This  gum  is  thought  to 
be  a  benefit  to  the  hay ;  and  tarm- 
ers  are  fond  of  mowing  their 
grafs  when  this  ^um  appears, 
rather  than  iufl  alter  the  grafs 
has  been  v.-afned  by  rain. 

As  to  the  drying  of  hay,  or 
the  manner  of  jnaking  it,  I  know 
there  are  a  variety  ot  opinions. 
The  right  way  is  to  do  it  in  fuch 
a  manner  that  as  much  of  the 
fap  as  poHible  may  be  retained, 
and  in  the  bell  ftate  that  is  pofli- 
K'e.  In  this  I  fhcuid  think  all 
would  agree.  All  perfons  will 
allow  that  too  much  drying  is 
hurtful.  It  is  certainly  a  lofs  to 
rake  it,  or  ftir  it  at  all,  when  it  is 
fo  dry  that  the  leaves  v/ill  crum- 
ble. And  doubtlefs  as  much  of 
the  fap  {hould  be  retained  as  is 
conCftcnt  with  its  being  kept  in 
good  order  for,  fodder,  and  for 
long  keeping.  ' 

Some  grafTes  Vynll  keep  well 
"lolth  lefs  drying  than  is  needful 
for  others.  The  Rhodeifland 
bent,  as  it  i;  called,  or  red  top 
grafs,  will  do  with  lefs  drying 
than  feme  other  grafles.  It  has 
been  much  practifed  to  put  it  up 
with  fo  little  drying  that  it  heats 
in  the  mow  to  fo  great  a  degree, 
as  to  make  it  turn  brov/n  like  to- 
bacco ;  and  it  is  known  that  cat- 
tle will  eat  it  well,  and  thrive  on 
it.  But  the  mow  will  certainly 
fend  out  part  of  the  virtue  of  the 
hay  in  fte^ms.  I  cannot  but 
think  that  all  grafies  (hould  be 
fo  much  dried,  that  mows  and 
£iacks,  though  they  have  a  de- 
gree of  beat,  ihould  not  emit  any 
fenfible  ileam  ;  and  I  would  not 
wifli  to  have  hay  made  brown 


HAY 

by  mow  burning-  Itfurelydoes 
not  appear  to  fo  good  advantage 
at  market. 

Were  it  not  for  the  labour  and 
coll,  a  good  way  of  haymaking 
would  be,  for  the  haymakers  to 
follov.-  at  the  heels  of  the  mow- 
ers, at  leall  a*  foon  as  the  dew. 
is  off,  and  fpread  the  fwarths 
evenly  ;  turn  the  grafs  about  the 
middle  of  fhe  fame  day  ;  make 
it  up  into  cocks  before  night ; 
open  the  hay,  and  turn  it  the 
next  day  ;  and  fo  on  till  it  be 
fufficiently  dried,  doubling  the 
cocks  if  figns  of  rain  appear.  It 
vill  not  commonly  take  more 
than  tv,o  or  three  days  to  dry  it, 
unlefs  it  be  very  green,  or  un- 
commonly thick  and  rank.  A 
perfon  wbo  has  but  little  hay  to 
make,  need  not  be  much  blamed, 
if  he  do  it  in  this  way  ;  efpecial- 
ly if  the  weather  do  not  appear  to 
be  fettled. 

But  a  method  which  I  have 
generally  found  to  anfwer  well 
in  fettled  good  weather,  and 
which  fares  fo  much  labour  as 
to  recommend  it,  is  as  follows. 
If  the  grafs  be  thick,  the  fwarths 
mowed  in  the  morning  I  turn 
bottom  upwards atevening, which 
prevents  the  hay  being  brov/ned 
and  hurt  by  imbibing  the  dew 
of  the  approaching  night,  the 
part  that  is  dried  being  not  ex- 
pofed.  Thefe  fwarths,  together 
v^ith  thofe  mowed  in  the  after- 
noon, I  fpread  the  next  morning, 
as  foon  as  the  dew  is  nearly  ex- 
haled. I  rake  the  hay  in  the  af- 
ter part  of  the  day,  in  fuch  a 
manner  that  tl^e  raking  ferves 
to  promote  its  drying,  flinging 
fome  ot  it  inwards,  expofing  the 
greened  locks  as  much  as  polTi- 
ble  to  the  fun,  raking  alternate- 
ly on  one  windrow  and  another, 
till  all  are  clofed.  Then  I  make 
them  up  into  cocks  of  a  mode- 
rate fiz<?.  After  this,  if  the  v^-eath- 


HAY 

«r  comiiiuc  fair,  I  ftir  the  hay 
no  nuire  for  two  or  three  days, 
and  then  cart  it  in.  It  will 
fweat  fo  much  in  the  cocks,  that 
there  will  bo  no  d.ins^cr  ol  its 
mow  burning  jti<Tw<uAls. 

But  it  the  weather  be  unfet- 
tled,  or  if  Ihowers  be  frequent, 
il  may  be  better  tp  fpread  giafs 
well,  aj  Toon  a  it  is  mowed,  (lir 
it  often,  cock  it  the  fame  day  it 
is  mowed,  open  it  the  next  tair 
day  when  the  dew  is  ofl,  let  it 
fwcat  a  little  in  cock,  and  houfe 
it  as  foon  as  it  is  dry  enough. 
It  will  bear  to  be  laid  grecntr 
on  a  fcafTold,  than  in  a  ground 
mow  ;  and  in  a  narrow  niow 
greener  than  in  a  broad  one.  And 
tliat  which  is  lead  of  all  made 
ihould  be  put  upon  a  fcaffold. 

When  grafs  is  very  thin,  and 
not  full  oi  lap,  having  Ifoud  be- 
yond tbc  rignt  time  ot  cutting  ; 
It  may  be  cut  in  the  forenoon, 
and  raked  in  the  afternoon,  oi 
the  famo  day  ;  and  then  dry  fuf- 
ficicntly  la  cock^,  in  two  or 
three  days.  But  if  a  heavy  rain 
fall,  it  will  need  to  be  opened, 
and  expoled  to  the  fun  for  a  lew 
hours.     If  there  be  only  a  fmall 

Jjuantity  of  rain,  it  may  be  fuf- 
icient  to  pull  out  fome  of  the 
hay  round  the  bottoms  of  the 
cocks,  or  only  on  that  fide  which 
was  windward  wiien  the  rain 
fell,  and  lay  it  on  the  tops.  If 
the  cocks  are  [o  fituated  that  the 
water  ha;,  run  much  under  their 
bottoms,  they  ihould  be  turned 
bottom  upwards,  and  trimmed  at 
Icaft  ;but  u  wil  1  moll  commonly  be 
pcceifary  to  Ipread  them  abroad. 
Sometimes  hay  will  become 
too  dry,  notwithllanding  every 
precaution  to  prevent  it  :  For  it 
will  dry  twice  as  fall  in  fome 
fair  days  as  in  others,  bccaufe  of 
the  dilleretit  dryrid*  of  the  air. 
Whea  this  is  the  cafe,  it  (hould 
br  reniuve4  to  the  barn  o:;ly  in 


HAY  149 

the  evening,  or  morning,  when 
the  air  !;>  damp.  And  it  is  good 
to  Ivive  fome  greener  hay  to 
mix  with  it. 

Some  think  that  mown  grafs 
Oiould  never  be  expofcd  to  the 
full  influence  ol  the  fun,  left  it 
be  ro!)Iied  of  too  much  of  its 
fap,  while  it  is  in  its  im^ft  fluid 
(late.  A  very  ingenious  gentle- 
man, ot  my  acquaintance,  does 
not  permit  his  grafs  to  lie  in 
fwarih,  hut  tor  an  hour  or  two 
alter  it  is  cut  ;  or  no  longer  than 
till  its  wctni-Ts  be  gone,  and  it 
jiift  begins  to  appear  wuhereil  : 
He  then  gathers  it  into  very 
liiiall  parcels,  which  he  call.« 
grafs  cocks,  not  more  than  a 
good  tbrktid  in  each  :  Turns 
them  o\cr  once  in  a  while,  about 
funlct  is  the  bell  time  :  Doubles 
them  as  they  grow  drier  :  And 
when  the  hay  is  almoil  dried  e, 
nough,  makes  up  the  whole  into 
large  cocks.  Grafs  thai  is  thus 
dried,  will  not  wafle  at  all  by 
crumbling  ;  nor  will  much  of 
its  juices  evaporate.  I  have 
fecn  his  hay,  the  liavour  ot  which 
excelled  ainioH  any  other  that  I 
have  met  with.  The  colour  of 
it,  indeed,  was  rather  yellowifh 
than  green  :  But  that  is  a  matter 
of  no  conicqiifiice  to  the  tarmer 
who  does  not  fend  his  hay  to 
market.  I  cannot  but  think  that, 
in  dry  fettled  weather,  this  is  an 
excellent  method  of  haymakiiir;. 
Bvt  in  catching  weather,  pcr- 
iiaps  a  method  which  takes  lefs 
time  is  to  be  prcfcrre  1.  From 
the  above  Mr.  Aiiderfon's  meth- 
od is  not  much  different.  **  In- 
ftead,"  fays  he,  "  of  allowing  the 
hay  to  lie,  as  ufual  in  mofl  places, 
for  fome  days  in  tiic  fwarth,  at- 
ter  it  is  cut,  and  altcrwards  put- 
ting it  up  into  cocks,  and  fpread- 
ing  it  out,  and  tending  it  in  the 
fun, which  tends grratly  toblcach 
the  hay,  c.\iia!c&  its  natural  juice.<i. 

and 


iSO 


HAY 


and  fubjefts  it  very  much  to  the 
danger  of  getting  rain,  and  thus 
r'lr.s  z.  great  rifle  of  being  good 
tor  little,  I  make  it  a  general 
rule,  if  pofuble,  never  to  cut  rny 
hay  but  \%-hen  the  grafs  is  quite 
dr>'  :  and  then  make  the  gather- 
ers follow  clofe  upon  the  cut- 
ters, putting  it  up  immediately 
into  fmall  cocks,  about  three 
feet  high  each  when  new  put 
up  ;  always  giving  each  of  them 
a  flight  kind  of  thatching,  by 
drawing  a  few  handfuls  of  the 
hay  from  the  bottom  of  the  cock 
all  around,  and  laying  it  lightly 
on  the  top,  witli  one  of  the  ends 
hanging  downwards.  This  is 
done  with  the  utraoil  eafe  and 
expedition  ;  and  when  it  is  once 
in  that  Hate,  I  coniider  my  hay 
as  in  a  great  mcafure  out  oi  dan- 
ger ;  for  unlefs  a  violent  wind 
Ibould  arii'e,  immediately  after 
the  cocks  are  put  up,  fo  as  to  o- 
vertum  them,  nothing  elfe  can 
hurt  the  hay  ;  as  I  have  often 
experienced  tliat  no  rain,  how- 
ever violent,  ever  penetrates  in- 
to thefe  cocks  but  for  a  very  lit- 
tle way.  And,  if  they  are  dr^' 
put  up,  they  ne\'er  fit  together 
fo  ciofely  as  to  heat ;  although 
they  acquire  in  a  day  or  two. 
Inch  a  degree  of  firmnefs,  as  to 
be  in  no  danger  of  being  over- 
turned by  wind  after  that  time, 
unlefs  it  blows  a  hurricane. 

"  In  thefe  cocks  I  allow  the 
hay  to  remain,  until,  upon  -n- 
fpection.  I  judge  that  it  will  keep 
in  pretty  large  tramp  cocks,  &c. 
The  advantages  that  attend  this 
iretbcd  are,  that  it  greatly  a- 
bridges  the  labour,  that  it  allows 
the  hay  to  continue  almoil  as 
ereen  as  when  it  is  cut,  and  pre- 
lerves  its  natural  juices  in  the 
greateft  perfefition.  For  it  is  dri- 
ed in  the  moft  flow  and.  equal 
manner  that  can  be  defired.  Laft- 
\y.  ♦ha:  it  is  thus  in  a  great  meaf- 


H  E  M 

ure  fecin-ed  from  almoft  the  pof- 
fibility  of  being  damaged  by  rain." 
EJjays  on  Agriculture. 

Clover  is  a  fort  of  hay  that  re- 
quires a  critical  attention  in  cur- 
ing :  Becaufe,  though  the  flalks 
need  much  dr>'ing,  the  leaves 
and  heads  will  bear  but  little 
without  wafting.  It  is  befl  to 
rake  it  towards  night,  when  the 
dampnefs  of  evening  begins  to 
come  on  ;  open  it  the  next  day, 
and  never  lUr  it  much  w^hen 
there  is  -danger  of  its  crum- 
bling. 

Salt  hay,  in  this  country,  has 
ufually  been  hurt  by  lying  too 
long  in  the  fwarths.  The  meth- 
od in  which  I  have  treated  it  for 
feveral  years,  is,  to  cock  it  the 
next  day  after  it  is  cut,  and  car- 
ry it  m,  without  delaying  more 
than  one  day,  and  put  a  layer  of 
fome  kind  of  drs'  flraw  between 
load  and  load  of  it,  in  the  mow, 
to  prevent  its  taking  damage  by 
overheating.  The  ftraw  con- 
tracts fo  much  of  its  moifture 
and  faltnefs,  that  the  cattle  will 
eat  it  very  freely  ;  and  the  hay 
is  far  better  than  that  made  in 
the  common  way. 

If  this  hay  be  permitted  to  lie 
out  in  rains,  the  faltnefs  of  it 
will  be  diminifeed,  which  they 
who  have  but  little  other  fodder 
may  be  apt  to  confider  as  an  ad- 
vantage. But  it  will  contratl 
no  virtue,  while  it  lofes  its  falt- 
nefs. The  frefh  water  will  dam- 
age it ;  efpecially  for  thofe  who 
have  plenty  of  other  fodder,  or 
even  llraw  to  mix  with  it. 

Salt  hay  ftiould  not  be  cut 
when  the  full  or  change  ot  the 
moon  is  approaching,  left  the 
tides  fliould  be  high,  before  it 
can  be  got  off  from  the  marfh. 

HEMP,  a  plant  with  a  tough 
fibrous  coat,  which  anfwers  the 
fame  purpofes  as  flax,  but  is 
coarfer  and  ftronger. 

The 


HEM 

The  plant  is  tap  rooted,  and 
therefore  does  beft  in  a  deep  and 
free  foil.  It  is  luxuriant,  and 
<jaick  in  its  growth,  and  thcre- 
'^rc   rcauires  a  rich,  and   well 

L'parea  foil.  Tlie  foils  which 
..dve  been  found  to  fuit  it  bell, 
arc  a  rich  gravelly  loam,  or  a 
loofe  black  mould,  which  is  dry 
and  deep.  It  is  an  error  to  think 
that  it  needs  a  wet  foil,  tor  it 
bears  drought  almod  cq^ually 
with  ativ  plant  that  wc  cultivate. 

Mr.  tliot  found  by  experi- 
ment, that  it  anfwered  very  well 
on  a  drained  fwamp  :  ..\nd  he 
tells  of  a  man  in  the  jerfics,  who 
raifed  as  much  hemp  yearly,  on 
ball  an  acre  of  fuch  land,  as 
brought  him  fifty  pounds  York 
money.  It  is  not  uncommon 
for  one  acre  to  yield  half  a  ton, 
\%'hich  will  fell  for  twenty  pounds 
in  calh,  at  the  lowed.  And  I 
am  told  by  one  who  is  much  ac- 
quamted  with  it,  that  it  is  more 
eafily  broken  and  fwingled  than 
ilax  ;  and  that,  oftentimes,  the 
brake  will  do  all  that  is  ncceffa- 
r)*  in  cleaning  it. 

To  prepare  land  for  a  crop  of 
hemp,  the  land  (hould  be  plough- 
ed to  a  good  depth  in  the  fall  of 
ilie  year  preceding.  If  it  be 
green  fward  land,  it  fhould  be 
ploughed  as  early  as  .\ugu{l  or 
September,  tliat  the  fward  may 
be  perfectly  rotten.  And  if  it 
were  ploughed  in  ridges  it  would 
be  the  better,  and  fit  for  fowing 
the  earlier.  And  by  crofs  plough- 
ing and  harrowing  in  the  fpring, 
it  Ihould  be  made  extremely  fine 
and  mellow.  A  little  dung 
fliould  be  applied,  if  the  land  be 
not  in  the  bcU  heart  ;  and  the 
fall  is  thr  beft  time  to  apply  it. 
But  if  compoils  are  ufed,  they 
Ihould  be  laid  on  jull  before 
lowiiig. 

The  lime  of  fowing  the  feed 
a*  early  ia  the  fprmg  zs  the 


HEM 


»5« 


foil  can  be  got  into  good  order, 
as  it  is  a  plant  that  is  not  eafily 
injured  by  froft  ;  but  the  middle 
of  .Mjy  will  not  be  too  late. 

The  feed  for  fowing  fhould 
be  ot  the  la  ft  year's  growth,  as 
older  feed  is  not  wont  to  come 
up  at  all.  I  once  fowed  feed 
which  was  brought  from  Eng- 
land. It  looked  as  well  as  any 
I  ever  faw  ;  but  not  one  in  ten 
thoufand  ever  fproutcd.  The 
Quantity  of  feed  for  an  acre,  in 
the  broad  caft  way,  is  three 
buihels  ;  but  half  that  quantity, 
iu  the  drill  method,  will  be  c- 
nough.  If  the  land  be  poor,  a 
fmaller  quantity  of  feed  will 
ferve.  The  ground  fiiould  be 
watched  after  fowing,  that  birds 
do  not  take  away  the  feeds. 

The  drill  method  is  on  fomc 
accounts  preferable  to  the  other. 
For  though  in  the  firft  crop  it 
will  fall  Ihort,  it  exhaufts  tlie 
land  lefs  ;  and,  tlierefore,  in  the 
long  run,  it  may  be  more  profit- 
able. But  in  this  way  it  pro- 
duces more  feed,  and  this  meth- 
od is  certainly  advantageous  on 
account  ot  the  more  convenient 
pulling  of  the  hemp.  If  fowii 
on  narrow  ridges,  or  beds,  and 
the  trenches  [hoveled  out  after 
fowmg  and  harrowing,  I  fufpe^r 
the  broad  caft  way  would  ha\c 
the  preference.  But  of  this  I 
have  had  no  experience. 

As  the  correlpondcnt  pans  of 
gencrationare  on  different  plants, 
they  are  ot  two  diftin^t  fexes, 
male  and  Icmale,  and  require 
different  treatment.  I  will  ven- 
ture to  aften,  contrary  to  M. 
Mercandler,  that  the  male  is  the 
plant  which  bears  the  flowers, 
and  the  female  that  which  bear*^ 
the  fniit,  or  feed. 

That  which  bears  the  flowers, 
will  be  fit  lor  pulling  about  the 
end  of  July.  Its  ripcnefs  is 
knowa  by  its  growing  yellow  a< 

tl.c 


152 


H  E  .^i 


the  fop,  and  white  at  the  root, 
by  the  falling  of  the  flowers,  and 
the  withering  of  the  leaves.  If 
care  be  taken  in  pulling,  not  to 
hurt  thofe  plants  ^vhich  are  leit, 
they  will  thrive  the  better  after 
it,  as  they  will  have  more  room, 
and  as  the  earth  will  be  ftirred 
about  their  roots.  And  the  drill 
method  is  favourable  to  this 
work,  as  the  pullers  need  not 
tread  among  the  fhickeft  of  the 
hemp.  And  fo\v*ing  in  beds  has 
the  fame  advantage. 

After  pullmg,  it  mnft  be  put 
into  the  water  without  delay,  to 
fteep.  Ponds  and  itill  waters 
are  befl.  It  v/ill  not  take  more 
than  four  or  five  days  to  water 
it  enough.  But  it  mufl  be  watch- 
ed, left  it  fhould  be  overdone. 
Alter  watering,  it  mull  be  fpread 
and  dried  in  the  fun. 

The  fruitful  kind  does  not 
ripen  till  about  five  oi"  fix  weeks 
later.  Its  ripenefs  is  knov/n  by 
the  feed's  turning  brown.  Altcf 
it  is  well  dried,  and  the  feed 
taken  off  by  a  kind  ot  coarfe 
comb,  it  muft  be  watered*  It 
Avill  take  almoft  three  times  as 
much  watering  as  the  firft  kind. 
The  one  kind  is  more  fit  to  be 
inanufactured  into  thread  and 
rloth,  the  other  more  luitable 
for  rigging  of  fhips,  and  ropes. 
But  the  latefl  kind  may  be  made 
pliable  and  fine,  if  labour  enough 
be  bcftowed  upon  it.  In  Head 
of  fteeping,  fpreading  hemp  in 
the  dew  will  anfwer,  as  1  have 
found  by  experience  ;  and  this 
method  is  praififed  in  England. 

The  drelhng  of  hemp  may  be 
performed  in  the  fame  m.anner 
as  that  of  flax,  if  it  be  not  un- 
commonly large  and  long.  A 
perfon,  who  is  well  acquainted 
•with  the  culture  and  manufacture 
of  hemp,  aflured  me,  tliat  when 
his  neighbour  raifed  it  on  a 
drained  Iwamp,  he  had  it  t'.velve 


ti  i:  U 

feet  long  ;  and,  that  he  ftiight 
manage  it  eafily  in  drelTmg,  he 
cut  It  in  the  middle.  It  was 
then  as  long  as  ordinary  hemp, 
and  as  ftrong  for  every  purpofe. 
,  If  fome  of  the  flalks  of  hemp 
fhould  be  too  large  and  ftubborn 
for  the  brake,  they  may  be  put 
by  themfelves  to  be  peeled  by 
hand.  The  doing  of  it  may  be 
an  amufement  for  children  and 
invalids. 

But  to  facilitate  the  dreffing 
of  hemp,  mills  fhould  be  erefted 
for  doing  it.  Or  the  machinery 
may  be  an  appendage  to  fome 
other  mall.  Two  brakes  fhould 
be  moved  together,  a  coarfer  and 
a  finer,  placed  head  to  head,  that 
the  handfuls  may  be  eafily  fhift- 
ed  from  one  to  the  other.  It  is 
light  work  for  two  boys  to  tend 
them.  But  the  breaking  of  large 
hemp  by  hand,  is  fevere  labour 
lor  the  llrongeft  men. 

If  no  convenient  flream  be  at 
hand,  am.ill  may  be  conftru6led 
to  be  worked  by  a  horfe. 

It  \vas  formerly  the  cuftom  to 
beat  hemp  abundantly  with  mal- 
lets, or  with  peflles  in  large  mor- 
tars, or  in  fulling  mills,  to  make 
it  fofti  and  fit  for  fpinning.  But 
M.  Mercandier  has  fhewn  how 
it  may  be  more  eafily  done,  by 
ffceping  it  in  warm  water,  or  in 
lie,  and  Avatlhjng  it.  See  his 
Trtatife  on  Hemp. 

The  great  profit  of  a  crop  of 
hemp,  and  its  being  an  article 
that  will  readily  command  cafhj 
fhould  recommend  the  culture 
of  it  to  all  our  farmers.  Befides 
the  hemp  itfelf,  of  the  value  of 
twenty  pounds  per  acre,  after  it 
is  dreffcd,  the  feed  of  an  acre 
mufl  be  allowed  to  be  of  confid- 
erable  value.  Perfons  need  not 
fear  tlieir  crops  will  lie  upon 
their  hands,  when  they  confider 
the  vaft  fums  of  money  which 
arc  vearlyfentto  ether  countries 

for 


H  I  0 

for  this  article,  almoil  rnonph  to 
deprive  the  country  ol  a  medi- 
um, and  how  naturally  ihc  de- 
mand tor  it  will  incrcafe  as  it 
!•  more  plenty.     Ihcrcis 

i  to  doubt  ot  fucccfs  in 

ra;ii:i;-;  hemp,  it  tlic  foil  be  fuita- 
l)Ie,  ^nd  well  prepared  ;  for  it  is 
liable  to  no  diitemper  ;  cattle 
^vi^  not  dcitroy  it,  un'cfs  it  be 
with  their  feet ;  and  it  is  an  anti- 
dote to  all  lorii  of  dcvoMrinc  irt- 
ictis.  Neither  is  the  plant  difii- 
culi  as  to  tlimale.  1  hou"h  the 
hottcU  climates  do  not  iiiit  it, 
ttmperitc  and  cool  ones  do  ; 
and  it  has  been  lound,  by  the 
Traall  trials  that  have  been  made, 
to  thrive  well  in  the  various 
parts  ot  Newengland.  The  moft 
northern  parts  are  very  luitablc 
Tor  the  growing  ol  boinp.  The 
loiii.hcrn  are  equally  io. 

HENllNG  ILRROWS, 
thofc  which  arc  turned  from 
each  other,  being  coiiiiguous  at 
bottom,  as  the  two  lail  furrows 
i:j  plougliing  a  land,  or  between 
rifi^cs. 

HERD'S  GRASS,  or  Fox 
i'ail,  Alopectniis  pratcnfis.  This 
KPifs  is  A  native  ot  Ncwcnjrland. 
Mr.  Lliot  lays  it  v.-^s  firll  found 
at  Pifcat.tqua  in  N.  t  ire, 

by  -jiic  Ilrrd,  who  \  d  it, 

TV  In  rice  tlie  name.  It  is  culii- 
\Mi.<\  in  our  imprcved  fields  for 
hay.  It  requires  about  ten  or  a 
tl().Ten  quarts  of  the  Iced  for  an 
acre.  It  docs  bed  in  rich  end 
moilt  land.  More  needs  not  to 
be  faid  ol  a  grafs,  t!ie  f  rcat  v?l- 
ii«*  of  which"  IS  fo  well  known  in 
its  country  ;  cfnccially  in  the 
■lorthern  parts,  where  it  profpers 

Te  than  in  the  {omhein.  It 
I",  ot  more  importance  to  our 
farmers  than  any  other  gnifs  tl:at 
thev  cultivate. 

HIDE  BOUND,  a  diflempcr 
nto  which  horfos  fall  wl         ' 
'«  poorly    ted   and   i. 

i 


11  I  D  .53 

"  A  hoife  that  is  hide  bound 
Brows  Jean,  has  a  tirverifh  heat, 
his  (km  flicks  to  hjs  ribs,  the 
fpino  becomes  haricr  than  ufual, 
Imrtll  boils  breakout  on  his  back, 
and  yet  his  appcii.'o  foitictimcs 
continues  good.  As  this  difor- 
der  fcldom  is  an  ori^^inal  com- 
plaint, but  gcneri»!ly  .lifcs  Irotn 
ibme  former  caufe,  r.^gard  mull 
be  had  to  that  c.iule,  in  the 
method  of  cure.  But  as  to  thi 
difordcr  iifelf,  Vegelius  dircflj 
the  a:iointing  the  whole  body 
with  oil  and  wine  mi.xcd  togeth- 
er, rubbing  them  flrongly  iig-»inll 
the  hair,  in  a  warm  iun,  iu  or- 
der that  the  fkin  n:ay  be  relaxed, 
and  a  fweat  break  out  ;  after 
which  the  horie  Ihould  be  well 
cuiried,  and  placed  in  a  warm 
liable,  with  plenty  c-f  litter. 

"  The  authors  of  tl^  Maifcn 
Rujltque  advife  that  the  next 
day  after  bleeding  the  borfe,  a 
fomentation  be  made  of  emoli- 
cnt  an<l  aromatic  ftrengtheninj 
plant':,  poilcd  in  lees  of  wine,  or 
beer,  .ind  that  the  whole  body- 
of  the  horfe  l)C  rubbed  with  thefii^ 
pl.ints,  whilll  they  arc  warm,  till 
It  is  thoroughlv  wet  ; — and  that 
the  loins,  belly,  and  neck,  as 
well  as  the  reft  of  the  body,  be 
anointed  with  a  mi.vture  ot  one 
part  honey  ar^d  three  parts  ot" 
ointment  of  elric-,  rubbing  it 
Wrongly  in  with  the  hand,  that 
it  may  penetrate  the  fi^in.  This 
done,  the  horle  f).uu!d  be  cover- 
ed with  a  cloth  dipt  in  the  warm 
fomentation,  and  doubled,  and 
another  covering  ihould  be  put 
over  this,  tying  it  on  with  one 
or  two  furcinglcs.  The  horfe 
fhould  remain  in  this  condition 
2.|  hours,  ar:d  then  be  fomented, 
rubbed,  &c.  twice  as  before. 
1  hefc  fomentations  being  finilh- 
ed,  a  warm  covering  muit  he 
continued,  left  the  lior.'c  catch 
cold  ;  and  he  Jliould  then  bavo 

aa 


2  54 


HOE 


an  opening  clyfter,  and  the  next 
r.iorniiig  a  purging  medicine  ; 
continuing  to  wafb  his  head  and 
itecri.  and  alio  to  rinfe  his  mouih 
•Hitli  the  decoftion. 

"  For  food,  put  into  a  pail  or 
two  of  water  aboHt  half  a  bufliel 
of  barley  meal  carehilly  ground, 
ilir  it  ^vc!!  about,  and  let  it  fet- 
tle. When  the  hea^"ie{l  parts 
have  fubfided,  pour  the  thin  part 
oft  for  the  horfe  to  drink,  and 
give  him  what  remained  ai  me 
bottorn,  at  three  different  times 
in  the  day,  icixing  with  it  a  due 
c^uantity  ot  crude  antimony. — 
The  horfe  muft  have  reft  for 
fome  time,  and  be  fed  with  the 
teft  hay,  or  grafs,  according  to 
the  feafon  of  the  year.  la 
fpring,  there  is  nothing  better 
than  new  grafs.  In  about  three 
•weeks,  he  wLTI  begin  to  mend 
reniarkably.''     Milh  on  CatlU. 

HOE,  a  well  knov/n  inftn:- 
inent  ufed  in  tillage.  It  is  call- 
ed by  fome  writers  the  hand  hoe, 
to  diilinguifli  it  from  the  horfe 
hoe. 

Hoes  are  chiefly  of  two  kinds, 
T! arrow  and  broad.  The  ufe  of 
the  narro^v"  hoe  is  to  break  up 
fpots  of  hard,  or  tough  ground, 
as  the  balks  left  by  the  plough 
in  fwarded  land,  or  the  corners 
of  lots  where  the  plough  cannot 
conveniently  reach  ;  or  to  take 
i5p  ftrcng  roots,  fuch  as  thofe  of 
ihe  Ihrub  oak,  &c.  1  herefore, 
this  tool  muft  be  made  thick  and 
ftrong,  with  a  large  eye,  that  it 
may  admit  a  ftrong  Iielve. 

It  has  alfo  the  name  of  a  break- 
ing up  hoe  ;  but  it  is  ieldora 
made  to  do  tlie  work  of  a  plough 
in  this  country  of  late,  unlefs  by 
the  pooreft  people,  and  in  new 
places  \\-here  teaims  cannot  be 
eafiiy  had. 

The  broad  hoe  is  a  ven,'  im- 
portant implement  among  tarm- 
ers,  as  it  is  much  ufed,  tliough 


HOE 

not  fo  much  as  it  fbould  l>c 
The  more  mellow  the  land  is, 
the  larger  the  hoe  fhould  be, 
that  work  may  be  done  more 
expeditioufly.  The  tough  and 
hard  foil  requires  a  narrower 
hoe,  to  render  the  labour  more 
eafy. 

Where  land  is  not  ftony,  hoes 
{hould  be  kept  fliarp  by  grind- 
ing. They  will  enter  the  ground 
•le  more  eafily,  and  deftroy 
weeds  and  their  roots  more  ef- 
fectually. 

For  the  eafe  of  the  labourer, 
hoes  (hould  be  made  as  light  as 
is  x^onCitent  with  the  needful 
degree  of  flrength  :  TTieir  han- 
dles efpecialiv  fhould  be  made 
of  fome  light  kind  of  wood,  as 
ajh,  or  white  maple,  or  a  young 
tree  of  fpruce.  For  the  Horfe 
Hoe,  fee  that  article. 

HOEING,  either  burying 
feeds  in  the  earth  with  the  hoe, 
or  breaking  and  ftirring  the  foil, 
chiefly  when  plants  are  growing 
in  it. 

This  after  tillage,  as  I  may 
eall  it,  has  been  found  to  be  of 
great  advantage  to  almoft  every 
kind  of  plants,  and  to  fome  it  is 
fo  neceiTar)-  that  no  crop  is  to 
be  exf>eSed  without  it.  The 
deeper  land  is  hoed,  the  greater 
advantage  do  plants  receive  from 
hoeing,  if  due  care  be  taken  that 
their  roots  be  not  difturbed,  or 
too  much  cut  to  pieces. 

The  ends  to  be  anfwered  by 
hoeing  are  chiefly  thefe  : — i.  To 
deftroy  weeds,  which  are  always 
ready  to  fpring  up  in  ever}'  foil^ 
and  which  would  rob  the  culti- 
vated plants  of  moft  of  their 
food.  Scraping  of  the  furface, 
if  it  be  done  frequently,  may 
anfwer  this  purpofe  ;  but  to  de- 
ftroy tlie  roots  of  weeds,  deeper 
hoeing  is  neceffary.  2.  To  keep 
the  foil  irom  becoming  too  com- 
pact, which  prevents  the  rc*Qts 
extending 


HOE 

r-  '     r  thcmfclvcs   frpcly  in 

heir  too(i,  at  the  lame 
(.'..c  kc-ping  up  a  trriTR'ni.ition, 
bv  which  the  vcljcUiMl"  KxmI  is 
f  1,    and     brought     into 

<.  (h  the  roots.     For  this 

f  he  flcepcr  land  is  hoed 

t  But  hoeing  fliould 

cr-'.v,  or  be  only  fupcrficial, 
wtH.i  the  roots  are  fo  far  extend- 
ed as  to  be  much  injured  by 
hoeing.  1  hey  will  bear  a  little 
cutting  without  injury.  For 
where  a  root  is  cut  oil.  fevcral 
now  branches  will  come  in  its 
place.  3.  To  render  the  foil 
more  open  and  porous,  lo  that  it 
fhali  greedily  drink  in  the  night- 
Vy  dews,  and  that  rain  may  not 
run  off,  but  readily  foak  in  as  it 
falls,  and  be  retained.  Accord- 
ingly, the  more  and  ofteneriand 
n  hoed,  the  more  moiUure  it  re- 
tains, the  better  it  bears  drought, 
and  the  more  its  plants  arc  nour- 
ifhed.  4.  Another  dchgn  of 
hoeinj;,  and  whicji  has  not  been 
enough  attended  to,  is  to  nour- 
iih  plants  by  drawing  trtMli  foil 
near  to  them,  the  effluvium  ol 
which  enters  their  pores  above 
ground,  and  increafes  their 
growth.  5.  At  the  fame  time, 
earthing  of  plants  makes  them 
ftanrl  more  firmly,  and  increafes 
their  paUure  in  the  fpots  where 
the  roots  mofl  abound.  At  the 
fame  time  it  prevents  the  drying 
of  the  earth  down  to  the  roots. 

But  earthing,  or  hilling  of 
plants,  fhould  be  done  with  cau- 
tion. Hilling  excefTively  is 
hurtlul,  as  it  does  not  permit  the 
roots  to  have  fo  much  benefit 
from  the  rains,  and  too  much 
hinders  the  influence  of  the  fun 
upon  the  lowermoft  roots, 
w  hatcvcr  hilling  is  done,  (hould 
he  done  by  little  and  little,  at 
fevcral  hoeings,  that  the  roots 
may  gradually  and  eafily  accom- 
modate thcmfclvcs  to  ihc  altera. 


HOE 


i/^ 


fion  of  their  condition.  Laftly, 
frequent  hoeing  (erves  to  pre- 
vent the  (landing  of  water  on 
the  furfacc,  fo  as  to  chill  the 
ground,  and  check  all  fermenta- 
tion ill  it. 

V\'!icn  all  the  hoc':;;;  betwcrn 
rows  i)f  plants  is  pei  formed  with 
the  hand  hoc,  the  labour  is  fe- 
vere,  and  more  e?cp?!:fi\e  to  the 
owner  ;  and  the  plants  will,  on 
the  whole,  receive  far  lefs  advan- 
tage from  hoeing.  Theretjrc, 
wiicre  land  is  tolerably  free 
from  obllaclos,  I  would  carnelt- 
ly  recommend  that  the  hoc 
plough,  or  the  common  horfc 
pK)itgh,  whicii  anfwers  nearly 
the  fame  end,  he  much  u(od  ; 
and  thfi  eanh  flirrcd  with  it  to  a 
good  depth,  and  trequently,  dur- 
ing tlic  proper  fear'>n  of  hoeing, 
which  is  the  former  part  ot  fiim- 
mer,  but  varies  witli  rcfpetf  to 
different  cn»ps. 

A  plough,  called  a  cultivator, 
has  been  coj|^tt||ted,  wiili  two 
mou!d^'>".'d^HEch  turns  the 
mouH  •!i^^[ys  at  once,  to- 
wards eai  li  of  the  two  rows  be- 
tween whitli  it  pafles.  But,  as 
it  requires  more  than  one  horfc 
to  draw  it  in  (lift  ground,  two 
fmrows  made  with  a  hoe  plough, 
or  horfe  plough,  according  to 
the  cuilomary  practice,  may  an- 
fwer  full  as  well.  When  the 
foil  is  light  and  mellow,  it  will 
be  a  faving  ot  time  to  ufc  this 
cultivator  ;  and  the  work  wil! 
be  done  with  more  regularity 
and  ncatncfs,  if  guided  with 
(kill,  and  due  care. 

The  ufual  method  of  horfc 
hoeing  is  as  t«»llows  :  At  the 
firft  hoeing,  turn  the  furrowg 
from  the  rows,  fo  that  they  form 
a  veering,  or  ridge,  in  the  inter- 
vals between  the  rows.  The 
plough  fliould  pafs  as  near  to 
the  rows  as  may  be  without  dan- 
ger of  Oiddicating  or  UiAurbing 

tlie 


156  11  O  E 

the  plants  ;  for  it  is  bell  that  the 
foil  be  loofoned  as  near  to  the 
roots  as  podible  :  Becaufe  when 
they  are  tender  and  weak,  they 
will  extend  their  roots  but  little; 
and  there  will  be  no  opportuni- 
ty afterwards  of  ploughing  and 
{hrruig  the  earth  fo  near  to 
tliem,  without  too  much  danger 
of  tearing  and  injuring  their 
roots.  After  plougliing,  the 
rows  are  to  be  cleared  oi  weedf^ 
with  tlie  hand  hoe,  and  a  iittle 
frefh  earth  brought  into  conta£l: 
with  them. 

At  the  next  hoeing,  and  all 
after  hoeing"?,  in  our  common 
huibandry,  the  furrows  are  to 
be  turned  towards  the  rows,  fo 
as  to  form  a  henting,  or  trench, 
in  the  middle  of  each  interval  ; 
and  C3-ofs  the  furrows  lail  made, 
that  the  land  rriuy  be  tiie  more 
thoroughly  pulverized.  This 
operation  carries  the  fhare  of  the 
piough  iarther  from  the  roots, 
and  at  the  faj^^jj^ime  altords 
plenty  of  ^'^'^^^^W^^B.  aboi:t  the 
plants  ;  which  ffll|(Ppbc  finiflied 
with  the  hand  hoe.  But  if,  in 
ploughing,  any  of  the  plants 
ihculd  chance  tobe.covered,.they 
inuiL  be  fct  fri^e  Avithout  d^lay. 

At  the  lafl  hoeing,  either  of 
Indian  corn,  or  of  any  thing  that 
is  planted  in  hills,  as  it  is  vulgar- 
ly called,  it  is  beit  to  make  but 
one  furrow  in  an  interval,  and  to 
pafs  tlie  plough  both  ways,  or 
cut  the  ground  into  fquarcs  with 
the  plough,  or  father  with  the 
cultivator.  This  leaves  the  roots 
the  more  room,  tml  lefs  v.'ork 
M-ill  remain  to  be  done  with  the 
hand  hoe. 

If  the  horfe  be  weak,  or  the 
giound  hard  and  lliff,  it  may  be 
needful  to  let  the  plough  go 
twice  in  a  place,  which  nrakes 
four  time:>  in  an  interval.  For 
the  ploiigii  iiiould  go  as  deep  for 
>i.oting,  as  in  any  other  plough- 


HOE 

ing,  cr  elfe  the  intention  of  ifc 
will  be  partly  defeated  ;  which 
is  to  keep  that  quantity  of  foit 
light  and  mellow  from  which 
the  plants  are  to  draw  the  moil 
of  their  nourifhment. 

V/e  apply  horfe  hoeing  to  In- 
dian corn,  when  the  ground  i? 
well  cleared  from  obftacles,  and 
could  not  be  eahly  pcrfuaded  to 
neglefl  it.  Every  farmer  knows 
how  much  it  faves  labour,  and 
that  the  crop  is  increafed  by  it. 
Why  then  will  they  not  be  per- 
fuaded,  by  o«l  that  has  been  expe- 
rienced, and  written,  by  fome 
of  the  wifeil  farmers,  to  apply 
this  method  of  culture  to  many 
other  plants  ?  I  have  no  doubt  it 
might  be  done  with  equal  advan- 
tage. Indeed,  we  cultivate  but 
few  plants  in  tillage,  ior  which 
this  kind  of  culture  would  be  im- 
proper. In  Europe,  they  horfe 
hoe  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  cver^ 
fpme  kinds  of  graffcs. 

In  a  ury  feafon,  or  in  land 
that  is  in  no  danger  of  ever  be- 
ing too  wet,  it  is  advilable  to  hoe 
jOnly  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing. And  if  farmers  will  work, 
as  early  and  late  as  they  can, 
they  m,ay  afford  to  defill,  and  reft 
themfelves  from  nine  till  tour, 
when  the  air  is  hoiLcll.  Thq 
ground  will  get  and  retain  the 
more  moiilure  which  is  thus  ho- 
ed early  and  late.  And  in  the 
middle  of  fome  of  our  hottell 
days,  there  is  danger  of  hurting, 
tender  'pl'*"ts,  by  drawing  the 
fcalding  hot  earth  dole  to  their 
{ferns.  But  the  opinion  enter- 
tained by  many,  that  no  hoeing' 
at  all  Ihouid  be  done  in  a  dry  fea- 
fon, is  irrational  and  ridiculous. 
They  depri  ve  their  land  of  the 
benefit  ot  the  dew,  by  neglcft- 
ing  to  hoe  it,  fuller  it  to  be  over- 
run witli  deltructive  weeds, 
which  rob  the  plants  of  molt  of 
iheii  houri/hmf  nt,  and  allow  the 
ground 


HOG 

gfO'inJ  to  be  fo  compa^ied  an^ 
liarH,  thai  the  rain  when  it  comes 
XV! ! I  not  penetrate  it.  This 
Ihange  opinion  will  occafioa 
luuck  lofs  to  thofe  whofe  con- 
dua\<i  influenced  by  it. 

HOGSTY.  a  kmd  of  build- 
ing  in  which  ho;4s  are  confined 
and  tod.  T!»e  ways  «i  conitud- 
ing  thcfc  houfes  are  various  : 
But  the  heft  are  thofe  which  are 
frameci  .in<l  boarded.  Tlic  boards, 
that  the  (wine  may  not  gnaw  them 
to  pieces^  Ihould  be  ot  lomc 
harder  wood  tlian  white  pine, 
and  they  Ihoidd  l)e  iallencd  with 
ribbings  and  fpikes.  Whatever 
be  the  conllrutturc  of  Hits,  they 
{bould  always  have  one  part  dole 
and  warm,  with  a  tight  roof  over 
it  ;  and  the  other  part  open,  in 
which  the  trough  is  placed. 
Swine  will  not  well  bear  to  be 
*v holly  fccluded  from  the  weath- 
er and  fundiine  ;  and  it  is  hurt- 
lid  t«^  them  to  have  a  cold  and 
wet  lo<l:;inK  ;  more  hurtlul  than 
many  people  are  ready  to  imag- 
ine. 

Tl'.e  floor  of  a  fty  fhouid  be 
-ry  tight,  to  prevent  the  lofs  of 
nunurc  ;  or  cUe  it  Ihould  be 
mounted  fo  high  above  the 
jjround,  that  the  manure  may  be 
eahly  pulled  out  from  under  it. 
It  is  a  good  way  to  have  the  open 
fide,  or  end,  a  little  lower  than 
tlic  other,  that  the  lodging  part 
may  always  bo  dry.  And  fomo 
build  them  with  a  gap  above  the 
fall  at  the  lower  part,  where  much 
of  the  filth  will  go  out,  with- 
out the  trouble  of  (hoveling  it. 

II  planks  be  thouglit  too  cx- 
pcnfive  for  Hooring,  a  good,  and 
vei7  durable  floor,  may  be  made 
of  flat  rtones,  bedded  in  clay, 
that  the  manure  miiy  not  (oak 
into  the  gr-jund.  But  none  of 
ihc  rocks  (hould  be  fo  fmall,  that 
the  larifpft  hog  can  11  ir  them  with 
.his  nole. 


HOG  157 

In  a  neighbouring  town,  I 
once  faw  a  light  ily  moiuitcd  ou 
lour  loMT  wheels,  one  at  eadi 
corner  ; .  which  was  iicqucntly 
d^a^^•n  with  eafc  from  one  fpot  to 
anv)tMer,in  an  otthaid  near  to  the 
dweihng  houfc.  By  means  ot 
thcif  iciuovals  every  part  of  the 
cnclolurc  might  be  manured  iu 
turn,  and  no  manuic  wafted  by 
its  Handing  too  long  in  one 
place.  I  heart ily  w  dh  this  ex- 
ample uuy  be  toUowcd,  as  it 
may  be  with  a  triile  of  cxpcnfc, 
lor  it  mull  needs  be  profitable  in 
a  confidcrable  degree. 

In  leeding  hogs,  their  food  is 
often  wafted,  and  lo  dirtied  as  to 
be  fpoilcd,  by  ilicir  Handing  with 
their  teet  in  the  trougli,  and  by 
their  fculfling  with  each  other. 
This  may  be  eafily  prevented. 
Let  the  trough  be  fo  fpiked  to 
the  floor,  or  otherwifc  made  fo 
fteady,  that  they  cannot  difplace 
it  ;  and  let  a  piece  of  joift  be  fo 
Iraraed  in  over  the  trough,  that 
they  cannot  ftand  over  it  ;  but 
can  put  their  heads  under  the 
joift  into  the  trough.  I  have 
laved  much  in  this  wmv,  fince 
I  firft  thought  ot  it.  The  fwine 
eat  little  or  no  filth,  when  a 
a  trough  is  fo  dctcnded,  w  hich  is 
a  matter  of  fume  importance 
with  toe  ;  for  I  am  thoroughly 
convincc<l,  that  the  nuirc  cleanly 
any  animals  teed,  the  more  fweet 
and  wholefome  their  (lefh  will 
be.  And  none  ot  the  tood  that 
is  given  them  will  in  this  way  be 
^yafted,  or  next  to  none. 

As  there  is  fomc  labour,  and 
mucli  care  required,  in  tending 
hogs,  which  are  fattening  inafty, 
I  iball  with  plcafure  relate  a 
method  of  doing  it  without  tend- 
ance, excepting  with  water.  It 
was  dilcovered  to  me  by  an  in- 
genious and  valuable  friend. 
Let  a  hopper  be  built  over  the 
trough,    capable    ut  holding   a& 

uiucb 


158  HOP 

much  com  as  is  deftined  to  be 
expended  on  the  hog,  or  hogs, 
to  be  iattened.  If  there  be  occa- 
fion,  it  may  be  fecured  from 
thieves  by  a  lock  on  it.  Let  a 
ftrong  pipe  of  wood,  or  metal, 
lead  from  the  bottom  ot  the  hop- 
per into  the  bottom  of  the  trough, 
\vith  a  hole  in  its  fide,  juft 
where  it  is  inferted  into  the 
trough.  The  parts  may  be  fo 
adjufted  that  the  hole  will  dif- 
charge  the  corn  into  the  trough, 
as  faft  as  it  is  wanted,  and  no 
faller,  till  the  hopper  is  emp- 
tied. 

HOP,  Humvlus,  a  narcotick 
plant  of  the  reptile  kind,  the 
flower  of  which  is  an  ingredient 
in  beer,  ale,  &:c.  As  I  have  not  j 
had  much  experience  in  hops,  I 
Ihall  give  ^n  account  of  the  man- 
agement ot  them,  chicfiy  ab- 
itratted  from  the  CompUie  Farm- 
er, and  abridged. 

A  rich,  deep,  mellow,  dry  foil, 
rather  inclining  to  fand  than 
clay,  is  beft  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  hops.  A  black  garden 
mould  is  excellent. 

The  ground  (houldbe  plough- 
ed very  deep,  or  dug  with  a 
fpade,  reduced  to  a  fine  mould 
by  repeated  ploughing  and  har- 
rov.ing,  and  laid  even. 

When  the  ground  is  in  proper 
readinefs  for  planting,  let  a  line 
be  ftretched  on  a  Itraight  fide  of 
a  field,  with  knots  or  rags  in  it, 
as  far  afunder  as  you  defign  your 
hills  fliall  be  ;  and  ilick  in  the 
ground  a  (haip  pointed  flick  at 
every  knot,  as  marks  for  the 
places  where  the  hills  are  to  be 
made.  Remove  the  line  to  fuch 
a  diffance  as  to  make  the  hills 
equidi4]ant  both  ways  ;  and  fo  on 
tlirough  the  whole  ground. 

The  diftance  of  the  hills 
fliould  be  regulated  by  the 
ftrength  of  the  foil.  But  in  ev- 
ery   cafe    they    ftiould    be    tar 


HOP 

enough  afunder  to  admit  the  hoe 
plough  at  all  times.  If  the  foil 
be  dry  and  (hallow,  fix  or  fevea 
feet  will  be  a  convenient  dif- 
tance :  But  if  it  be  rich,  moift, 
and  apt  to  bear  large  hops,  it 
may  be  right  to  allow  eight  or 
nine  feet. 

The  time  to  plant  hops  is  when 
they  begin  to  flioot  in  the  fpring. 
The  fets  are  cuttings  from  the 
roots,  or  branches  which  grow 
from  the  main  root.  They  fhould 
be  trom  five  to  feven  inches  long, 
with  three  ormorejointsor  buds 
on  each,  all  the  old  and  hollow 
part  being  cut  off.  Make  holes 
twelve  or  fixteen  inches  wide, 
and  of  a  depth  proportioned  to 
the  nature  of  the  ground.  If 
fhallow,  v.'ith  hard  clay  or  gravel 
under,  dig  not  into  it,  left  you 
make  a  bafin  to  retain  water  ; 
but  raife  a  fmall  hill  of  good 
mould.  It  there  is  a  good  depth 
of  rich  mellow  mould,  dig  the 
hole  a  foot  and  a  half,  or  two  feet 
deep  ;  the  hops  will  thrive  the 
better. 

When  all  things  are  ready  for 
planting,  fill  up  the  holes  with 
the  mould  before  thrown  out,  if 
it  be  good  ;  but  if  the  fame  earth 
be  not  rich  enough,  make  ufe  of 
fine  frefli  mould,  or  of  a  compoft 
provided  for  the  purpofe,  a  peck 
in  each  hill,  but  no  dung  on  any 
account. 

Then  with  a  fetting  ftick  make 
five  or  fix  holes,  one  in  the  middle 
perpendicular,  and  the  reft  round 
it  floping,  and  meeting  at  the 
top  near  the  centre.  Put  in 
the  fets  fo  that  they  may  ftand 
even  with  die  furface,  prefs  the 
mould  clofe  to  them,  and  cover 
them  with  fine  mould  two  or 
three  inches  thick.  A  ftick 
fhould  be  placed  on  each  fide  of 
the  hill  to  fecure  it. 

The  ground  being  thus  planted, 
all  that  LS  to  be  dvne  in  the  fol- 
lowing 


HOP 

lowing  fummcr  is  to  keep  the 
hills  and  alleys  clear  ot  weeds 
by  iiequeiu  hoeings,  to  dig  the 
ground  in  Mav,  and  carry  olF 
the  4o"CS  raifcd  by  dip;?ing  ;  to 
raifea  fmall  hill  about  tlic  plants, 
and  throw  fonie  mould  on  the 
root*;,  and  in  May  or  June  to 
twill  all  the  vines  and  Branches 
together  in  a  loole  knot,  and  lay 
them  thus  twilled  on  the  top  of 
the  hill. 

Early  in  the  following  fpring, 
when  the  weather  is  fine,  open 
the  hills,  and  cut  off  the  (hoots  of 
the  firll  vcar,  within  an  inch  of 
the  ilock,  together  with  the 
younger  fuckers  that  have  fprung 
iromthe  fets,  and  cover  the  Uock 
with  fine  earth. 

In  the  third  and  following 
years,  when  you  dig  your  hop 
ground,  let  the  earth  be  taken 
away  with  a  fpade  or  hoc,  round 
about  the  hills,  very  near  them, 
that  you  may  more  convenient- 
ly come  at  the  ftock  to  cut  it. 
Then  in  fair  weather,  if  your 
hops  be  weak,  begin  to  drels 
them  :  But  if  Ifrong,  do  it  later  ; 
for  drcflui^  late  rcllrains  their 
too  early  Ipringing,  which  hurts 
the  hop. 

After  drefTmg  in  the  fccorul 
year,  the  next  thing  is  to  pole 
them.  Poles  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long  will  do  then  :  But  in  the 
third  year,  whfen  they  come  to 
their  lull  bearing  ftate,  they  will 
require  poles  of  full  ft/.e  :  This, 
it  the  ground  be  rich,  and  the 
hop  vigorous,  will  be  from  fix- 
teen  to  twenty  feet  ;  or  there 
will  l>e  danger  of  loling  great 
part  ot  the  crop. 

The  hop  will  foon  run  itfelf 
out  of  hcan,  if  it  be  over  poled. 
Neither  can  a  good  crop  be  cx- 
pe^ed  from  over  poled  ground  ; 
TCcaufe  the  branches  which  bear 
the  hops  grow  very  little,  till  the 
buJi  have  overreached  the  poles. 


HOP 


»59 


which  they  cannot  do  when  the 
pole  is  long.  Two  fmall  poles 
arc  fufficieut  for  a  hill  in  a  young 
groimd. 

A  hop  garden,  Mr.  Young  fays, 
will  lad  almoll  foie\cr,  by  re- 
newing the  hills  that  fail  to  the 
amount  ot  about  a  fcore  annual- 
ly :  But  it  is  reckoned  better  to 
grub  up  and  new  plant  it  every 
20  or  25  years. 

In  torward  years  hops  arc  ripe 
at  the  beginning  of  September. 
When  they  begin  to  change  col- 
our, or  are  eafily  pulled  to  pieces; 
when  they  emit  a  fragrant  fmell, 
and  when  their  feeds  begin  to 
look  brown  and  grow  hard,  you 
may  conclude  that  they  are  ripe. 
Then  pick  them  with  all  expedi- 
tion ;  for  a  ftorm  of  wind  will 
do  ihem  great  mifchief  at  this 
time. 

When  the  poles  are  drawn  up 
in  order  to  be  picked,  the  vines 
around  fliould  be  cut  afunder  at 
the  height  ot  three  or  four  feet 
from  the  ground  :  For  cutting 
them  lower,  efpccially  while  the 
hops  are  green,  would  occafiorv 
fo  great  a  flow  of  fap,  as  would 
weaken  the  root. 

It  has  been  remarked  by  one 
who  had  much  experience,  that^ 
hops  which  are  late  picked  bear 
more  plentituily  the  tollowing 
year  than  fuch  as  are  picked  ear- 
ly :  For  which  realbn  he  recom- 
mends late  pickin(^.  But  the 
hops  which  are  picked  early  look, 
better,  and  arc  undoubtedly 
fl  longer. 

The  befl  way  of  drying  hops 
is  on  kilns.  Four  pounds  ot  un- 
dricd  hops,  will  make  one  pound 
alter  they  are  dried. 

Before  hops  are  bagged,  they 
(hould  be  laid  in  a  heap,  that 
they  may  fweat  and  grow  tough  : 
And  if  they  arc  covered  tor  a 
while  with  blankets,  they  will  be 
the  bsitcr.    The  bags  are  coarfe 

Unea 


i6o 


HOP 


coarfe  linen  cloth.  They  are 
coinmonly  about  eleven  feet 
lon^,  and  near  two  yards  and  a 
tali  in  circumference,  and  con- 
tain about  250  weight  ol  hops. 
The  fmall  bags,  called  pockets, 
contain  about  half  as  much. 

The  manner  of  bagging  is 
thus.  Make  a  round  or  fquare 
hole  about  26  or  30  inches  over, 
in  the  floor  of  tlie  chamber 
■where  the  hops  are  laid  in  heaps 
after  fweating.  Tie  with  a  piece 
of  pack  thread,  a  handful  ol  hops 
in  each  lower  corner  of  the  bag, 
to  ferve  as  handles  for  the  more 
cafy  lifting  or  removing  the  bag, - 
and  fafien  the  mouth  of  the  bag 
to  a  trame,  or  hoop,  fomewhat 
larger  than  the  hole,  that  the 
hoop  may  reft  on  its  edges.  The 
upi>er  part  thus  fixed,  the  refl  of 
the  bag  hangs  down  through  the 
hole,  but  not  fo  far  as  to  touch  the 
lower  floor.  Then  thro\.'  into 
it  a  bufhei  or  two  of  hop';,  and 
let  a  man  go  into  the  b^g,  and 
tread  the  hops  down  till  they  lie 
ciofe  ;  then  throw  in  more  and 
tix:ad  ;  and  fo  on  till  the  bag  is 
full.  Loofe  it  from  the  ho«3p, 
and  few  up  the  mouth  as  clofc 
as  poflible,  tying  hops  in  the  up- 
per, as  was  done  in  the  lower 
corners.  The  harder  the  hops 
are  prcfTed,  and  the  clofer  and 
thicker  the  bag  is,  the  longer 
and  better  the  hops  will  keep. 

A  fmall  manuring  of  hop 
pjound  every  fecond  ye?r  is  fut- 
ficient.  Dung  was  fonnerly 
more  in  ufe  than  at  prerer.t,  ex- 
perience having  Riewn  that  lime, 
iea  fand,  marie,  aflies,  S:c.  an- 
fwer  the  end  better,  and  laft 
longer.  But  hog  dnng  prevents 
mildew  from  taking  hops. 

Each  pole,  according  to  Dr. 

Kales,   has   three  vmes,  ^vhich 

makes  fix  vines  to  a  hill.    All 

.the  fprouts  above'  this  number, 

ihoi'ld  Liebrokcn  oiTinthe  fpring. 


H  O  R 

HORN  DISTEMPER,  adif. 
cafe  of  neat  cattle,  the  feat  of 
which  is  in  their  horns.  Co^v8 
are  more  fubjeft  to  it  than  oxen. 
It  does  not  attack  bulls  ;  and 
fteers  and  heifers,  under  three 
years  old,  have  not  been  known 
to  have  it.  The  diftemper  grad- 
ually confumes  the  pith  of  the 
horn.  Sometimes  it  is  in  both 
horns  at  once,  but  more  ufualjy 
in  one  only. 

The  difeafe  is  difcoverable  by 
the  coldnefs,  or  lofs  of  the  nat- 
mal  ^^'armth  of  the  horn  ;  by 
dulnefs  of  the  eyes,  fluggifbnefs, 
lofs  of  appetite,  and  a  difpoOtion 
to  lie  down.  When  the  brain  is 
affefted,  cattle  will  tofs  their 
heads  and  groan  much  as  if  irf 
great  pain. 

To  efieft  the  cure,  the  hor«i 
fhould  be  perforated  with  a  nail 
gimblet,  through  which  the  cor- 
rupted thin  matter  will  be  dif- 
charged,  if  care  betaken  to  keep 
it  open.  By  this  boring,  which 
Ihould  be  nearly  horizontal,  or 
in  the  depending  part  of  the 
horn,anQ  two  orthree  inches  from 
the  head  of  the  animal,  the  cure 
fometimes  h  completed.  When 
it  proves  othcrwife,  a  mixture  of 
rum  and  honey  with  myrrh  and 
aloes,  fhould  be  thrown  into  the 
horn  with  a  fyringe  ;  and  be  fev- 
eral  times  repeated,  it  the  difeafe 
continue.  For  a  more  particu- 
lar account,  fee  a  letter  from  ti?e 
Hon.  C.  Tufts,  Efq.  in  the  ift 
Vol.  of  the  Memoirs  of  tkc  Acad' 
emy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 

HORSE,oneof  themoit  ufefuJ 
of  tame  quadrupeds.  The  marks 
or  evidences  ot  a  good  one  are 
thefc,  a  high  neck,  a  full  breafl,  a 
lively  eye,  a  ftrong  back,  a  JfifF 
dock,  fall  buttocks,  ribs  reaching 
near  to  the  hips,  well mude  hoofs 
rather  large,  and  a  good  gait. 

The  fi/.e  of  a  hori'c  fiiouid  be 

in   proportion  to  the  v.'ork  inr 

which 


H  O  R 

v.liicli  he  is  chiefly  to  br  rm- 
I  Icycd.  Smtill  ri/.e<l  onev  olten 
prove  good  in  tl)c  Lddlr.  1  hoy 
arc  apt  to  be  ha:  '!y,  and  in  pro- 
I'ortiori  tn  their  (:/.e,and  the  quan- 
tity of  their  eating,  uflially  nrc 
the  moft  profiti>l'le.  PlonRh 
horfes,  A'.\(\  aW  draught  horle^ 
fh«)uld  be  large,  a<  their  weight 
isot  iinp'^ancc  in  dra'A'inR  ;  and 
as  it  IS  oltcn  incoavcilient  to  put 
iwo  horfcs  to  one  phn^gh,  efpc- 
tially  in  horfe  hoeing.  Lirsrc- 
tK'fs  i^  alfo  ol  importrf'ice,  when 
they  arc  iifcd  (iaplc,  in  joarney- 
inR.  as  they  mull  uiualiy  aie,  ina 
chaife  or  flciijh. 

A  horfe's  m.inr.cr  of  going  is 
a  rnaticr  of  no  fhiall  importance. 
Tlic  aitjbling  gate,  or  whit  in 
this  country  is  vulg-irly  calK'd 
pacing,  is  not  <^ood,  neither  for 
tht:  horfe  nor  the  ri(ler.  It  is 
tirefonie  to  both.  It  habiiUitcs 
a  horfe  to  carry  liis  feet  too  near 
to  the  ;jround,  fo  that  he  is  the 
more  liable  to  trip  and  flumble. 

The  meil'od  fo  much  pra^Uf- 
fcd  formerly  in  this  coiintry,  of 
levelling  horfes  to  p.4cc  fwihly, 
arid  racin;;  in  that  pate,  is  high- 
ly pcrnici«>us.  It  puts  tr.em  to 
a  much  greater  flraitl  than  run- 
ning ;  and  Humbert  have  been 
t'aus  rained.  Some  colli  natur- 
ally ami)le,  and  others  trot.  But 
all  may  be  made  to  trot,  if  due 
care  and  pains  be  takeri  with 
Hicni  while  they  are  Vour.g,  or  as 
fonn  as  they  are  ftril  ridden.  In  a 
carriafjc  an  amble  is  tirefome  to 
a  horle,  appeats  higlily  improp- 
er, a.id  isdifgulling  to  every  one; 
And  I  do  not  fee  why  it  Ihould 

j'P'" all  moie  tolerable  in 

i'. 

W  :r  11  .iny  rhange  of  gait  is 
wanted  for  the  cafe  of  the  rider, 
tae  c  inter  is  to  be  preferred, 
thinu'achnonecaf.beinoreeafy. 

The  w^v  ol  hrf.iking  a  young 
horlr  that  i>  ji.'.lllv  ulv*d  ut  thii 
U 


11  O  R  l5^ 

cou?i:ry,  is  higr.ly  abfurd,  hurt- 
ful, and  dan^tTOiis.  He  is 
mounted  and  ridden  before  he 
has  been  ufed  to  the  bridle  or 
to  bearing  any  weigb.t  on  his 
b.ick;  If  he  will  not  go  for- 
ward, he  is  rroft  unmercifully 
beaten  ;  by  which  his  fptrits  are 
broken, and  his  ftrcngth  imnairetl. 
If  he  rears  i;p,  he  is  ptilied  back- 
wards, with  th?  rilk  of  hurting 
both  horie  and  man.  If  he  runs 
and  Ibrts,  as  he  probably  wdl 
tinder  fuch  tnanagement,  he  (ling? 
the  rifler,  perhaps  is  Inglucned, 
gains  his  liberty,  and  is  encour- 
aged to  do  juft  io  the  next  op- 
portunity ;  and  the  unfonunatc 
rider  bleftes  Ijlmlelf,  as  he  has 
reafon  to  do,  if  he  efriipe  with- 
out broken  limbs.  Or  if  the 
horfe  Ihould  chance  to  go  kindly, 
thf  rider  tontlnues  the  exercifc 
till  the  horle  is  fatigued,  difcour- 
a^ed,  and  injiired. 

Inftcad  ni  this  mad  manage- 
ment, the  ^foy  praRiled  in  the 
older  countries  Ihotild  be  adopt- 
ed. Let  a  horfe  (irft  of  ail  be 
tamed  with  the  bridle,  by  leadiiifj 
him  again  and  again  ;  in  the  Hrft 
place,  after,  or  by  ti^e  fide  of  an- 
other horfe  ;  and  after  he  walk^ 
well,  bring  him  to  trot  after  his 
leader.  In  the  next  place,  put 
on  the  fitddle,  and  lead  him  in 
that,  time  after  time.  Then  lay 
a  Imall  weit^ht  on  the  faddlc.and 
if  he  be  apt  to  ffnrt,  faften  it,  that 
it  may  not  be  f}ung  oflF,  increaf- 
ing  the  weight  from  time  to  time, 
till  he  learnt  to  carrv  what  h  c- 
^ual  ro  a  mans  weight.  Laftly, 
let  a  man  g^-ntly  mount  him, 
while  anothri  hold*  him  by  the 
bridle,  aid  hy  Innilelf  firmly  in 
ilic  faddlc.  ']']!•'  place  of  riding 
is  rrcommrnded  lo  be  a  plough- 
ed field.  Let  hi.'n  thus  be  nd- 
df.n  with  a  hone  going  b»rforc 
liim,  til!  lie  iearn  the  ulc  oj  tb« 
bit,  and  will  Hop, or  go  forward, 

a( 


i6o 


H  O  R 


at  the  pleafuic  of  the  lidci .  and 
without  tlie  application  cf  inuch 
force.  Being  exercifed  in  this 
riiaiinor  a  tew  times,  and  treated 
v.ith  all  poIliblegeniieneG;,tiiere 
will  be  no  more  occaJion  for 
leading  him.  He  will  go  well 
Oi  hiinielt  ;  and  be  thoroughly 
broken,  without  fo  much  as  giv- 
ing him  one  blow,  and  wuhout 
danger  or  fcitigue,  to  the  horfe 
or  his  rider.  And,  what  is  much 
to  be  regarded,  the  horfes  fpirits 
v.ili  be  preierved,  though  he  be 
f.ifficientJy  tanied.  In  teaching 
a  hoifc  to  draw,  gentlcnefs  muft 
Leafed.  Kefiiould  be  tried  5r{l 
in  company  with  other  horfes, 
whether  in  carting  or  ploughing ; 
and  the  draught  ihould  not  be  fo 
heavy  as  to  fret  him  or  pat  him 
to  great  exertion  till  he  has  learn- 
ed to  draw  fieadiiy.  After  this 
he  maybe  put  to  draw  light  load:3 
by  himfolf.  Lailiy  he  may  be  put 
toa  pleafurc  carriage,  but  coupled 
with  another  rather  than  alone, 
and  to  a  lleigh  rather  than  a  chaife. 

It  may  be  tahen  for  a  general 
rule,  that  the  gait  which  is  eafi- 
eft  to  a  horfe,  will  be  the  eafieft 
to  his  rider.  For  jaded  horfes, 
it  has  always  been  obferved.  are 
apt  to  go  hard,  and  to  tire  their 
riders. 

I'he  feeding  of  horfes,  as  I 
conceive,  has  not  been  fuffi- 
ciently  attended  to  in  this  coun- 
try ;  which  is,  doubtlefs,  one 
reafon  why  they  are  in  general 
fo  mean  and  defpicable.  Too 
S,  many  keep  hcrfcs  v.ho  cannot 
well  afford  to  feed  them.  They 
fhouid  neither  run  upon  the 
roads  and  coramotM;,  nor  in  paf- 
ti.rcs  that  arc  filled  with  wild 
and  wjter  graffes.  They  love  a 
dry  pailure,  not  too  much  ihad- 
ed,  and  fhort  graffes  of  the  bed 
kinds.  Clover  ind  white  honey- 
iuckle,  both  green  and  d;y,  are 
t.vccJier.t    food    fox    Uieui.     It 


H  O  R 

nouriOies  them  we!l,  and  pre* 
vents  ccftivenefs,  which  is  very 
hunful  to  them.  The  beft  of  clo- 
ver hay  will  keep  them  as  well  as 
mofl:  other  kinds  of  hay  with  oats. 

To  fit  a  horfe  for  a  journey  he 
Ihould  not  be  fuffered  to  grow  too 
tat  and  grofs.  He  ihould  for 
fonie  time  be  k-cpt  in  the  ftable 
rather  than  in  the  pafture,  and 
fed  raofllywuh  hay  and  proven- 
der :  But  rather  fpajingly  if  he 
incline  to  be  fat.  He  fhculd 
have  exercife  daily  to  harden  his 
flefh,  and  keep  him  in  the  habit 
oi  travelling.  Ke  fnould  be  (hod 
fome  days  before  he  begins  a 
journey,  that  the  Ihoes  may  be 
well  fettled  to  hi»  feet,  and  the 
nails  a  little  ruHcd  at  the  points, 
that  they  may  Tioid  the  fafter. 
And  the  pads  of  the  faddle 
ihould  be  weM  frttcd  to  his  back, 
fo  as  to  fill  the  hollows,  and  bear 
eqiidiiy  on  every  part.  And 
^v•hiIe  he  is  cnthe  journey,  he 
Ihould  be  ftabled  every  night. 
It  is  deftructivetoexpore  a  horfe 
to  the  dampnefs  and  cold  oi  the 
night  after  fevere  exercife.  But 
it  would  be  bed,  if  neither 
horfes,  nor  any  of  our  cattle, 
V.  ere  wholly  confined  to  dry 
meat  in  winter.  Horfes  indicate 
this,  by  their  eating  fnow  witk 
their  hay.  Set  a  balket  of  fnow 
within  reach  of  a  horfe,  when  he 
is  at  his  manger,  and  he  will  take 
a  mouthful  from  each  alternately. 
Of  ail  juicy  food  for  horfes  in 
winter,  writers  on  hufbandry 
fecm  to  give  carrots  the  prefer- 
ence. They  have  been  foujid  by 
experience  to  anfwer  well  iii- 
ilead  of  oats  for  labouring 
horfes ;  and  to  fatten  thofe  wliicE 
are  le^n. 

He  that  avouM  be  fure  to  keep 
his  horfe  in  good  order,  muft  be- 
ware whom  be  faiTers  to  ride 
him,  and  muil  fee  that  he  is  never 
abufed.  Prcfufe  fv.-eating  fhculd 
always 


H  O  R 


to  r:>"v  and  fno'v.      If 
'  mtly   ruSbcd 
(.  I   nvIhth  wari!», 

he  iJjutilJ  [is  corcfLvi  with  ii 
blanket  ;  and  he  IhotiH  always 
hjw:  A  Jry  llablr.  an'l  bif  >vtl! 
!:••     •  !.     The  neglect   o\   ihefc 

ns  mny  bring  on  incur- 

u    iJeis. 

Morico  lhou!J  not  be  too 
TT'trh  deprived  ot  the  liberty  of 
motion,  as  they  too  often  arc. 
l--l«>fe  confinement  ahcr  hird  la- 
bour, will  be  .ipt  to  abate  tiieir 
circulations  too  fuddenly,  make 
them  chilly,  and  llitfen  their 
joints.  To  be  deprived  of  mo- 
lion.  is  bad  for  man  and  bealt. 
I?  '  'ii'relorc  Ihouid  not  be 
J  :  iorrfMjtn  in  their  ftibles. 

bi^jlci  ihould  not  be  lo  low  as 
to  prevent  thrir  tofTmg  up  their 
lie  ids  as  high  as  ihf  y  pleafe. 
Some  {{ablcs  have  fo  little  room 
o.er  head  as  to  bring  horfcs  into 
a  Ijahit  of  carrying  their  heads 
too  lo'A*.  They  become  afraid 
to  lift  them  up.  They  fhould 
alfo  hdve  room  in  their  Il<ibles  to 
t  irn  (h'-:r  heads  to  any  part  of 
'  cs,    that  they  may  dc- 

■ifclves  from  the  biting 

.    allay    itching.    &c. 

...    1    baltfs  ftt'">uld  always 

be  lo  long,  and  their  liable  lo 
wide,  that  they  may  br*  <lo<vn 
conveniently.  Nor  Ihould  horfes 
be  fo  placed  as  to  be  able  to  dc:- 
pi  ivc  each  <»t!ier  of  his  fodder. 

\N'^""  '-»•-' cs   are  kept  in  lla- 

bles,  ,  Mierally  arc  in  the 

coldelt .;:::;:  tiieyear.they  fliould 

be  daily    drrired,    as  it  il  ralletl. 

'  '  :v  comb,  and  the  brulh, 

.^•cllurcdonall  parts  of 
tncir  !k.iM,  whir' 
hair.  This  in.: 
through  the  pores  ui  ibc  Ikm, 


II  O  R 


i«i 


I  whr<r*h  is  ne'•ef^^ry  to  health ;  7^\^A 

in 
i  ml 
oii'y  CAuff  iLLiii  ;o  '... -k  better, but 
ihcy  will  !v!\'* 'n-m  .;  h.-iIf'..Tni 
nu>rc  .•: 
will  a: 

be  better  tor  lervicc.  But  it  rub- 
bing  and  fiiftioii  be  wholly  nc^- 
lc6tod,  cr  fii^luly  performed, th~ 
hair  will  appear  diy  and  rough  ; 
tite  perfjyirable  matter  hardens 
in  the  pores  of  the  Ikin,  or  re- 
mains Jodge<l  at  the  roots  of  the 
hair,  and  has  the  appo<*ranceof  a 
dirty  white  duft  :  Andfomctimes 
like    Tmall     fcales  attended  w:tti 

j  itching.  More  efpecially  is  rnb- 
bing  iiecefTar^'  for  horfes,  when 
t!)ey  are  growing  cold  after  bein^ 
fweated  by  labour.  In  fucli  cafes 
it  liiould  nc'.cr  he  omitted. 

Colamelia  obfervcs  "  that  the 
bodies  of  cattle  ou'jht  to  be  rub- 
bed down  daily,  as  well  as  the 
bodies  of  men  ;  and  Hiys  it  often 
docs  them  more  gjod  to  have 
their  backs  well  nibbed  down, 
than  their  bellies  well  filled  with 
provondeT.' 

But  in  warm  weather  it  wauH 
be  bidf  for  them,  that  thev 
fhould  not  have  the  con.^^emi;^t 
of  tiie  halter,  nor  even  of  the 
liable.  A  fmall  fpot  of  feeding 
ground,  if  it  were  only  a  few 
rods,  adjriining  to  the  flable,  and 
the  «lof»r  left  open,  that  a  liorfe 
may  go  in  and  out  alternately  as  he 
plcafcs,  would  great ly  conduce 
to  the  health  of  the  animal. 
This  degree  of  liberty  will  b« 
moft  ne'^fjlii!.  when  the  flics  ar^s 
troiiblelon;  '    '  e  better  for 

him  than  c  -t  tu  a  liable 

that  is  pei:.  ti.  luk.  In  fly 
time  it  gives  a  borfe   mncli  cafe 

,  and  comfort  to  ftn-^ar  his  limbs, 

!  neck  and  bfvd,  wi'h  rancid  fi*.fi 
oil,  or    '  v'dl 

keep  t!  ni. 

And  iuall  icafo.i-SwUcnii*  ici  Iiave 

bcca 


l62 


H  O  R 


been  heated  with  exerclfe,  they 
JhouK-i  be  \vcll  rubbed,  or  curried. 

W^hen  ahorfe  runs  in  a  pafturc 
during  ihe  gra/s  feafon,  he  Ihould 
liave  i'onie  (halter,  not  unly  a 
Ihade  to  uetend  him  from  the  in- 
tenie  heat  of  the  lun,  but  a  fhed, 
or  a  clump  of  trees,  that  he  may 
retreat  from  the  iacleiKencies  of 
the  atmofphere. 

But  horfes  that  are  daily 
worked,  in  fummer,  ihould  be 
rnoftly  Kept  \ipon  green  todder 
in  (tables,  rather  than  graced  in 
paftures.  Thv' tendance  oi  them 
V'ill  not  be  fo  burdenfcnie,  with 
a  fpot  of  high  and  thick  graL  at 
hand,  as  leading  them  to  and 
|rom  a  paHure,  at  the  diflance  ot 
a  quarter  of  a  mile.  Tnis  will 
prevent  their  being  pften  chilled 
by  feeding  in  wet  nights.  A 
large  quantity  of  manure  will 
thus  be  faved.  And  a  very 
fmall  quantity  of  land  will  an- 
Iwer,  in  compjrifjn  with  \vhat  it 
takes  for  the  cditunngot  ahorfe. 
Keeping  2.  lithe  and  a  balkct  at 
hand,  a  hoHc  may  be  foddered  in 
this  way,  in  two  or  three  niin- 
utcs  ;  and  by  the  tiirq  ih4t  tlie 
whole  fpot  has  been  once  n'.ow- 
rd  over,  tr.st  '.vhich  is  firil  cut 
■vviij  be  g;yun  up  a«jain.  Where 
a  r.uniuer  ot  horles  are  foiled,  a 
fair  oi  poles,  or  ahand  cart,  will 
be  heifer  than  ^  bafket  to  carry 
the  hay  to  them.  This  practice, 
called  foilirg,  anfwers  v.-ell  near 
to  cities  and  Lrge  towps,  wliere 
lands  tor  pafluragc  arc  not  plen- 
ty ;  and  where,  by  means  pf  the 
plenty  of  manure,  lands  m.iy  be 
made  to  yield  the  greatcft  crops 
(.fgrafs.  For  very  thick  grafs 
ihocid  not  be  fed  olF;  becdufe 
the  gieaterpart  of  it  will  be  waft- 
ed by  the  trart^pling,  and  the  ex- 
crements of  animals. 

HORSE  HOE,  a  kind  of 
plough  ufed  in  lliiring  the  foil, 
Vv  hen  a. crop  is  grcwipg  on  it.  It 


H  U  R 

does  not  efTentially  diflTer  from  a 
common  horfe  plough,  only  in 
the  different  manner  of  coniiett- 
ing  it  to  the  horfe.  This  is  done 
by  two  arais,  or  (halts,  likethofe 
ot  a  cart,  fallened  by  fcrews  to  a 
Ihprt  plank  about  three  feet  long 
and  one  toot  broad  ;  which  plank 
is  made  fad  to  the  fore  end  of  the 
beam,  which  may  be  occafiorjal- 
ly  removed  to  the  right  or  left, 
according  as  tlie  hoeing  may  re- 
quire the  plough  to  pafs  nearer 
to,  or  farther  firorn  the  rows. 
This  is  lefs  apt  to  injure  the 
plants,  than  a  common  iiarnefs. 

The  advantage  of  tiiis  infiiu- 
pjent  above  a  hor^e  plough  is 
(aid  to  be  principally  the  ftcadi- 
nefs  of  Its  going,  by  which  a  fur- 
row may  be  drawn  vi^ry  near  to 
a  row  of  plants,  withoi.t  danger 
ot  injuring  them.  This  was  tlie 
opinion  ot  Mr.  Tull,the  inventor. 
But  as  it  cannot  be  fo  well  gov- 
erned by  the  handles  as  the  coin- 
tnop  horfe  plough,  the  fafety  of 
the  plants  mufl  chiefiy  depend 
up<;n  the  (teadinefs  ot  a  horlc's 
going.  1  therefore  prefer  the 
liorle-jdough,  in  the  whole,  for 
loofeiiipg  the  ground  betwixt 
rows.  It  will  anfwer,  at  leaft, 
every   purpole  of  tlie  horfe  hoe. 

HURDLE.  The  hurdles  ulcd 
in  hufbandry,  for  fences,  are 
frames  ct  wood,  confilting  of 
two  poles,  four  feet  apart,  eon- 
ne6ted  with  fmalj  flicks  acrofs 
from  the  one  to  the  other. 
Spruce  poles  are  good  for  this 
ufe,  being  light  and  tough.  The 
flicks  may  be  of  fplit  timber, 
fuch  as  does  not  rot  too  foon  ; 
or  round  {licks  of  natural  growth, 
fuch  as  ihritiy  fuckers  from  the 
ftumps  of  oak  trees.  Ifthty  are 
wattled,  or  have  twigs  wove  into 
thein,  the  flicks  may  be  a  foot,  or 
eighteen  inches  apart ;  and  they 
will  refenible  the  hurdles  oa 
which  filh  arc  dried.     If  th(  y  are 

aot 


TT  U  R 

flicks  mufl  I'c  fo 

i  tlU. 

V  .if  1^.  >,  1    ■  V  ,...nt. 

h   iiiidt'  tit  tl.;  \    hmdlp 

is  oIk'U  w.ui'.  •     II   t.c-  <i  {^iM'cl 

fcnci*  acr(»(sa  I  <•>',  \k.ittri,  l>ciiig 
niull  fuit.ili!!.-  !  '  i(»  puiitufe,  a& 
il  may  l»i*  i.;  .  n-'l  by  Hioiig 
ilakcs  at  t'\ocn.l»,  ai\J  as  it  rcfwU 
the  tiiirt'iit  ot  -vaifr  but  lutltf. 
']  hey  arc  ufettil  to  iciic"e  Imali 
pens  ^iid  y4rds  on  any  liicl<!eii 
occMriD.i,  And  as il.cv  are  cilily 
rt-r.iovi-l,  llicy  an*  ufcd  in  Eii- 
gUnd,  in  eating  ofl  a  crop  ol  turr 
nips  with  Ihcep.  It  tljcrc  ftioidd 
be  nerdoi  prcvcatiiiR  the  tlimh- 
ing  oi  bi)ys  over  then,  ihccnds  of 
ti»e  crols  (inks  may  r»lc  a  icw 
iaclics  above  iho  nppjr  pole,  and 
be  nude  Iharp  at  liie  points. 

HUR  I  S,  ctuJ  Biutjci  in  the 
zvtihers.  Hories  are  vciv  t)lten 
liurt,  or  wrung  in  tlie  withers, 
by  the  biting  of  other  hfirfes,  or 
by  unfit  faddles,  erpeci.tily  wl;cn 
the  hows  v:c  too  wide  ;  f»>r  by 
that  means  they  hrniL- the llolha- 
Raialt  the  Ipinr^ot  tiiclecondand 
third  vcric'jrj'ol  lU^-  hack,  which 
tor:n  tiiat  proniin^nce  which  rues 
a|K)\e  ihfir  Oionhlers.  Whcii 
tlie  rwelling  ii  ni<;derate,  the 
ufual  nicthod  is  to  waih  the  part 
with  full  and  wat.T,  or  to  apply 
\yj\lti  dung,  o\  ial:  and  bia<.  k 
fciJp  tm.sed  togctli^r,  whi«h  very 
often  facceeds.  Any  rellringiMU 
charge,  as  bole  and  vhi<'r,ir  nith 
wljiicsoteggi.liai  il.  *  ci ; 

a',  alfo  the  whites  o.  .Mip 

into  a  loam  with  a  piece  ot  ainni. 
1  Mn  is  vei  y  much  coaunended. 

"  .Sonieinncs  the  hair  is  rub- 
bed otr,  and  the  part  becomes 
galird.  in  which  caie  nothing  is 
preterabie  to  me  rcttihed  fpirit 
ol  wine  or  brandy,  which  ought 
to  be  uUd  oticn,  covering  the 
part  With  a  flaXt-n  cloth  dipped 
ii:  bcrfwax,  and  u  l.tilc  oil  mcll- 


I  M  I* 


i63 


ed  together,  to  kee-,'  flie  dirt 
♦roiij  It  and  deiei-.d  it  fj o;n  the 
atr."     Cibjjnf  I  .r. 

HL'hfcANDKY,  .heart  ami 
buliurlu  ot  a  f^riiur.  l*!ioui;1i 
•  lie  Word  *s  coinnionly  ufLd  a\  if 
it  were  perfeftiy  (ynonyinou* 
with  rfgjicidtnr*".  it  is,  in  llritt- 
nefs,  •  word  *;!  larger  liginfica- 
tion.  It  inchulfs  not  t)niy  tie 
bn{iiie(k  oJ  itllage.  and  tiic  caic 
and  n3aniig*nicni  of  vegetables, 
bat  it  extends  to  i!ic  rearing  and 
Icciirig  ol  cattle,  (wine,  pouluy, 
the  management  of  ^iio  tiairv", 
r4ihng  fl..x  and  iicmo,  frnit  a)»<l 
tinjber  trees,  &c.  and  indeed  \m 
C"vcry  jjrajich  oi  rural  ccouoiwx. 


I. 


IMPROVEMI.XT,  not  the 
bare  nie  or  occuj>ying  of  lands, 
thoui;ii  the  word  is  too  often  fa 
uled  impropeily.  In  this  ieiw'c 
of  the  \»oi(l,  fonic  ha\e  improv, 
ed  Lndi  till  shcy  would  piwducc 
nothing  at  all. 

By  ilie  improvement  (d  lands, 
I  w«uild  be  nndcrll.jod  to  mean, 
making  tlu:jp  better  and  rnoic 
profitable, 

Tq  improve  lands  tlial  ar(5 
wortj  out,  or  bring  tliem  inio  luch 
a  flare  that  iliey  will  bear  g<H»{i 
crops,  the  niiilnjd  moil  approvctl 
and  piacliicd,  lecrr.s  to  be, to  eeafe 
from  tilling  them,  and  let  them  lio 
ior  p.iiiqraf:e, perhaps  eiqhi  or  ten 
vc.::s,  Il  land  get  a  g 'od  fwai4 
l>y  lying,  it  n).»y  Le  thonglit  to 
be  c»)nrKier.d)Iy  recrinted.  Jint 
it  ;nay  be  done  in  a  ninch  ibort- 
cr  tune  by  tallowing  and  plciiii- 
ial  manuring,  il  the  owner  will 
be  at  the  expenfe  ot  di>ing  it. 

Land  that  is  fo  poor,  cith(T 
naturally,  or  by  K'vcrc  ciuoping, 
OS  to  p:o(!uie  lc\v*  or  no  Vfgeta- 
blcx  fpontaneonlly,  may  as  well 
be  laid  common.  Tlu.s  wili  be 
ihc  pioll  profitable rucil;,..d,  when 


i64  I  M  P 

the  fePxce  is  fuch  that  it  can  be 
caiily  removed,  and  profitably 
Mk-d  cl  few  here.  More  manure 
\viit  he  dropped  by  cattle,  on 
land  that  is  common,  whil'e  fb 
joj/jny  people  depend  upon  the 
rOfKls  ka'd  corrunons  ior  paftur- 
a^e.  than  it  it  were  an  incloi'ed 
vdRme  :  Tlieretore  it  may  wc-ii 
he  expetted  to  recruit  the  taft- 
er,  aad  b»  fooner  in  a  condition 
to  bear  qood  crops. 

But  U  the  circuiviftances  of  the 
farmer  be  fuch,  that  he  cannot 
excul'e  his  ^oorcft  land  from  til- 
lage, let  him  either  provide  plen- 
ty of  manure  for  it,  or  elfe  let 
winter  rye  be  foAvn  on  i'.  Some 
Irave  fou'.id  that  a  fucceiTive 
cropping  with  this  grain  will  re- 
cruit land,  and  that  each  crop 
will  be  better  than  the  preceding 
one.  But  if  the  land  be  ver/ 
poor,  fuch  a  courfe  fhould  be- 
gin with  a  year  of  tallow,  or  elfe 
manure  fhould  be  applied.  Tlut 
M^eeds  may  not  increafe,  fome 
hoed  green  crop  ihonid  inter- 
vene once  in  three  or  four  years. 
But  tiie  molt  quick  ^nd  effethial 
methods  of  recruiting  land,  per- 
haps, are  fdllowing  and  green 
drelfing.  Mucii  may  be  thus 
done  in  one  or  two  years. 

IF  a  Held  be  not  too  far  exhauft- 
ed,  laying  it  to  clover  will  re- 
cruit it,  if  the  foil  be  deep,  and 
fuitable  for  clover.  But  the 
grafs  fhould  be  fed  off,  not  mow- 
ed. 

The  belt  management  v/ould 
be,  not  to  lufTcr  lands  to  become 
(o  poor  as  to  rteed  much  recruit- 
ing ;  hut  to  keep  them,  at  leaff, 
in  the  fame  degree  of  richnefs, 
as  they  are  when  newly  cleared. 
There  is  great  lofs  in  cropping 
land  fo  fciverely  as  to  wear  it  out, 
and  ufing  methods  afterwards  to 
recruit  it.  For,  by  doing  this, 
we  mufl  be  content  with  crops 
for  om  or  tv/o  years,  which  will 


I  M  P 

fcarcely  pay  the  cod  of  culturft 
Or  with  none  at  all  :  Whereas^ 
by  a  judicious  courle  ol  tillage^ 
if  the  ieafons  pro\'e  Jruitfal,  prof- 
itable crops  of  fome  kind  or  oth- 
er may  he  always  obtained. 

We  Ihall  fcarcely  find  any 
fpot  in  this  country,  that  is  not 
capable  of  much  improvemeut. 
And,  by  the  help  of  manures, 
lands  which  are  continually 
cropped,  may  be  made  richer  and 
richer  ;  even  by  fuch  manures  as 
are  obtainable  in  mod  parts  of 
this  country.  We  are  too  apt  to 
be  fatisfied  with  a  fmall  degree 
of  richnefs  in  our  tilled  lands. 
Being  uied  to  poor  fucxefs  nx 
farming,  we  content  ourfelves 
with  a  crop  of  ten  or  a  dozen 
bulhels  of  wheat  or  rye  from  an 
acre,  and  think  our  lands  are  m 
heart,  if  they  will  produce  fo 
much.  But,  in  old  countries, 
where  the  foil  is  not  naturally  fu- 
periour  to  ours,  tanners  get  more 
iuan  twice  this  <juantity.  Mr. 
Young  has  found,  that  in  fever- 
al  parts  of  the  north  of  England, 
v;here  (he  rule  is  a  crop  and  a 
fallow,  or  a  white  an'i  a  greeu 
crop  alternately, the  average  prod- 
uce ot  an  acre,  reckoning  wheat, 
rye,  barley,  oats,  peale  and  beans, 
is  thirty  bufhels.  And  in  thofe 
places  v.rhere  the  method  is,  two 
crops  to  a  fallow,  the  average 
produce  of  the  fame  crops  is 
twenty  fix  buihek. 

It  appears  to  be  bcft,  therefore. 
In  that  country,  not  to  raife  two 
exhaulhng  crops  in  fucceflion. 
Making  this  a  rule,  feems  to  be 
Hill -more  neceflary  in  this  coun- 
try ;  becaufe  one  of  our  mofl 
faihionable  white  crops  of  corn 
is  more  exhaufting  than  any  of 
theirs  ;  that  is,  maize  is  more  ex- 
haufting than  wheat  or  oats. 

He  tliat  v/culd  really  i.nprove 

his  tillage   land,  or  even  keep  it 

trom  depreciating,  Ihould  always 

manure 


1  M  P 

IHaniirc  it  for  a  crop  ofmaizp, 
and  vriy  plentifully,  or  eile  IjI- 
Jow  ncxtaUcr  it  jand  never  laki 
two  white  crops  wiiliDUi  a  jp-ceii 
one,  or  ail  improvini;  one  irucr- 
vciiing.  A  g(i.»«l  improving 
courfe  may  be,  i.  Poutocs  on 
green  fwartl  land,  v.'cil  dunked. 
2.  Maizcdiingcd.3.  Kyc  4.  Clo- 
ver two  years.  5.  Wlio.U.  1  he 
fecoml  couilc  may  be,  1.  Pcalc, 
heans,  ive,  i»r  i>oi,jtocs.  2.  Mai/e, 
hemp,  l\.\\,  barley  or  oats,  dii'i^- 
ed.  The  third  courfe,  1.  Rye. 
p.  Clover  two  years.  3.  Wheat. 
I  jm  convinced  that,  by  fucli  a 
i;  nt,  uith  deep  and  Ire- 

q.  i|»hin'4s,  our   lands  in 

j»c<ieidi  would  yield  mf»re  than 
twireAsiiiuchasthcy  doat  prefent. 
It  is  adcfpicahle  way  ol  iarm- 
ing,  to  expend  forty  Jhillings  on 
a  crop  that  is  worth  no  more 
than  toTty  fiiillir:gs.  The  land- 
holder is,  in  fuch  a  cafe,  in  fa6t, 
no  richer  thantiie  poorell  iahoar- 
er.  But  il  the  crop  were  double 
to  the  coft  of  culture,  the  farmer 
would  receive  fi;me  intcrcll  or 
rent,  tor  his  land  ;  and  might  lay 
up  fomcthing  to  (upport  Iiim 
^hcn  he  is  palt  his  labour,  as  well 
as  lighten  his  labc^urs  at  p:efeat. 
Such  a  (lej^rce  of  iniprovcment 
would  enable  larmers  to  provide 
fetilements  lor  more  ot  the-r  Jons 
near  home,  than  they  can  atpre- 
fcnt ;  not.  only  as  they  would 
gain  lomcthinj;  to  purchafe  lands 
with,  but  becjufc  fifty  acres 
would  anord  a  better  lisir?.  than 
a  hundreii  have  '  i{l 

otoiir  farms  ha^  ■  .  !. 

Some     may      wk  ly 

think,  that  he  who  r y 

bufhels  from  an  acre,  has  only 
double  f!ie  advanta^^e  that  he  has 
who  raiiVs  ten.  But  if  ten  only 
juil  I  r.  :  r  the  culture,  fc-d, 
tti.  taxc«,  the  latter  l>a> 

no    _ j^e   at    all    from    his  , 

laai;  tnUii  inn^  better  acoodi-  I 


I  M  P 


165 


tion  th.An  he  v.ho  buys  his 
bread  ;  whllr  the  former  clearly 
pains  ten  bulhels  from  an  acre. 
The  more  a  farmer  gets  in  a  crop, 
over  and  abo%'c  paying  nrccllary 
chati'es,  the  greater  is  his  cleiT 
gain,  A<i  it  IS  catted. 

I  Nvould  en  treat  farmers  tocon- 
fider  that  the  co.Q  of  raifing 
a  poor  crop,  one  lime  wi;h  an- 
other, is  njarly  as  much  a-,  that 
of  railing  a  laigc  ;}i:e,  -There  it 
the  ianie  expended  vi  fencii^sj— 
the  fame  tax  paid — t'le  Uma 
qua.-;:ity  of  feed  i'own— the  iame 
aifnofl  expended  in  p!cu;^hinp, 
as  rich  land  ploughs  fomm  !<  more 
eafily  than  poor,  as  to  make  Mp 
lor  the  extra  nur.^.berof  piough- 
ings  in  a  c«>urle  of  tillage.  I 
may  add,  there  is  the  fame  or 
more  labour  in  thralhint;.  An 
attention  to  thefc  thmgs  is  e- 
nough  to  convince  any  one  of 
tiie  great  important*  of  endeav- 
ouring ro  improve  cr'"»ps  by  a  iTior«i 
fpirited  a. id  rational  hiilbandry. 

If  a  farmer  think  he  cannot 
afford  to  lay  out  a  farJhinp  uiorcr 
on  the  tillage  of  an  r.crc,  than  he 
has  l^en  accu Homed  to  do.  let 
him  be  entreated  to  Live  a  Intic 
in  fencing,  and  ft)  enable  himlelt 
to  do  it,  leaving  out  ftJine  of  hi^ 
lands  that  bring  litile  or  no  prof- 
it, and  pay  taxes  l«,r  a  lefs  quan- 
tity of  laiul  in  tillage;  or  lethlj;i 
turn  fome  ot  his  tdla^e  land  to 
grai's  ;  and  lay  out  the  fajnc 
quantities  of  labour  and  manure 
on  a  third  lefs  l^ind  in  till4ge. 
Liuds  in  tillage  niiirht  thus  he 
r.Mflc  prcMti^lde  ;  and  more  fo 
than  many  areiea(iy  to  imagine. 

It  has  ofit-n  been  <»l»rcrvcd, 
that  ihofe  farn:ns  inthi^  coiintiy 
who  have  the  ft.w.  1!  rxra,  com- 
rtonly  get  the  1  •   i:  wn 

their  farms.     It  :'.  '■  •.  'k-- 

t  M\ic.  their  laiuls  ,ii(-  under 

cultivation.  An  i  lomc  hav: 

CD  occafioa  ij  remark,  that  <Mir 
iai  n.cis 


^/- 


ibb  I  M  P  ISA 

farmers  sre  ruined  bv  the  pcot  ;  to  pubiick  worfhip,  and  moft 
plenfv  of  land  in  their  poilef-  ;  other  meetings  ;  for  where  itee- 
ftfin;  Though  this  remark,  is  |  pies  are  foiir  nnles  ap;'rt,  thev 
jnft,  I  can  fee  no  reafon  why  it  would  be  only  I'vo  or  three, 
ihouM  contintie  to  be  fo  ;  ^ny  :  Much  time,  expenfe  and  labour 
tnoKt  ?han,  that  being  ricii  fbould  would  on  thefe  accounts  be  Uv- 
neceilarily  make  a  man  poor,  ed  ;  and  civilization, -svith  ail  the 
"What  neetf  has  the  tnaii  who  '  fecial  virtues,  would,  pcrbap*:.  be 
polfe.Tcs  three  hundred  acre.*,  to  i  proportionsbly  proajotcd  and  in- 
dcih'-.y  the  wood,  of  c?e?r  the  j  ereafed. 

l;«nd,  as  tl>ey  call  it,  any  lafler  j  Nothing  is  wanfirig'o  produce 
th.in  he  can  make  ofe  of  the  foil  !  thcfe,  and  other  agreeable  effetrts, 
to  the  heft  adx-anta^e  ?  What  ;  but  a  better  knoAviedge  of,-  and 
need  h3<:  he  to  be  at  the  c.\penfe  j  clofer  itiention  to.  matters  of 
of  enclofing  more  than  hi.?  neigh- i  hnfbandry,  v/ith  their  necelTary 
hour  d(»es,  who  has  only  one  •  confequcncc",  Avhicb  would  be 
huntlrcd  acres,  v.-hilc  he  has  no  |  a  more  perlett  culture,  a  judi- 
more  abili'v,  or  occafion,  for  1  ciour  choice  of  crops,  and 
doing  it  ?  Or  to  pay  tstcs  for  i  change  of  frcds,  and  making 
moie  acics  in  grafsor  tillcjjjc  ?  It  '  every  advantage  of  mannres. 
isafooliihandrurnating ambition  I  Improvements  of  valt  iirjpor- 
in  any  one,  to  defire  to  have  a  :  lance,  might  irlfo  be  mzdz  in  the 
■wide  farm,  that  he  may  appear  to  I  management  of  meadows  anil 
be  rich,  when  he  is  able  to  give  j  paflure.^.  See  thofe  articles, 
it  only  a  partial  and  Dotenly  cul-  !  INARCHING.  "  a  method  of 
tiirc.  !  grafting,  commonly  called  graft- 

If  fiich  improvements  n.-;  a:'e  !  ing  by  approach,  and  is  ufed 
poGibie.and  even  eary,were  made  '  when  the  flock  intended  to  graft 
in  the  hi*ft>andrt  of  this  cotintrV,  i  on,  and  the  tree  fronr.  '.vhich  the 
many  and  great  ad >^ antagv-s  .  graft  is  to  betaken,  fland  fo  near,- 
vouid  be  found  to  arifc-  As  1  or  cm  be  brought  fo  near,  tiiat 
twice  the  number  of  people  \  they  may  be  joined  together. 
Blight  be  fupporkrd  an  the  fame  !  The  method  of  pertofming  it  is 
<j!i3ntity  ot  land,  all  our  farming  ',  as  follows  :  Take  the  branch 
t«»N*-n«  would  become  t^TJce  as  i  you  would  initrch,  and  halving 
poniilou*:  as  they  are  likely  to  be  1  fifted  it  to  that  part  of  the  ftock 
in  the  prffent  ttdteoi  hulbandry.  j  where  you  intend  to  join  it,  pare 
'Ihcre  w..»u}J  be,  in  general,  but  '  away  the  rind  3nd  wood  on  one 
halt  the  d  ilia  nee  to  travel  to  vif-  j  fide,  about  three  inches  in 
it  our  friends  and  acquaintance.  '  length.  After  t]ie  fame  fn^nner. 
Friends  might  oftener  fee,  and  !  ciii  the  ftock  or  branch  in  the 
corn  erfe  with  each  other.  Half  j  place  where  Lhe  graft  is  tobe  imit- 
the  labour  would  be  ia'cd  in  '.  ed,  fo  that  the  rind  of  hoi h  may 
canying  corn  to  mill,  and  pro-  j  join  equally  together  :  Then  cut 
duce  to  market  ;  hall  the  jour-  I  a  little  tongue  lipv.ards  in  the 
neyingfaveJ  in  attending  courts  5  '  grah,  and  make  a  notch"  in  the 
and  half  ilie  e.xpenfe  ir.  fupport-  ;  ftock  to  admit  it  ;  fo  that  when 
ing  governnicnt,  and  in  making  '  they  are  joined,  the  tongue  will 
3nd  repairing  roads  ;  huif  the  t  prevent  their  flipping,  and  the 
drllancc  faved,  in  going  to  the  i  graft  will  more  clofely  unite  with 
imith,  the  w^-avcr,  clothier,  &c.  j  the  ftock.  Havirig  thu  placed 
h*}f  the  diftance  faved^  in  going  i  tlicna  exactly  togeiher,  tie  them 

witb 


J  N  C 

\v'\ij:  fome  folt  tying  ;  then  Cover 
ilic  place  with  crralting  clay,  to 
prevcnf  the  air  iro:ti  entering  to 
dry  the  wound,  or  the  wet  from 
getiini;  in  to  rot  tlie  flot  k.  ^'on 
ihould  al fo  fi\  a  fl.ikc  in  t)ie 
ground,  to  which  that  pait  o! 
tijc  flock,  together  with  the  graft, 
Ihould  he  faftencd,  to  jjrevcnt 
the  wind  from  l)ieaking  ihenj  ;x- 
fuuilcr,  which  is  often  the  cafe, 
V*  hen  this  precaution  is  ilot  ob- 
fcrved.  In  this  manner  they  are 
to  remain  about  fotir  mouths,  in 
wliicli  time  they  will  be  fulK- 
cicnily  united,  and  the  graft  may 
then  be  cut  lri)m  tiie  mother  tree, 
ohferving  to  llnjn;  if  oirdofe  to 
the  Hock.  And  if  at  tliis  time 
vou  cover  the  joined  patis  with 
trelh  grafting  clay,  it  will  be  ul 
great  IciAice  to  the  graft. 

"  This  o|HM;ui(}n  is  always  per- 
formed in  April  or  May,  and  is 
commonly  pra'-tifcd  upon  myr- 
tles, jaimines,  walnuts,  his,  pines, 
and  foveral  other  trees  that  will 
not  fucceed  by  common  graft- 
ing, or  budding.  "  Diclwnuty  of 
Alls. 

INCLOSURE,  or  ENCLO- 
iSURE,  that  wiiich  forrounds, 
enclofcs,  and  fecure.s  a  field.  Sec 
the  article  Fence.  The  wor<l  is 
alfo  uled  to  (ignlfy  the  land 
which  is  cnclofed  ;  alfo  the  aj)- 
j)ropriation  oi  land*  before  held 
m  et)infn()n. 

INCREASE, a  wjrJ  com  mon- 
Iv  ufed  in  hulbandry,  to  cxprcfs 
the  proportion  in  which  a  crop 
exceeds  the  feed  frr>in  whicli  it  is 
raifcd.  It  is  generally  true  that 
the  fmalier  the  quantity  of  fee<l 
the  greater  is  the  increafe  ;  be- 
**auic  a  1)1 4nt  t'.iat  Jlands  by  itielf, 
has  all  tliL-  food  that  the  eanli  i> 
adapted  tc  givt;  it.  But  pLnts 
tiiat  are  fv  n^ar  together  that 
their  rooti  inurminglc,  do  more 
or  lefs  rob  each  oilirr  of  (heir 
foud.  But  we  mull  notcondu.Ie 

W 


I  N  C  169 

from  hence,  that  the  Icfs  ouaiili- 
ty  of  feed  we  fow,  the  better. 
Becaufc,  in  getting  a  crop,  other 
things  befide  ihe  increafe  Iroju 
tlie  teed,  arc  to  be  taken  into  cgii- 
{]d«*  ration. 

Oiher  tilings  being  ecjual,  thofe 
crops  are  nudl  to  be  coveted, 
which  require  tlie  fma!K:llprop{;r- 
tioii  of  feed.  Rut  the  greateil 
profit,  on  the  whole,  is  to  tlireit 
the  choice  of  crop.';.  The  cheao- 
nefs  ot  feed  fcmetlmes  rntneaui 
the  farmer.  To  this  caufc  i.iay 
be  afciibed,  ilct  fcldom,  the  cul- 
tivation of  mi«i/.e  on  foils  thai  are 
moic  faitable  f<ir  oiher  kinds  oi 
corn  ;  or  on  lulls  that  \:\\\  pro- 
duce no  crop  of  maize  woitti 
cultivating.  In  a  fullablc  foi^l, 
well  dunged,  it  is  not  uiiconi,- 
mon  for  owq  quurt  of  maize  ta 
yifld  ten  buflieh,  which  is  an  ir.- 
treafe  of  320  fold.  1  lie  expeuTj 
of  feed,  ilierelorc,  fcr  producing 
a  bulhel  of  corn,  at  as.  is  but  fix 
tenths  «)f  a  larthi.ng.  But  an  In- 
creafe of  £o  fold  is  a  good  crcp 
of  wheat  ;  the  feed  to  produce  a 
bulhel  of  \vl;e<il,  «it  7J.  will  be 
more  than  i  vir  pence  :  So  that 
the  expenfe  of  feed  b^r  wheat,  is 
thirty  times  greater  than  for 
maize.  Oiie  confcqucncG  of 
this  difference  in  feed  is,  tliHt 
n;.iny  of  the  j.oor  can  c,ibt;!ln 
feed  for  t!ie  foiiuer  crop,  who 
cannot  obtain  it  for  the  other. 
And  I  fufpe/J  that  the  greater 
expenfe  tor  feed  of  Engiifli  grain, 
as  we  call  it,  lias  gradually 
l)roughtihe  people  of  this  coun- 
try into  a  habit  of  fo\\ing  it  too 
thin,  and  made  them  eflablifh 
lulcs  of  doing  fo.  It  is  certain 
we  fow  much  thinner  than  Euro- 
peans do.  bor  the  fame  reafon, 
the  poor  perfil!  too  much  in  the 
culture  ol  mai/e. 

It  ii  not  caly  to  determine  what 

quantities   of   feed   ^vill   aufwer 

Left    for    given    (;ua!»tilies     ol 

eronnd . 


170  I  N  C 

ground.      Rut   it    is  obfervable, 
that,  in  kinrlnefs  to  man,  the  be- 
neficicniGovcrnnuroi  nature  has 
?nade   moll  plants  of  the  farina- 
ceous kln«i.capableof  getting  their 
full    growth   when    they    ftand 
near  together.     The  greateft  in- 
creafe  from  the  feed,  is  not  to  he 
accounted    the    moil    profitable 
crop.     A  vield  of  efeven  for  one 
Viay  be  ofmore   advantage  than  j 
twenty  for  one.     If  one  bufhel  { 
of  wheat  fowed  on  an  acre  pro-  j 
duce  20  bufhels,  and  two  bafh-  | 
els  on  an   acre  produce  22,  it  is  ■ 
"ivcnh  while  to  fow  two  bufhels.  I 
The  farmer  may  confider  one  oi  I 
the  two  bufhels  as   yielding   20  J 
bufhels,  and  the  other  as  yield-  j 
ing   two  bufhels.     In   this  cafe  ! 


eleven  for  one  is  more 


adva 


tageous  than  twenty  for  one.  See 
the  article  Setd. 

Another  matter  in  which  zn- 
crtafe  is  to  be  confidered,  is  the 
breeding  of  cattle,  and  other  an- 
imals. The  farmer  may  reckon 
increaie  in  neat  cattle  as  follow's  : 
He  that  has  one  cow  may  ex- 
pcft,  in  one  year,  to  poffefs  a 
cow  and  calf  ; — in  two  years,  a 
cow,  a  yearling  and  a  calf  ; — in 
three  years,  a  cow,  a  two  year 
old  fleer  or  heifer,  a  yearling 
and  a  calf.  The  two  year  old  > 
fleer  or  heifer  may  be  worth  3/. 
the  \t2i\\\v\g\os.  and  the  calf  2cj. 
So  that  the  increafc  from  a  cow  : 
worth  4/.  in  three  years  may  be 
worth  w.  Conrequently,he  that 
lets  out  acow  for  hali  her  increafe, 
as  is  the  practice  in  fome  places, 
gets  25  per  cent,  fimple  intereft 
on  the  money  that  lie  buys  her 
with.  No  man  therefore  that  1 
Isas  a  due  regard  to  his  own  in- 
terefl,  will  choofe  tohire  cows  at , 
this  rate  ;  or  take  them  to  the  \ 
halves  as  it  is  called,  engaging  to  \ 
return  the  cow  and  half  her  in-  ! 


1  N  D 

i  cr  onghf  to  rifque  the  cow  and 
'  her  offspring. 

I      The  increafe  of  fliecp  is  a  mat- 

;  ter  of  greater  uncertainty,  as  they 

I  are  liable   to  more  fatal  difeafes 

I  and  accidents  than   black  cattle 

j  are.     But  as  they   often   bring 

i  two  at  a  yeaning,  it  many   times 

\  happens   that   CAves    increafe  as 

faff  as  cows,  or  fafter.     But  as  a 

Iamb  grows  to  maturity  in  one 

year,  and  a  fhe  calf  not  in  lefs 

than  three  years,  ewes  may  be  faid 

to  increafe  three  times  as  fafl  a« 

cow<;.  even  when  thcv  bear  fingle. 

INDIAN  CORN,  Zea,  a^vdl 
known  and  ufefu!  plant  of  the 
grain  kind.  It  is  called  maize 
in  moil  countries,  zea  in  fome. 

The  parts  of  generation  are  on 
different  parts  of  the  fame  plant. 
The  panicles,  or  tofTels,  contain 
thcfarinajacundans,  which  fall- 
ing on  the  fiik,  or  the  green 
threads  at  the  end  of  the  ear,  im- 
pregnate the  ear,  and  render  it 
fruitful.  H  the  tofTels,  or  fpin- 
dles,  were  cut  off  before  the  grain 
in  the  ear  is  formed,  the  crop 
would  be  fpoiled.  This  has  been 
proved  by  experiment.  But 
this  effeft  will  not  take  place, 
unlefs  all  the  tofTels  be  removed  ; 
becaufe  one  of  them  will  be  fuf- 
ficient  to  impregnate  twenty 
plants.  The  filks,  or  threads, 
muft  be  undifturbed  to  the  time 
of  impregnation.  They  are  a^ 
neccfTary  as  the  fowing  itfelf.  If 
part  of  them  are  taken  away  or 
pulled  out  as  foon  as  they  ap- 
pear, part  of  the   corn  will  be 

every 
thefe 


wanting  on  the  ear  :  For 
frngle  grain  has  one  of 
tlireads.  It  is  therefore  a  bad 
practice  to  fuffer  weaned  calves 
to  go  among  the  corn,  as  fome 
do,  at  the  feafon  of  impregnation. 
Maize  is  confidered,  in  this 
country, as  a  mofl  important  crop, 
creafe  at  the  end  of  three  years.  |  It  is  prefcired  to  wheat  and  r^'e, 
'WT.ec  cows  aie  thus  let  tus  own-  •  becaufe  it  is  not  fubjcil  to  blaft- 

ing/ 


I  N  D 

«''g,  nor  to  any  oiher  Hiftempcr 
tliji  is  ant,  in  any  great  ilrgrcc, 
fi>  cut  Ihort  the  crop.  A  goo*! 
ioil,  ivell  tillctl  ana  matuired. 
ii-'Klom  laiJs  ol  giving  a  good 
pioducc. 

Anottter  advantage o(  it  is.  that 
it  is  more  pr«)dutfive  than  cither 
uhcai  or  rye  arc,  even  when 
ihcv  cfcapc  Walling  and  fnint. 

No  grain  on  the  whole  is  more 
ufotul  ;  tor  there  is  no  icher 
^lain  equal  to  it,  for  the  faiten- 
ing  ol  cattle,  poultry  and  fwinc. 
Xo  other  beel  is  fo  well  tafted  as 
that  which  has  been  fed  with  it. 
riie  pork  fattened  with  it  is  very 
white,  firm  and  fweci  ;  and  it 
Micikes  the  !lefh  of  all  animal* 
very  folid  and  good. 

Though  it  he  not  fo  light  and 
eafy  to  cTigolt  as  moll  other  forts 
of  corn,  it  is  louad,  that  people 
>vhj  arc  icd  on  it  Irom  their  in- 
i-ui:y,  grow  large  and  iirong, 
and  enjoy  very  good  health. 
There  are  a  variety  oi  ways  of 
preparing  it  tor  tood.  The  In- 
<fians  parch  it  iu  embers,  then  re- 
duce it  to  meal,  and  carry  it 
with  them,  when  they  go  lorih  to 
Kar,  or  huntinji.  \Vhen|they  eat 
ft  ihey  reduce  it  to  a  paite  with 
water,  tor  it  needs  no  other  cook- 
ing.  It  is  called  notake. 

1  he  green  ears,  eitluT  roafled 
or  boiled,  arc  delicate  tood  ;   ef- 
pecially  fome  of  the  more  tender 
r»)rts,    which   are   cultivated  for 
this    purpofe.      Ripe    corn,    the  j 
kulls    being    taken    off  with   a  ! 
weak  lie,  and  boiled  till  it  is  folt,  | 
is   an   excellent   food  ;  and  not  | 
inferiour  to  it  is    pounded  corn,  ' 
known  by  tlic  name  ol  lamp.  In 
cither  way,  many    account   it  e-  ; 
qual  to  rice.     Buttlic  mod  com-  ' 
mon  ufr   of  it  is  in  meal  lilted  i 
irom  the  bran,  made  into  bread  or  I 
puddings.     For  the  latter,  it    is 
allowed  to  excel   all  other  lot  is 
«f  Uour  ;  For  the  former  it  do^* 


I  X  n 


71 


not  anfwcr  well  by  inllf  ;  Inii  is 
excellent  when  nw  veil  with  an  c- 
qual  quantity  iot  rye  nK^I. 

T!».c  chcapncls  ol  lecd,  being 
next  to  RotlHiig,  Ku-atly  recom- 
mends, to  tbc  poorer  fort  of  peo- 
fle,  the  culture  ol  thi<  corn, 
or  it  is  often  the  cafe,  that  tluf 
arc  fearcelyable  to  procnrc other 
feed  tor  their  ground.  But  this 
they  can  ottrn  h.ue  gratis. 

In  our  new  lettLti.'cnts,  boi dur- 
ing on  the  wildernefs,  it  leems 
to  he  ol  more  impoitancc  than  ia 
other  places  ;  becaufe  the  italks, 
leaves  and  hulks,  being  gowl 
loddcv,  liippiy  the  now  begin- 
ners with  wiiitci"  food  for  their 
cattle,  before  hay  can  be  raifed. 
Of  all  foils  a  clayey  one  mav 
juiliy  be  accounted  the  woril 
kind  tor  this  crop.  A  loamy  foil 
will  not  aniwcr  without  a  plcnii- 
tuldrefrmg.  Butafandy  orgrav- 
elly  foil  is  bell  ;  or  faud,  it  it  be 
not  delliLuic  of  vcgeiabic  fowl. 
In  the  northern  parts  of  New- 
england,  it  is  notwt>rth  while  to 
plant  this  corn  on  clay,  n(»r  oq 
mere  loam  :  For  it  requires 
much  heat,  and  thefe  foils  are 
not  fo  much  warmed  by  (he  fim, 
as  fand^  and  gravelly  okcs.  Oii 
any  foil  it  requiics  much  tillage 
and  manure  in  this  country  ;  if 
cither  be  fcaiiiy,  a  good  ciop  is 
not  to  he  cxpeticd. 

I  think  it  is  not  t!xe  bcft  meth- 
od to  plant  it  on  what  we  call 
green  fward  ground,  at  Icaft  in 
ilic  northern  parts.  It  is  aj>t  to 
be  t(H)  backward  in  its  growth, 
and  not  to  ripen  io  well.  But 
if  wc  do  it  on  fuch  land,  the 
boles  Ihould  be  made  nuiic 
through  the  lurrows,  and  Jung 
put  in  die  hoJes.  It  lhi>  caution 
be  not  oblcrve*],  die  crop  will  bo 
uneven,  as  the  rot»ti  m  fome 
places  where  the  fum>ws  arc 
ihickcll,  will  ha.e  but  litde  ben- 
elii  from  die  luliui;}  vl  the  fward, 

Bui 


172 


I  N  D 


I  N  D 


But  iT  the  holes  be  mafic  through,  j  tance.     If  he  fhould  bring  i*,  for 
the  roots  wil!  be  fed   '.vith  both  j  inftance,  a  hundred  miles   from 

the  foiithward,  his  corn  would 
tail  of  ripening;  if  as  far  from 
the  north  he  muft  expc£f  a  lighter 
crop  ;  and  in  cafe  of  drought,  the 
latter  will  be  rcore  apt  to  fnffer, 
as  it  has  been  proved  by  experi- 
ment. A  farmer  in  the  county 
of  Briftol,  took  feed  from  the 
county  of  Cumberland.  It  came 
on  Aell  at  firil.  But  the  fummer 
being  pretty  hot  and  dry,  it 
parched  up,  and  produced  next 
to  nothing,  though  the  feed  he 
had  taken  from  his  ou'n  field 
turned  out  very  well. 

If  the  farmer  cannot  conveni- 
ently obtain  new  feed  ;  or  if  he 
be  loth  to  part  with  a  fort  that 
has  ffrved  him  avcU,  and  choofe 
rather  to  ufc  it  than  feed  he  has 
not  tried  ;  lei  him,  at  leaft,  {hift 
feed  from  one  field  to  another,  and 
efpecially  trom  one  kind  of  foil 
to  another. 

And  in  the  choofing  of  feed, 
fome  regard  Ihculd  be  had  to  the 
{late  oi  the  foil  on  which  it  is  in- 
tended to  grow.  1 1  it  be  poor» 
or  wanting  in  wannth,  the  yel- 
low fort  with  eight  rows  will  be 
moff  fiiltjbic.  as  it  ripens  early. 
A  better  foil  fhould  have  a  larg- 
er kind  of  feed,  tljat  the  crop  may 
be  greater, as  it  undoubtedly  will. 
If  twenty  loads  of  good  ma- 
nure can  be  afforded  for  an  acre, 
it  ffiould  be  fpread  on  the  land 
and  ploughed  in  :  If  no  more 
than  half  of  that  quantity,  it  will 
be  beft  to  put  it  in  holes.  In  the 
former  cafe,  the  corn  uuially 
comes  up  ^etter,  fuffers  lefs  by 
drought,,  and  worms  ;  and  the 
land  is  kit  in  better  order  after 
the  crop.  In  the  latter  cafe,  the 
plants  are  more  sfliiled  in  their 
growth,  ifj  proportion  to  the 
quantity  of  manure.  If  the 
manure  be  new  dung,  burying  it 
under  the  furroxvs  is  by  far  the 

better 


fixed  and  putrid  air,  fupplied  by 
the  fermeiuation  in  the  grafs 
roots  of  the  turr.  In  this  way,  I 
h?.ve  known  great  crops  raifed  on 
green  fward  ground,  where  the 
foil  was  a  fandv  loam,  but  moft- 
ly  r.nd. 

But  in  the  courfe  of  my  expe- 
rience, I  have  found  peafe  and 
potjitoes  the  mofl  fuitable  crops 
for  tlie  firil  year.  In  the  lecond, 
it  will  he  in  good  order  for  In- 
dian corn.  This  cafe,  however, 
may  be  pecidiar  to  the  northern 
parts  of  Newengland. 

For  this  crop,  it  is  certainly 
beft  to  plough  in  the  fall  pre- 
ceding ;  and  again  in  the  fpring, 
j'lft  before  planting.  If  the  land 
be  flat,  r>nd  i'lclining  to  cold,  it 
fhjuld  he  in  narrow ridgcsdurmg 
the  winter  ;  and  tf  it  is  naturally 
moiil,  the  rcrr  fhoi'M  be  pUnt- 
cd  on  ridges;  olherv»'ife  it  (hould 
be  plv)Ug:ied  pLiin  in  tlie  furing 
Sti.ne  reccmn'^end  gatlicring 
feed  c^rn  bef'ire  iiie  tir.^e  of  har- 
veft,  beirigtliecars  that  ftrff  rip- 
en. But  I  think  it  woiild  be 
better  to  marl:  them,  and  let 
thfin  reni.un  on  the  flslks,  till 
^ey  become  faplefs.  Whenever 
ffiev  are  taken  in  thev  fhould  be 
hung  up  by  the  hufRs,  in  a  dry 
pl.'oe,  fec.'re  from  ei:rly  frofl  ; 
and  they  whI  be  fo  hardened  as 
to  be  in  no  danger  of  injury  from 
the  frofl  in  M'intcr. 

I  \yould  net  advife  the  farmer 
to  plant  conf^antly  his  own  feed  ; 
but  once  :n  two  or  three  years, 
to  exchange  feed  with  fomebody 
at  the  diffance  of  a  few  miles. 
Charge  of  feed  is  doubtlefs  a 
ma?ter  of  importance  m  moft 
kinds  of  vegetables  ;  though  it 
has  not  yet  been  fo  plainly  dif- 
covered  in  this  as  in  fome  others. 
But  let  the  farmer  beware  of  tak- 
ing his  feed  from  too  great  adif- 


I  1^  o 


I  N  D 


m 


h^t'rr   met^.M. 


Kone  In  It  oW 
•  ill  tlic  holes. 
.•  cTiiinto  ex- 
by  Ih'jil  .furrows 
horfr  nl  Mi^lt.  from 


H  t  Ujuio, 
nia.-le  with  a 
throe  to  tow:  ii  i-r  f>  ; 

t'j  tht-  I  ir^<^onvl^  <'i  ..' 
fort  ot  corn  to  hr  planted.  This 
ftirrowin?  i<;  cafily  done  with  one 
horiV.inl's  by  no  m^Hnsl(>ft  labour, 
a<  the  iTjorc  the  ground  is  ftirrcd, 
the  more  luvunanily  the  corn 
will  grow.  If  dung  is  to  he  put  in 
tin."  Hiii^ifs  where  the  furrows 
c:  )rs  r.ich  other,  the  furrowing 
<h'->uld  be  the  decjKT,  that  the 
JuT»g  may  not  lie  too  light. 

The  right  time  of  feeding  the 
gnund  may  be  from  the  firfl  to 
tin*  tliird  week  in  May  ;  or  a  lit- 
tle iooncr  or  later  according  to 
the  drynefs  of  the  foil,  and  the 
f(>rw,iriincfs  of  the  (prmg.  The 
l.irncr"v  hive  a  rule  in  this  cafe, 
fatd  to  be  borrowed  from  the  abo- 
riginals, wluch  is,  to  plant  corn 
wiicn  the  leaves  of  white  oak  bc- 
g:n  to  appear.  But  fo  much  time 
IS  commonly  taken  up  in  plant- 
ing this  corn,  it  being  tedious 
^^>.I'v  tj  vl.;i^  it  in  holt's,  that  it 
•w:II  be  ncct  iiiry  to  begin  in  the 
driert  pan  of  the  Held  a  little  ear- 
lier than  this  rule  dircMs. 

Shell  the  feed  gently  by  hand, 

that  it  may  not  be  torn  or  bruif- 

cd  at  all,  rrje£ting  about  an  inch 

at  eacii  end  of  the  ear.     And,  if 

.iny  corns  anpe:!r  with  black  eyes, 

.''t  fhcm  alio  be  rejected,  not  bc- 

•'(•    they  will  not  grow  at  all, 

'       contrary  being  true  ;  butbe- 

tlie   bldckncfs    indicates, 

<         r  (omc  defect    in  drying,  or 

ot  porfeHion  in  the  grain. 

t'nr  five  corns  in  what  is  cjllcd 

z  hill,  and  let  thcmi  not  l.c  very 

:  '  ■       ••  ..  more  the 

1.  the  more 

tir,-y  w:!;  pr*     c;r;;    :;.c   growth  <>f 

each  ottier.     ¥c.::v  c«»rns  wou'  I 

perhapc  be  a  belter  naniber,  it  it 


were  certain  they  would  all  prof- 
per.  The  true  rc-i.'^ns  for  put- 
ting more  than  one  in  a  place  I 
take  to  be,  that  by  means  of  it, 
the  rows  may  be  fo  far  a  part  z% 
to  admit  of  ploughing  between 
them  ;  and  that  fotne  labour  in 
hand  hoeing  is  fave!,  it  being  n» 
more  work  to  hoe  a  hill  with 
five  plants,  than  with  one  in  it. 

Some  fleep  their  feed.  But  in 
general  it  had  better  be  omitted; 
for  it  will  occafion  it  to  pcrifh 
in  the  ground,  if  the  wcatlicr 
fliould  not  prove  warm  enough 
to  bring  it  up  fpeedily.  •  If 
planting  a  fecond  time  Ihould 
become  necclfiin',  by  means  of 
the  dellruftion  of  the  fir  ft  feed  ; 
or  if  planting  be  delayed  on  any 
account  till  the  beginning  of 
June,  then  it  will  be  proper 
that  the  feed  fhould  have  boiling 
water  poured  on  it.  Let  it  not 
foak  more  than  half  a  minute, 
and  be  cooled  fpeedily,  and 
planted  before  it  dries.  Ihe 
corn  will  be  forwarder  in  its 
^ro^^^h  by  fcvcral  days.  The 
Iced  fhould  be  covervl  with  a- 
boiit  two  inclies  of  CHrih. 

To  prevent  birds  and  vermine 
from  pulling  up  the  corn,  fleep 
fome  corn  in  a  ftrong  infufionof 
Indian  poke,  or  refufc  tobacco, 
and  fcjttcr  it  over  the  ground 
before  the  corn  is  up.  White 
threads  ftretched  over  a  field  of 
com,  will  prevent  crows  from  a- 
lighting  upon  it  :  But  I  doubt 
whether  this  will  deter  any  other 
birds. 

A  handful  of  afhes  on  each 
hill,  will  nourilh  the  plants,  and 
have  a  tendency  to  prevent  their 
being  annoyed  by  wonns.  Some 
|jy  it  on  jud  btlore  tlu'  firft,  or 
fecond  hoeing.  It  will  ha^  c  a 
better  effect  in  preventing  worms, 
if  laid  on  before  the  corn  is  up. 
[  But  it  i"i  corr.monly  dcfigncd  to 
I  anfwcr  chiefly  as  a  top  drelling  ; 

aad 


p«^, 


174  ^  ^'  ^ 

and  for  this  purpofe  itwoulaan- 
fwer  better  near  the  third  hoe- 
ing ;  for  then  the  plants  want 
the  greateH  degree  of  nourifli- 
rnent,  as  they  be^in  to  grow  very 
rapidly.  Two  dreflings  with 
jilhes,  to  an  fwer  the  two  pur- 
would  not  be  amifs. 
When  the  plants  are  three  or 
four  inches  high,  the  plough 
inuflpafs  intheuitervais,  making 
two  furrows  in  each,  turned  from 
the  rows  ;  and  then  the  weeds 
hilled  with  the  hand  hoe,  and  a 
little  frcih  earth  drawn  about  the 
plaats.  This  operation  we  call 
weeding. 

In  about  half  a  month  after, 
plough  again,  but  acrofs  -  the 
former  furrows,  and  turn  the  fur- 
rows towards  the  rows.  Then 
■with  the  hand  hoe  earth  the  corn 
9=;  much  as  it  will  well  bear. 
This  is  called  moulding,  or  haJf- 
hiiling. 

When  the  plants  are  about  knee 
high. and  before  they  fend  out  their 
panicles, or  fpindies.gi ve  them  the 
third  and  lalt  hoeing.  The  beft 
way  at  this  hoeing  is  to  plough 
one  furrow  in  an  interval,  both 
ways.  The  cultivator  with  two 
mouldhoards  v.'oald  be  better 
tor  this  work,  tlian  the  common 
borfe  plough,  as  it  would  throw 


I  N  D 

tt «  fuitable  diftance  from   die 
furface. 

Some  think  high  hills  are 
needful  to  make  the  corn  (land 
upright.  I  never  could  perceive 
the  advantage  of  it.  But  I  am 
confident  it  Is  ofiener  broken  by 
winds  when  the  hills  are  uncom- 
ly  high,  which  is  a  greater  evil 
than  its  leaning  half  way  to  tlie 
ground,  if  indeed  that  be  any 
evil  at  all,  which  I  think  may 
be  doubted. 

The  farmer,  who  wiflies  for  a 
large  crop  of  this  corn,  Ihould 
not  annoy  it  with  running 
beans,  or  pumpions  ;  the  former, 
by  w^inding  round  tl:!e  flalks 
and  ears,  cramp  them  in  their 
growth,  and  fometimes  bend 
them  down  to  the  ground 
by  their  weight  •  the  latter,  by 
their  luxuriant  growth,  rob  ilie 
hills  of  much  vegetable  food, 
and  by  their  thick  Ihade,  Ihut 
out  the  influeiKe  of  the  fun  from 
the  roots  of  the  corn.  So  that 
ibey  muft  needs  be  rery  cetri- 
mentai  to  its  growth,  and  ripen- 
ing. 

At  the  fccond  and  third  hce- 
ings.  all  the  fuckers  L'^ould  be 
buried  under  the  foil  ;  not  brok- 
en off,  as  is  the  common  prac- 
tice,  becaufe    this   wounds   the 


the  mould  equally  towards  each  )  plants.     II  the  fuckers  be  fuSer- 


row,  and  fave  labour  in  hand 
hoeing.  The  ground  would  thus 
be  cut  into  fquares,  and  the  hills 
almoft  completely  formed.  In 
fiuilhing  them,  car«  fliould  be 
taken  that  they  be  not  made  too 
high,  or  lleep  ;  that  fo  they  may 
not  divert  the  water,  which  falls 
in  rains,  from  the  roots.  When 
hills  are  too  much  raifed,  they 
alfo  prevent  the  warm  iniluence 
of  the  fun  upon  the  lowermoft 
roots,  by  too  great  a  thicknefs  of 
earth  ;  in  conlequence  of  which, 
the  plants  are  put  to  the  exertion 
of  fending  out  a  newiisiQf  roots. 


ed  to  grow,  they  feldom,  or  nev- 
er produce  fjir  and  perfedt  ears ; 
and  they  rob  the  ears  on  the 
main  ftalk  of  their  nourifliment. 
I  mention  the  fecond  and  third 
hoeings,  becaufe  the  luckers  will 
not  all  appear  till  the  third;  and 
the  fooner  they  arc  deJlroyed 
the  better  the  crop  will  be. 

Inftead  ot  the  common  meth- 
od of  planting,  if  your  land  be 
rich  and  cafy  to  till,  and  free 
from  obflacies,  I  ihould  tliink 
it  would  be  bcft  to  plant  the 
corn  in  the  drill  method,  the 
rovs  being  of  the  fame  diilancc 

as 


I  N  D 

as  in  the  common  way,  placing 
the  coins  about  five  or  fix  inches 
i^undc^  I  have  found  byexperi- 
mfift,  mat  a  grcatrr  quantity  of 
corn  may  be  produced  in  ibis 
method,  thsn  in  bills  ;  and  the 
labour  is  but  little,  if  at  all  in- 
creafed.  In  a  final  I  field,  where 
the  dung  had  hrcn  evenly  fprcad, 
and  ploughed  in,  I  planted  one 
row  thus,  the  reft  beinj  in  the 
common  way  ;  and  it  yield- 
ed, at  harvcft,  one  eighth  part 
more  corn  by  mcafure  than 
cither  of  the  two  ncareft  rows, 
the  corn  being  equally  ripe  and 
good. 

When  there  is  reafon  to  appre- 
hend that  the  ground  will  prove 
foo  moiH  tor  this  crop,  it  will  be 
advifable  to  plough  it  into  nar- 
row ridges,  and  feed  each  ridge  , 
with  one  or  two  rows,  as  fhall  be 
foimd  mod  convenient.  S<imc 
of  the  fined  crops  that  I  have 
known,  have  been  raifcd  in  this 
method. 

When  a  feafon  is  at  all  wet, 
this  would  be  the  beft  culture  in 
almoft  any  foil,  unlefs  the  very 
drieft  be  excepted. 

There  is  a  kind  of  ridging, 
which  would  be  very  proper  for 
tliis  plant,  not  only  on  account 
of  diving  the  foil,  but  that  the 
land  may  have  aw  alternate  reft- 
ing.  or  tallowing,  hetwern  the 
rows.  In  the  common  method 
of  ]>!nin  ploughing,  it  commonly  j 
•  '  '(.'ns  thjl  a  lull  Ujnd";  pre- 
•  in  the  place  of  a  hill  ')t  the 
preceding  year.  When  this  is 
tiie  cafe,  the  plants  will  receive 
]efs  iiourithmeui  than  it  the  hill 
had  had  a  new  fituation.  That 
each  hill  may  always  have  thir. 
advantage,  let  a  ridge  be  formed 
by  two  furrows,  turning  part  of 
a  row  of  hills  on  each  hde,  fo  as 
to  meet  cath  other,  in  the  la!t 
year's  interval  :  Thus  (mall 
Tidges  will  be  fo:  .isd,  ob  whicli 


I  >:  D 


'75 


the  rows  fhould  be  planted.  If 
dung  be  firlt  fpread  over  the 
ground,  the  molt  of  it  will  be 
buried  where  it  Ihould  be,  in  the 
bottom  of  thele  ridges.  At  the 
timeof  weeding,  or  at  the  feconJ 
ho.ing,  the  remainders  of  the 
old  liills  may  be  turned  towardj 
the  new  rows.  With  fuch  a 
mode  ol  culture,  land  could  not 
foon  be  exhaufted,  even  by  a  fuc« 
ccflivc  cropping  with  maize. 
Land  which  has  before  beea 
planted  on  ridges  is  as  proper  for 
this  management,  as  if  it  had 
been  planted  in  hilh,  or  even 
more  proper.  For  the  fuccefs  of 
a  method  not  very  diflinxilar  to 
this,  fee  Experiment  for  raijing 
Indian  corn,  in  the  M.fmiori  of 
tfu  Ainericnn  Academy ^  by  Jofeph 
Greenleaf,  Efq. 

Thetollels,  ortop  fl3lks,thoul(l 
not  be  cut  oft,  till  the  top  ot  the 
fpindle  is  perfectly  faplefs.  I 
think  we  iifually  cut  them  too 
early,  unlefs  their  total  greennefs 
for  fodder  be  a  fufficieut  com- 
penfation  for  pinching  the  ears. 
The  wounding  and  mutilat- 
ing of  moft  other  annual  plants, 
in  their  green  tlate,  is  known  to 
make  them  lefs  truittuk  I  have 
fufpecicd  the  eiTc6k  mull  be  the 
fame  on  tliis  plant. 

To  f^tisfy  myfelf,  I  made  the 
following  experiment.  The 
whole  ot  a  fmatl  rield  was  topped, 
Sept.  lo,  17S.5,  excepting  two 
rows  through  ttie  middle,  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  Ipindlcs  being 
quite  dry.  1  he  tops  ol  the  two 
rows  were  not  cut  at  all.  The 
two  uncut  rows  produced  a 
tenth  part  more  corn  by  meafurc, 
than  the  two  nearell  rows  did. 
The  quantity  oi  ripe  corn  wa« 
e<)ual,  all  the  excefs  being  in  the 
green  tars.  I  ^\ri  led  by  this  ex- 
periment to  think  theflalk  ought 
never  to  be  lopped  at  all  :  Tor 
the  gieenu«r>  oi  the  llalks  mak- 
ing 


176  I  x\  D 

ing  thcra  a  belter  focder,  will 
not  cornpeiiiate  for  the  lufs 
vi  a  tenth  part  of  the  corn,  it 
nothing  be  reckoned  for  the  ex- 
tra labour  of  topping  and  preferv- 
ing  them.  P.ut  as  ?vl.  Aimen 
I'.as  fuggefted  that  the  panicles 
fnoukl  be  cut  oft  as  foon  as  the 
plants  are  impregnated,  I  cuoofe 
lather  to  fufpend  my  judgment 
concerning  it,  till  I  fee  the  reiult 
of  more  experiments. 

We  are  certainly  giility  of  an 
error  when  we  har\  eft  this  corn 
too  early.  The  difference  of  ear- 
ly and  late  harvefted  corn  may 
be  feen  by  the  thrinking  of  corn 
in  the  former  cafe^  In  drying, 
loige  fpaoes  will  be  leit  between 
the  kernels  on  the  cob  ;  but  that 
>\hich  is  well  ripened  on  the 
jialk,  will  fnew  no  fuch  inter- 
itices.  The  corn  will  undonbt- 
cdly  be  growing  better  till  the 
flalk  below  the  car  is  perfectly 
iaplcfs,  and  the  cob  dry  ;  receiv- 
ing continual  nouril'imcnt  from 
the  fan,  unlefs  the  trofl  or  fome 
accident  fliould  happen  to  pre- 
vent it.  Squirrels  and  other  an- 
imals drive  people  to  early  har- 
vei'iing  ;  but  there  is  commonly 


•  re  lull  than  idved  by  it. 
Vv'^hen  corn  Hands  tolerably  late 
from  the  ;;ttacks  of  tame  arid 
\v:lil  annuals,  hai  \eitiug  early  is 
aa     unpardcnable    error.      See 

This  plant  is  fo  luxuriant  in 
i.s  growth  tliat  it  impoverifhes 
the  foil  tdfter  than  almoil  any 
other  crop.  Therefore  it  is  not 
s;ood  hulbandry  to  plant  it  more 
than  two  years  in  fnccc'Iion.  It 
would  be  better  fliil  to  grow  it 
bat  one  year  in  the   fame   place. 

Tmopean  writers  fay,  the  land 
thould  be  ploughed  as  foon  as 
tb.e  crop  is  off,  to  prevent  the 
italks  trom  drauing  the  moiflure 
out  ot  the  ground.  But  the  rea- 
ion  of  tkis  is  not  fo  evident  as<  10 


t    xV    O 

carry  conviction, unlefs  the  ftems 
arequiteinagreenflate.  Itis,how- 
ever,  a  good  method  to  plough 
all  fields  in  tillage,  as  foOn  as  the 
cr  jp  is  off. 

INOCULATING,  or  BUD- 
DING, inferting  a  bud  fo  that  it 
will  live  and  grow,  in  the  fide  of 
the   trunk,  or  limb  of  a  tree.     It 
anfwers  the  fame  end  as  grafting. 
!  Mr.  Miller  fays,    '*  This  iscom- 
j  raonly  praftlfed  upon  all  forts  of 
!  ftone  fruit  in  particular,  fuch  as 
I  peaches,     nettarines,      cherries, 
j  plums,  &c.  as  alfo   upon  orang- 
j  es  and  jafmines;  and  is  prefera- 
I  ble  to  any  fort  ot  grafting.     The 
method   of  performing  it  is   as 
,  follows  :  You  muff  be  provided 
[  with  a  (harp  penknife,  having  a 
■  ildt  haft  (the  ul'e  of  which  is  to 
I  raife  the  bark  of  the  ftalk  to  admit 
I  the  bud  i  and  fome  found  has  mat, 
i  ^rhich  Ihould  be  foaked  in  watcr^ 
I  to  increafe  its  Itrength,  and  make 
j  it   more   pliable  ;    then   having 
taken  off  the  cuttings  of  the  trees 
I  you  are  to  propagate,  you  fliould 
j  choofe  a  fniooih  part  of  the  ftock, 
!  about  five   or  lix   inches   abov£ 
]  the  furtace  ot  the  ground,  if  de- 
I  f'gncd  for   dwarfs  ;    but  if  for 
}  ffandards,  they  iliould  be  budded 
:  fix   ieet  above    ground   ;    then 
1  with  your  knife  make  ahorizpn- 
i  tal  cutcrofs  the  rindof  theitock, 
and  from  the  middle  ot  that  cut 
make  a  flit  downwjrds  about  two 
inches  in  length,  fo  that  it  may 
be  in  the  form   of  a    T   ;    but 
you  mufl  be   caretul  not  to  cut 
too  deej),  left   you    w^ound    the 
ftock.      Then   having    cut     off^ 
the  leaf  from  the  bud,    leaving 
the  toot   Hock   remaining,   you 
Ihould  make  a  crols   cut  about 
halt  an  inch  below  the  eye,  and 
with  your  knife  flit  off  the  bud, 
with  part  of  the  wood  to  it,  in 
form  ot  an  efcr.tcheon:  This  done« 
you  muff  with  your  knife  pull 
off  that  part  of  ihe  wood  which . 

was 


I  N  O 

"as  tiken  with  ilic  bud,  obferv- 
1:1::  whetlicr  the  eye  ol  the  bud 
'  ',ch  to  it  or  not  (tor  all  thofe 
N  which  lofc  their  eyes  in 
pinj?lhould  l)c  thrown  away, 
^  good  for  nothing. J  Then 
hjvnij;  gently  railed  the  bark  oi 
the  flock  ^vjiere  the  crofs  inci- 
fion  was  maile,  with  the  flat  haft 
of  your  penknife,  cleave  the 
bark  from  the  wood,  and  thrufl 
the  bud  therein,  obferving  to 
place  it  rmooih  between  t!ie  rind 
and  the  wood  ot  the  ffock,  cut- 
ling  ofTany  part  ot  the  rind  be- 
longini{  to  the  bud,  which  may 
be  tiK)  long  for  the  flit  made  in 
the  flock  :  And  lo  having  exaft- 
ly  fitted  the  bud  to  the  flock,  you 
mufl  tie  tliem  clofely  round  with 
has  mat,  beginning  at  the  under 
part  ot  the  Hit,  and  [o  proceed 
to  the  top,  taking  care  that  you 
do  not  bind  round  the  eye  of 
the  bud,  which  lliould  be  left 
>pen. 

"  When  your  buds  have  been 
inr>cu!ated  three  weeks  or  a 
month,  you  wiil  fee  which  of 
them  have  taken  ;  tliofc  of  them 
which  appear  fliriveled  and  black 
being  dead,  but  thofe  w'aich  re- 
main trelh  and  plump  you  may  de- 
pend are  joined.  At  this  time  you 
ihouldloofen  the  bandage,  which, 
if  not  done  in  time,  will  pinch 
'he  flock,  and  greatly  injure,  if 
•  '>i  deflroy,  the  bud. 

"  The  March  following"  (per- 
haps April  in  this  country)  "you 
muft  cut  oif  the  flock  about  three 
inches  above  the  bud,  floping 
it  that  the  wet  may  pafs  off,  and 
not  enter  the  ll<»ck.  lo  this 
part  ol  the  flock,  left  above  the 
Dud,  it  is  very  proper  to  fallen 
the  (hoot  which  the  hud  inakLS 
in  fummer,  to  fccure  it  from  be- 
ing blown  out  ;  but  this  part  ot 
th«  flock  niufl  continue  on  no 
longer  than  orr:  viir.  after  which 
it  mufl  be  cm  oil  ciofc  above  the 

X 


I    x\    S 


177 


bud,  that  the  flock  may  be  cov- 
ered thereby, 

'*  The  time  tor  inoculating  is 
from  the  middle  of  June  to  the 
middle  of  Augull,  according  to 
the  torwardncfs  ot  the  feafon, 
and  the  particular  forts  of  trees 
to  be  inoculated,  which  may  be 
eafily  known  by  trying  the  buds, 
whether  they  will  come  off  well 
from  the  wood.     But  the  mofl 

?;eneral  rule  is,  when  you  ob- 
erve  the  buds  formed  at  the  ex- 
tremity pi  the  fame  year's  fhoots, 
which  is  a  fign  of  their  having 
finifhed  their  fpring  growth.' 
Gardener's  Did. 

INSECT,  anumcrcur.  clafs  off 
animals.  They  have  the  name 
infe6l  trom  their  appearing  to  be 
almoft  cut  off  in  the  middle,  or 
in  fomc  part  of  their  bodies. 
But  the  name  is  alfo  applied  to 
worms,  &c.  which  have  not  thi* 
mark  of  diflin6fion. 

A  general  divifion  of  infe£ls  is 
into  wingyd  and  naked  ones. 

Both  k.rts  arc  generated  from 
eggs.  They  are  either  hatched 
in  the  form  of  their  parents,  or 
into  maggots  cr  worms,  which, af- 
ter feveral  tranfmutations,  come 
to  be  in  the  form  ot  their  parents. 

I  do  not  undertake  fo  great  a 
tafk  as  to  difcourfe  of  all  forts  of 
infects  ;  but  only  of  thofe  which 
are  found  to  be  noxious  to  the 
plants  that  are  cultivated  in  this 
country. 

As  I  have  already  faid  fome- 
thing  concerning  ca:erpillars, 
and  treated  more  largely  on  that 
formidable  infett  the  canker 
worm  ;  I  thall  here  begin  with 
one  that  is  aln.ofl  equally  terri- 
ble in  its  cffccis,  the  ipecies  of 
?|ryllus,  or  locufl,  called  the 
Irajshopper,  wfiich  is  as  difli- 
cultiogujr!  ^  the  canker 

worm,  or  n.  To.     More 

or  fewer  ot  tiicie  well  known  in- 
fers  appear  every  year  on  our 
grounds. 


lyS 


I  N  S 


grounds,  more  efpecially  in  dry 
fummers  ;  and  in  a  fevere 
drought,  they  ufiially  appear  in 
cndlefs  fwarms,  hurting  the  mo  ft, 
and  deftroyingmany,  oi  the  Irnits 
of  the  earth,  by  eating  off  the 
more  tender  parts,  and  depriving 
the  ileins  of  their  fap.  They 
tave  this  year,  1789,  in  fome 
places,  eaten  off  the  bark  of  the 
limbs  of  trees  and  fhrubs. 

An  infufion  of  v.-orm\vood,  or 
a  decoFiion  of  almoft  any  bitter 
plant,  fprinkled  on  vegetables,  it 
IS  aflerted,  will  prevent  their  eat- 
ing them.  But  this  labour  will 
be  thought  too  tedious,  unlefs  it 
be  in  gardens  or  other  very  fmall 
mclofares.  And  this  would  be 
to  no  purpofe,  when  green  tood 
to  fupply  them  became  fcarce. 
In  this  cafe,  they  will  eat  onions, 
2nd  all  forts  of  plants,  worm.wood 
not  excepted. 

It  our  farms  were  always  plen> 
tifully  flocked  with  fowls,  and 
particularly  with  turkies,  thefe 
infetts  would  be  thinned,  as  they 
are  fond  of  them,  and  eat  mul- 
titudes of  them,  efpecially  in 
the  beginning  of  fummer,  before 
they  can  make  much  ufe  of  their 
wings.  But  this  can  be  only  a 
paitial  remedy. 

As  the    grafshonpers    depofit 
their  eggs  in  the  furtace  of  the 
foil,  it  is  thought  that  the  greateft  I 
produftion  of  them  is  in  mowing 
grounds,  and  in  open  fields  that 
are  not  much  trodden  by  cattle. 
They   are  feldcm  fecn  to  tarry 
in  forefis,  or  in  very    moiil   or 
ihady  places  ;  though  they  irav- 
erfe  fuch  places  in  quelt  of  their 
food.     The  only   way    then,   it 
leems,   to    guard   again  ft    them 
moll  effectually,   would  be,   to  ' 
paflure  the  whole   of  our   high  I 
lands  clofely,  excepting  the  pans  j 
that  are  in  tillage.     For  the  eggi'  ! 
will  be   moflly   cruflied  by   the  | 
£ett  of  cattle.     But  for  a  whole  : 


I  N  S 

country  to  do  this,  ^vould  pei^ 
haps  be  confidered  as  m.aking  too 
great  a  facrifice  ;  and  for  one  or. 
two  farmers  in  a  village  or  neigh- 
bourhood to  do  it,  would  have 
hut  little  effetf,  unlefs  where 
they  are  furrounded  with  large- 
forefts  ;  becaufe  the  infe£ls, 
when  they  come  to  be  furnilhed 
with  ffrong  wings,  at  which  time 
they  devour  faftefl,  pafs  from 
field  to  field  with  the  rapidity  of 
horfes. 

However,  as  they  abide  and  eat- 
cbiefly  where  the  foil  is  natural- 
ly dry,  a  proper  expedient  may- 
be, to  cultivate  hay  crops  only 
on  low  and  moifl  lands,  which  is 
prafiicable,  as  thefe  lands  might 
be  made  far  more  produftive 
than  they  aie.  Or,  if  on  high 
land,  it  fhould  be  fome  early 
crop,  fuch  as  clover,  which  may 
be  mowed  before  this  infeft  has 
attained  to  its  full  growth. 

The  blaik  zvorm,  an  infe£l  fo- 
called,  is  an  alb  coloured  worm,, 
v/ith  a  Itripe  aJmoft  black  upon 
its  back.  At  its  full  growth,  it  is 
about  the  bignefs  of  agoofe  quill, 
and  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
length.  The  greateft  mifchief 
that  they  commonly  do,  is  ta 
young  cabbages,  cauliflowers, 
&c.  They  never  choofe  to  ap- 
pear ovk  the  furface  in  the  day 
time  ;  but  keep  themfelves  buri- 
ed about  an  inch  or  two  beneath 
it.  In  the  night  they  come  up, 
eat  off  the  fteras  of  the  young 
plants,  and  again  bury  them- 
felves in  the  foil,  often  attempt- 
ing to  draw  in  the  plants  after 
them. 

They  fometiraes  deilroy  oth- 
er vegetables.  I  have  know^n 
them  to  cut  off  great  part  of  a 
field  of  IndiaH  corn,  before  the 
firft  hoeing  :  But  this  is  not  a 
comn^^^n  cafe. 

They  begin  to  devour  in  Mar, 
and  ceaie  in  June. 


INS 


I  X  S  t79 

ciicUng  tliem  with   rock  weed. 


.  vcrv 

<.  :•-                 

KTOund     that 
Prom  the  finr 

i«cs     c 

f    of 

incni  I  concl 

Lin.t.'  .1:; 

it  IS  very 
.  ...s  to  them. 
Tome  meafurc 

but    in    water. 

lioaig 
fait. 

miichiet^ 
or    brine. 

won!-' 

1 
whitf  woi  :n 
jDin.iin  the  ' 

n,.,. 

••--lotes. 
ij,a 

-ket,  ot  a 

plant   ot   n-.a;/L 
the  Item  ot  ;he 
<icrs  ii    u 

pl'in;. 

i)    eat?  ori 
and    re«- 
'  '    a    its 

excirmc: 

jvet, 

it  may  he  ^.:.  r. 
iti  the  fotia  t. 

Thev 

J  worm  T» 

the  plants,  when  tnc  muriiiujx 
dew  remains  on  them.  1  his 
forms  a  bitter  covering  for  th/ 
plants. which  the  bugs  cannot  en- 
dure the  tdfic  of.  Pct'iaps  water- 
ing the  plams  with  foiTic bitter in- 
fufion  might  equally  prcfcrvc 
thera,  if  it  were  often  repeated. 
1  preltr  foot,  as  I  know  by  ex- 
perience that  once  fprintling 
with  it  will  anfwer  the  end,  un- 
lefs  it  happen  to  be  walhed  off 
by  rain.  When  this  happens, 
the  footing  Ihould  be  repeated. 
T/u:  tumipjly,  a  well  known 
winged  infect,  which  eai.^  the 
feed  leaves  of  turnips,  before  the 
Srft  rough  leaf  appears.    Their 

ind  ot 


commonly  foimd  in  ;  •:  1 

arc  rich  and  iluiigy,   ]•  ■  ,y  j 

in  corn  that  grow.-  iieji  lo  liarns;  '. 
but  they  will  lonjctinies  prevail  1 
throiig.h  whole  fields.  Sprinkling  j 
tlu-  C"!:i.  when  they  begin  to  eat,  1 
akhe  ot  woodalhes  wiU  1 

c ..y  deftroy  them.     So,  I  J 

luppole,  would  almoilany  bitter 
intution  ;  but  of  this  I  have  made 


DO  trial, 
is  a  ' 

OUt'AaK. 


t,  the 

^  1  >M  \>  un.  Ii  ai  C  itrip-   I 

ed  with  yellow  and  black.  They 
cat  anti  dciboy  the  young  plants  j 
ot  cucunibcri,  niekns,  Iqualhcs  i 
and  pumpions.  They  iK'gin  to  | 
eat  while  the  plants  are  in  iced  I 
leal  ;  ai   "  -  j 

ed.  will  •  "I 

pccially  in  a  ::. 

Th'--iV  \rAc  confidcr- 

ably  tin:  ::i  in  a  1 

dewy  ni  .  have  , 

not  the  Jrtv:  cir  wings, 

and  cannot  ^. 

I  have  ion. 


i'  !<-•. 


a2:i  1:1  1:; 


•dihe 
V  en* 


ravage's  are  lo  genera!,  a 
fuch  confequence,  that  the  inge- 
nious have  attended  to  the  matter, 
and  exploied  many  inetliods, both 
preveiiti%  e  and  remedial,  to  '^p- 
pofc  them. 

One  oi  the  preventive  meth- 
ods is,  making  the  ground  fo  rich 
that  the  plants  will  grow  rapidly, 
and  continue  but  tor  a  ihcrt  time 
in  the  feed  leaf  ,•  for,  after  the 
evolution  oi  rough  leaves,  the 
plants  are  aimolt  or  quite  out  of 
danger  ot  this  infect. 

It  is  alfo  recommended,  to 
pafs  a  roller  over  tlie  ground,  as 
loon  as  the  feed  is  fown.  This 
not  only  prevents  the  too  fud- 
den  efcape  of  the  moiflure  in  the 
furface,  and  caufes  the  plants  to 
rife  fnoncr  and  in<>re  vigoroufly  ; 
but  fills  i.p  o\  cloli-s  ti*n  tliou- 
fand  little  :ntcrllic  fur- 

lace,  which  lervc  :  ^   a« 

places  ot  rcneat.  1  lic  confe- 
qtience  is,  cthfr  that  they  are 
d  .  driven  away 

b  :.s,  or  ilifTcn- 

ed  With  the  dcw^  of  the  cvldeit 
nigliti. 


i8o  I  N  S 

Mr.  Tull  thought  it  bell  that 
the  feed  fhould  be  buried  at  dif- 
ferent depths  in  the  foil,  and  fays, 
3s  they  will  come  up  at  different 
times,  either  the  firfl;  or  the  laft 
will  probably  efcape  the  fly.  He 
iiccordingly  conftnicled  his  tur- 
nip drill  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
bury  the  feed  at  different  depths. 

The  fame  thing  in  effeft  may 
be  done  in  the  broad  caft  way  ot 
fowing.  The  ground  may  be 
harrowed  with  a  common  harrow 
with  iron  teeth  ;  then  half  the 
feed  fowed,  and  the  ground 
fmoothed  with  a  bufli  harrow  and 
rolled  ;  then  the  other  half  fow- 
ed, and  huihed  in,  or  raked.  Al- 
ter which  the  roller  fhould  be 
again  paiTed  over  the  furiace. 

Some  writers  on  this  iubjeft 
are  confident  that  the  bell  meth- 
od is,  to  fow  the  feed  very  thick, 
equal  to  double  the  ufuai  quanti- 
ty oi  feed,  that  when  the  flies 
have  eaten  all  they  can,  there  may 
be  a  luifficient  number  of  plants 
remaining  toinfure  a  good  crop. 
Another  project  is  fowing  a  mix- 
ture of  old  and  new  feed,  as  the 
latter  is  known  to  come  up  foon- 
cr  than  the  former,  one  or  other 
of  which  may  happen  to  elcape. 

After  the  turnips  are  up,  if  the 
flics  appear  in  plenty,  it  is  advif- 
able  to  pafs  a  fmooth  roller  over 
them.  If  the  roller  be  drawn 
carefully  by  hand,  or  even  by  a 
horfe,  turning  the  roller  about  on 
the  head  lands  only,  the  opera- 
tion may  be  performed  without 
hurting  the  turnips  ;  and  the  flies 
Avill  moflly  be  cruilied  by  the 
roller.  This  operation  fliould  be 
performed  in  a  dewy  morning, 
when  the  flies  are  fo  ftiff  that 
they  cannot  make  their  efcape. 

Or,  inflead  of  this,  I  am  confi- 
dent that  the  fifting  of  foot  over 
the  turnip  ground  in  a  dewy 
jnorning  will  be  effeftual  ;  at  the 
fame  time  that  it  \vin  anfwer  as  a 


I  N  S 

flight  top  drefTing,  and  increafo 
the  growth  ot  the  plants. 

Some  writers  alfert,  that  only 
drawing  a  green  bufli  of  elder 
over  the  young  plants  will  h\e 
them  from  the  fly.  I  think  it 
may  have  fome  tendcHcy  towards 
it  ;  but  1  have  never  made  the 
experiment.  An  inf  ufiori  of  el- 
der, applied  by  fprinkling,  would 
probably  have  a  greater  effeft. 
But  I  fhould  expeft  more  from 
an  infufion  of  tobacco. 

Some  fet  plants  of  tobacco 
thinly  in  their  turnip  ground, 
thinking  that  the  fcent  of  them 
does  fomething  towards  repelling 
the  fly.  I  have  jio  objection  to 
this,  excepting  that  a  much  rich- 
er ground  is  requifite  for  tobacco 
than  for  turnips,  in  our  climate. 

Some  attempt  to  clear  a  turnip 
grotind  from  flies,  by  making 
fmokes  ori  the  head  lands  around 
it,  or  chiefly  on  the  windward 
fide. 

Ike  red  worm  is  another  ene- 
my to  the  farmer.  This  infc6Hs 
flender,  and  ufually  about  an 
inch  long,  with  a  hard  coat,  and 
a  pointed  head.  It  eats  oflT 
wheat,  barley  and  oats,  above  the 
crov/n  of  the  roots.  It  perforates, 
or  bores  quite  through  bulbous 
roots,  turnips,  potatoes,  &c.  My 
turnips  for  feverai  years,  which 
were  fown  in  the  fpring,  have 
been  thus  almoft  ruined,  though 
on  a  foil  that  fuited  them.  When 
a  turnip  is  once  wounded  by 
them,  it  grows  no  bigger,  unlefs 
it  be  in  ill  fhapes,  and  hard  cx- 
crcfcences,  and  becomes  totally 
unfit  for  the  table.  As  to  pota- 
toes, I  have  feldom  known  them 
do  much  hurt,  unlefs  when  liiey 
were  planted  in  a  foil  that  did 
not  fuit  them,  particularly  in  a 
clay.  It  IS  eafier  to  fay  what 
will  not  flop  thofe  borers,  than 
what  will  do  it.  I  have  manured 
with  fca  mud  ;  applied  dry  fait. 

t9 


I  N  S 

<  tlic  foil  after  the  plants  were 
..p  ;  minjlci  dry  (".it  with  ilie 
Jced  when  itwasfowcJ  ;  ftcepod 
the  feeds  in  bruic  bcfarc  fowing, 
and  coated  tlicin  wiUi  fuli»hur  ; 
but  all  in  vain. 

I  luppole  the  burning  of  a  ftub- 
ble  as  it  Hands  would  dcllroy  .ill 
the  woi  rr.s  i\ut  happened  to  be 
very  near  to  the  furtace.  A  cer- 
tain Englilh  writer  thinks  that  a 
ported  fummer  fallow  would  def- 
troy  them,  partly  by  expofing 
fomc  ot  them  to  the  heat  ot  the 
fun  at  each  ploujjhins,  and  part- 
ly by  depriving  them  of  food. 

I  ihould  think  ploughing  late 
in  autumn  might  deflroy  many 
of  them,  by  expofing  ihemtothe 
mod  violent  attion  of  the  froll. 
Or  in  a  girden,  throwing  up  the 
foil  in  riiiges  with  t!;e  Ipade,  fo 
to  lie  during  the  winter,  would 
have  a  good  efFech  Liming 
jdentitully,  if  it  ct»idd  be  afford- 
ed, I  (hould  rely  upon  as  a  moft 
cffei'f  ual  antidote  to  this,  and  fev- 
cral  other  kinds  of  infeHs.  The 
CompUtc  Faimer  mentions  lime 
and  foot  as  good  antidotes  to  this 
infcft  in  particular. 

The  garjenflfu  is  a  minute  fly 
that  eats  cabbages,  and  other 
plants  ot  the  brujjua  kind,  while 
ihey  are  in  feed  leaf.  They  arc 
of  a  very  dark  colour,  or  nearlv 
black. 

I  once  applied  fome  clefts  of 
the  flems  ol  green  elder  to  fome 
drills  ol  young  cabbages,  which 
this  fly  had  begun  to  cAi,  and 
could  not  find  that  they  eat  any 
atterwards.  But  as  I  made  this 
trial  but  once.  I  dare  n<n  poh- 
ti\  y.    I  would 

hf  i   the  trial  of 

bi;  to  gardeners  who  are 

tro.  ;th  this  jnfch.    Thcy 

are  earlier  in  gardens  than  any 
other  infet^  ;  and  I  have  never 
known  them  fail  tj  apprar  in  a 
dry  fpring. 


I  N  S 


181 


Liee,  an  infctl  in  the  Ihape  of 
mites,  but  larger,  and  of  the  col- 
our of  the  plants ;  w'nich  eat  and 
deifroy  cabbages,  frcnch  turnips, 
muflard,  &c.  They  adhere  fo 
Ur»)njily  to  the  plants  that  rains 
aiid  Iforms  will  fcarcely  beat 
many  of  them  off ;  and  their 
bodies  are  fo  unthious  that  water 
will  not  foon  wet  them.  Salt 
manures  do  not  pre\eni  their  ap- 

F)earance.  I  have  often  fprink- 
ed  them  with  a  flrong  iniufion 
ot  tobacco,  which  does  but  partly 
conquer  them.  The  fmoke  of 
tabacco  I  have  tried  with  no 
greater  fuccefs  ;  and  urine  I  have 
found  to  have  little  efTeft  on 
tliem.  But  branches  of  elder 
laid  on  f  hf  plants  fcemed  to  have 
a  great  cflfe^t  this  fuinmcr,  17^7. 
I  have  never  been  able  to  find 
any  better  remedy  before,  than 
to  take  away  thofe  parts  of  plants 
which  are  almoft  covered  with 
them,  and  wipe  off  thofe  which 
are  fcattcring.  But  when  they 
have  taken  pofTclTion  of  the  cen- 
tre of  a  plant,  it  is  difficult,  if 
polfiblc,  to  preferve  it  by  wip- 
ing, as  the  young  leaves  are  too 
tendcr.and  too  much  crumpled,  to 
ad'nit  ol  being  cleared  of  the  in- 
f^'Cts  by  this  method.  Thewhole 
plant  in  this  cafe  fhould  be  remov- 
ed out  ol  the  way.  Froft  kills 
thefe  infers. 

There  is  a  kind  of  black  lice, 
which  afcend  the  trunks  of  apple 
trees  about  the  middle  of  NLy, 
aiid  afterwards  dj'p«'ar  on  the 
fmail  branches,  changed  to  the 
colour  of  the  bark,  and  flrongly 
adfiering  to  it.  1  know  ol  no 
hotter  way  to  deal  with  thefe  in- 
fects than  to  rub  them  off. 

Sometimes  the  leaves  of  trees 
will  appear  dead  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  fummer,  and  drawn 
together  with  hiaments  of  th'-  •! - 
pcarance  ot  c«)l)\A-.-b.  Thi 
oi  future  caicri-iilars  areen^.'-  . 

with 


iBz 


INS 


•%vith  thcfe  leaves.  Thefe  branch- 
es fbould  therefore  be  taken  off 
and  burnt  ;  not  fuffered  to  con- 
tinue through  the  winter. 

Maggots.  I  have  often  found 
a  v.'hite  maggot,  of  the  Ihape  and 
fize  of  thofe  in  cheefe,  preying 
upon  the  roots  ot  young  cabba- 
ges, turnips,  and  raddiflies.  My 
raddifhes,  when  fown  early,  Icl- 
dom  efcape  ;  thofe  that  are  fown 
in  June  moftly  profper. 

A  perfon  in  my  neighbour- 
hood, who  has  often  been  defeat- 
ed by  ihefc  infcfts,  in  his  at- 
tempts to  raife  cabbages,  declares, 
that  laft  fpnng,  as  ullial,  the  mag- 
gots attacked  his  cabbages  before 
he  tranfplanted  them  ;  and  that, 
having  a  fcarcity  of  plants,  he 
tranfplanted,  on  the  fame  fpot 
where  they  ufed  to  fail,  fome 
which  had  maggots  in  their  roots 
among  found  plants  :  That  as 
foon  as  he  had  done  tranfplant- 
iug,  he  watered  them  plentifully 
'ivith  fea  water  :  I'hat  the  water- 
ing was  not  repeated  ;  but  the 
3naggots  did  no  damage  at  all  ; 
and  that  his  crop  was  very  large 
iind  f'Ood.  Some  that  were  left 
without  watering  were  deiLroycd, 
as  before,  by  the  maggots. 

I  have  fince  tried  this  experi- 
ment, v.'ith  a  good  effert.  \'ery 
few  of  the  cabbages  were  touch- 
ed by  the  maggots.  But  I  find 
tljere  is  danger  in  applying  the 
iea  water  plentifully,  unlefsit  be 
in  a  wet  feafon.  The  plants  are 
in  danger,  when  the  ground  is 
dry,  of  imbibing  too  much  of  the 
fait.  In  this  cafe  their  growth  is 
greatly  obftrutted. 

Thoi'gh  I  have  conceived  that 
it  would  kill  all  forts  of  plants, 
to  pour  fea  water  upon  them,  the 
cabbage,  having  an  oily  lurfacc 
to  which  water  does  not  eafily 
adhere,  is  perhaps  an  exception. 
The  farmers  who  are  remote 
from  the  lea  cannot  apply  fea 


I  N  S 

water  to  their  cabbages,  without 
too  much  expenfe  of  carriage. 
But  they  canafFord  to  water  their 
l)lants  with  a  brine  of  equal  falt- 
ncfs.  I  wiil)  them  to  make  the 
experiment,  not  only  on  cab- 
bages, but  on  raddifhes,  &c.  It 
is  fafe  to  apply  fait  water  in  a 
wet  feafon,  or  juft  after  a  rain. 

The  HfJJianJIy,  \'o  called,  is  an 
infett  that  is  pernicious  to  wlieat, 
while  it  is  growing.  It  made  its 
appearance  in  the  time  of  the  late 
war,  in  the  vicinity  of  Newyork, 
and  is  fuppofed  to  have  been  im- 
ported with  the  German  troops. 
From  thence  it  has  fpread  into 
Connecticut  and  Newjerfey,  lay- 
ing waffe  whole  fields  in  its 
courfe.  A  more  formidable  in- 
fect has  fcarcely  ever  apjjcared  ia 
the  country. 

But  againrt  this  enemy  it  feems 
an  eafy  antidote  has  been  already 
difcovered.  A  letter,  figned  D. 
IVadfuorth,  which  has  lately  been 
publiflied  in  the  ncAvfpapers, 
communicates  a  method  of  pre- 
venting its  depredatio2is,  which 
the  writer  fays  he  has  leen  ufed 
with  effeft.  It  is  only  fteeping 
the  feed  before  fowing  for  twelve 
hours  in  a  ftrong  infuhon  of  the 
leaves  of  elder. 

In  the  lateff  edition  of  Dr. 
Mon'e's  Geography,  there  is  an 
account,  that  yellov/  bearded 
wheat,  fown  late  in  autumn,  cf- 
caped  the  Heflian  fly. 

The  palmer  zvcrm,  a  wanderer, 
as  its  name  lignifies.  This  is  a 
fm^all  worm,  about  halt  an  inch 
in  length,  with  many  legs,  and 
extremely  nimble.  It  appears  at 
different  times  in  difiercat  parts 
of  the  country.  I  have  feen  them 
only  on  apple  trees'and  oak  trees, 
in  any  great  abundance,  i  hey 
give  trees  the  fame  appearance 
that  the  canker  worm  does.  They 
appeared  in  the  county  ot  Cum- 
berland in  the  year   1791,  about 

ilie 


r  N  s 

^u-  niiiltlle  o[  June,  eating  oft 
f;:^  t  iViring  of  the  leaves  on 
}m)'ii  liJcs,  and  leaving  the  m-.Mn- 
hr.nuMis  part  entire.  I'hc  fol- 
Jowing  year  there  wore  none  to 
be  Iceji ;  atul  I  h.ivc  not  known 
them  in  any  place  two  years  in 
luccedion.  The  feeds  ol  them 
may  be  conftant,  wanting  only  a 
particular  llatc  of  the  weather  to 
produce  them.  The  fpring  which 
preceded  their  appcaranca  had 
Dccn  remarkably  dry,  both  in 
April  anif  May.  The  hilljry  of 
this  infefl  is  fo  little  known, 
that  I  will  not  imdertake  to  fay 
how  they  may  he  fuccefsfully 
oppofed.  I  made  fmokes  under 
»he  fruit  trees,  without  any  ap- 
parent cfleri.  Asthcy  let  them- 
felves  down  by  threads,  they 
may  be  thinned  by  Ihaking  the 
trees,  and  ilrikingolF  the  threads. 
Their  ravages  had  not  any  lading 
ef]ei:l  :  For  the  orchards  that  hai 
been  vifited  by  thembory  plenti- 
fully the  following  year. 

H^tci/:/,  an  inleft  injurious    to  j 
corn  in  granaries.  Shutting  up  an  ; 
apartment  and  filling  it  with  the  | 
fmokc  of  burning  fulphur   will  j 
dedroy  them.     But   the    Imoke  | 
Ihould  be  continued  as  iiiach  as 
r.velve    hours.     Grain    may   be 
cleared  ol  them  by  lifting,  in  a 
lievc  fo  made  that  the  infects  will 
pais  througli,  atid  the  grain   ftay 
behitid.     Sc<  t/ii  arliclr:  lyfroil. 

Tk^  timhtr  wot iHS  fhauld  alio 
bo  mentioned.  Thefcarc  of  two 
kinds.  Tlie  fmaller  kind  eats 
only  the  fappy  parts  of  the  wood, 
fiir,  Mf  ir  X.O  what  is  vulg.irly 
«  ler  bofl.     To  prevent  j 

fi...  . .,,  .iom  iliii  infetl,  nothing 
more  is  ticcelftry  than  to  fell  the] 
iimbor  in  December  or  January,  , 
in  which  months  it  is  fare  to  be 
trceft  from  fap.  When  it  is  ul-c-  | 
rfTary  to  fell  trec^  that  are  full  of } 
fap,  lonitthiiig  Ihould  be  done  to  i 
iivell  it  of  the   fap,  or  alter  the  1 


INS  1^3: 

(jtialiiy  ol  this  juice.  Soaking  it, 
even  in  trcfh  \»Mier,  will  be  oi 
fome  fcrvice.  Jiutin  (alt  water, 
loaking  will  be  nuuc  effedual, 
a^';.iinll  molf  kind-.  (»1  worms. 

The  large  boiing.  worm  is  far 
more  mifchievouj  than  the  one  I 
have  mentioned  ;  and  no  feafoa 
ol  filling  fecurcs  timber  wholly 
from  this  infci  t.  They  make  the 
greatelt  liavock  m  pine.  They 
are  hatched  in  the  cavities  of  the 
bark,  and  being  linall  when  they 
enter  the  wood,  they  grow  larger 
as  they  proceed,  till  their  boruig 
may  be  heard,  like  the  cutting  ot 
an  augur,  to  a  confiderable  dif- 
tance.  They  proceed  to  eat  tha 
wood  in  every  direction,  till  they 
become  as  large  as  one's  fir>ger, 
or  till  the  juice  of  the  wood,  be- 
ing altered,  is  unfit  to  nourilh 
them  any  longer. 

Steeping  the  wood  feafonnbly 
in  lalt  water  dcdroysthe  worms, 
or  prevejrts  their  entering  the 
wood.  li  the  trees  be  fcorclied 
in  a  Ught  flame,  before  they  have 
entered  too  tar,  the  cflect  will  be 
the  (axwe. 

To  prevent  and  cure  worms  in 
timber,  Mr.  Evelyn  recommends 
the  tollowing,  as  much  approv- 
ed. '■  Put  common  fulphnr  into 
a  cucurbit,  with  as  much  aqua- 
tortis  as  will  cover  it  three  fingers 
deep  ;  dillil  itio  a  dryncis,  which 
is  perfonned  by  two  or  three 
rectifications.  Lny  the  fulphur 
that  remains  at  bottom  on  a  mar- 
ble, ur  piif  it  in  a  glafs,  and  \z 
will  diflolve  into  an  oil  ;  witli 
this  oil  anoint  the  limber  wliicii 
is  infrHed  with  worms." 

Bcfides  the  dcflruriive  infe6}s. 
which  appear  more  or  lefs  every 
year,  there  appear  fonictimes 
Formidable  Iwirms,  or  armies  ot 
worms,  which  luller  fcarcelyany 
crccn  thing  to  cfcapc  them. 
I'hcy  overran  \v.  • '  j  ot  the 

county  of  Ciui in   tlwr 

vcar 


i84 


I  N 


year  1770,  rather  before  the  raid- 
dle  of  July,  to  the  extreme  con- 
ilernation,  as  well  as  the  great 
injury  ot  the  inhabitants.  They 
firippcd  the  corn  and  grafs  of 
the  leaves,  leaving  only  the  bare 
Hems,  and  thofe  deprived ai  their 
fap.  They  were  extremely  vo- 
racious ;  and  appearing  to  be  in 
the  utmoft  hafte,  they  all  moved 
in  the  fame  direcHon.  They 
fuFFered  nothing  that  they  could 
elimb  upon  to  itop  their  courfe. 
They  crawled  over  houfes,  and 
all  other  buildings,  unlefs  when 
they  found  a  door,  windovr,  or 
chink  in  their  courfe,  where  they 
cotild  enter.  Whether  they  pafT- 
ed  in  this  manner  over  the  plants 
they  deflroyed  I  did  not  take  no- 
tice. 

Between  twenty  and  thirty 
years  ago  the  fame  dreadful  in- 
fect appeared  in  the  county  of 
Eflex  ;  and  between  1770  and 
1780,  in  fom^  places  imthe  terri- 
tory ot  X'ermont. 

The  only  ways  of  oppofing 
their  ravages  that  have  been  uied, 
are,  either  to  mow  a  field  of  grafs, 
whether  it  were  firliy  grown,  and 
fit  to  cut,  or  not  ;  or.  to  fence  a- 
gainftthem  with  narrow  trench- 
es, made  perpendicular,  or  rath- 
er hanging  over,  on  the  fide  next 
to  the  field.  Many  fields  of 
corn  have  been  thus  faved  ;  and 
bulhels  of  tlie  worms  being  una- 
ble to  climb  fitch  crumbling  walls 
died  in  the  trenches. 

If  their  hillory  wei^  attended 
to,  perhaps  it  would  be  found 
they  have  flated  periods. 

It  is  not  fuHicient  tor  the  far- 
mer to  defend  his  vegetables 
againft  infects.  There  are  in- 
fects alfo  that  annoy  and  hurt 
his  animals. 

Lice  are  often  found  on  colts, 
and  on  neat  cattle,  efpecially  on 
yearlings  in  the  fpring.  When 
thefe  anijnals  become  poor,  they 


I  N  T 

moft  commonly  grow  louff, 
which  makes  them  ftill  poorer. 
Poffibly  it  may  be  owing  to  aii 
obftruftion  of  perfpiration.  For 
there  are  doubtlels  many  oily 
particles  in  the  effluvium  of 
healthy  cattle,  and  oil  is  an  anti- 
dote to  this  infeff.  Oiling  their 
{kins  will  clear  them  of  lice  ;  fo 
will  a  flronginfufionof  tobacco. 
But  when  they  are  cured,  better 
teeding  is  the  bell  prefervative 
from  the  return  of  the  infefts. 

The  tick,  or  tike;  is  the  fheep 
loufe.-  When  thefe  infefts  be- 
come numerous,  they  are  very 
hurttul  to  die  theep.  In  Eng- 
land, the  farmer  fmears his  fheep,, 
after  fhearing,  with  a  mixture  of 
butter  and  tar.  This  fortifies 
them  againft  being  injured,  either 
by  the  weather,  or  by  infetls. 
But  at  any  time,  oil,  or  tobacco, 
will  deftrov  the  ticks. 
.  INTERVAL,  the  fpace_  be- 
tween two  places,  or  things. 
The  word  is  ufed  in  hufbandry 
to  denote  the  fpace  between  rows 
of  corn,  or  other  vegetables  ;  ef- 
pecially in  the  horfe  hoeing  huf- 
bandry. 

By  interval,  alfo,  and  more 
nfually  in  this  country,  is  under- 
flood  land  on  the  border  of  a  riv- 
er. Interval  land  is  commonly 
fo  high  and  dry  as  to  he  fit  for 
tillage  :  and  yet  always  folow  as 
to  be  frequently  overflowed  by 
the  fwelling  of  rivers,  efpecially 
in  the  fpring.  On  fomeof  thele 
lands  the  water  often  continues 
fo  late  in  the  fpring  that  they 
cannot  be  fceded  till  June.  But 
the  increafed  fruitfulnefs  of  the 
foil  feems  to  more  than  make  up 
for  this  delay.  For  when  the 
waters  fubfide,  they  leave  a  fat 
fllme  upon  the  foil,  moft  friend- 
ly to  vegetation. 

The  foil  on  thefe  intervals  is 
moft    commonly    fand,  Avith    a 
large  mixture  of  the  fincft  vege- 
table 


K  A  L 

uahic  nijulil  ;  anJ  much  ot  u  is 
iTiadc,  Irora  time  to  lime,  by  the 
Hutting  of  the  channels  ol  rivers. 
This  fort  ol  land  has  generally 
bcca  prized  highly  in  this  coun- 
try. But  in  ioine  places  it  has 
become  lefs  fruittui  ot  late  than 
lijrmerly.  The  reafon  ot  this 
altcrjtiun  molt  probably  is,  that 
ihc  floods  are  iiot  fo  great  as,  or 
that  thc>  luhfide  quicker  than  tor- 
merly  ;  owing  to  the  more  culti- 
vated Itatc  ot  the  country,  and  a 
quicker  evaporation  ot  die  waters. 


KALE,  Colewort,  an  excellent 
potherb,  early,  and  of  quick 
growth,  which  ought  to  be  culti- 
vated in  this  country. 
.  KALENDAR,  an  account  of 
time.  Thar  great  natural  ill.  Dr. 
Linnxus,  did  not  approve  of 
larmers'  confining  theinfelves,  to 
tcrtaui  fet  days,  or  weeks,  for 
committing  their  feeds  to  the 
earth.  The  feafons  are  nuich 
forwarder  in  fome  year's  than  in 
others.  Thcrclore,  he  who  thus 
governs  hinifclf.  will  affuredly 
low  his  annual  feeds  fometimci 
too  early,  and  fomeriraes  too  late. 

That  a  better  practice  might  be 
introduced,  he  recommended  it 
to  his  countrymen  to  take  notice 
at  what  times  the  trees  unfold 
tlieir  leaves.  Nature  is  fo  uni- 
form in  her  operations,  that  the 
forwardnefs  ot  trees  is  an  unfail- 
ing indication  ot  the  forwardnefs 
of  the  fpring.  And  the  grnial 
Warmth,  which  caufes  trees  and 
Ibrubs  to  put  lorth  their  leaves, 
will  l;e  iumcient  ;o  caufc  feeds  to 
vtgctate. 

In  order  to  reduce  to  practice 
fa  ingenious  a  hint,  an  account 
ihould  be  made  out  of  the  firlt 
leafing,  and  I  may  add,  the  hlof- 
fooiiiig  of  a  variety  of  trees  and  i 
ihrubs.     I     luppolc     tr«cs    and  1 

Y 


K  A  L 


§5 


itirubs  to  be  moft  fuitablc  lor  tliia 
purpolc,  as  they  are  more  deep- 
ly rooted,  and  theretore  more 
ileady  and  iiniiormin  their  appear- 
ances, than  any  plants  which  are 
pcreiuiial  only  in  their  roots. 
1  hey  arc  tfpecially  much  more 
fo  than  annuals. 

It  is  certain  that  fuch  an  ac- 
count taken  in  one  place  will 
riot  anfwcr  alike  tor  every  part 
ot  the  country  ;  bccaufe  the 
vegetation  in  every  part  is  not 
equally  forward.  Therefore,  I 
would  earneftly  recommend, that 
in  each  degree  of  latitude, 
throughout  Newcngland  at  lcaft» 
fome  attentive  naturalift  would, 
make  a  lift  of  a  confiderable  num- 
ber of  trees  and  Ihrubs,  whicli 
arc  common,  and  near  at  hand  ; 
carelully  watch  their  appear- 
ances, and  minute  the  times  o£ 
the  firft  opening  of  their  leaves, 
and  alfo  of  their  bloffoming. 
By  comparing  the  accounts,  tha 
abfurdity  will  immediately  ap- 
pear, of  fowiitg  the  fame  kind  of 
feeds  at  the  fame  time  of  the 
month  or  year,  in  the  pd,  43d, 
44th,  and  4jth  degrees  ot  latitude! 
This  ir  a  matter  that  farmers 
ought  to  attend  to  ;  that  fo  thofc 
who  remove  trom  one  degree  of 
latitude  to  anothe.^  may  not  be 
contoundcd  concerning  the  trite 
times  of  fowing,  on  fuppofition 
that  they  have  been  once  in  the 
right  pra';iice.  The  right  in  one 
place  will  be  wrong  in  another. 

When  theie  accounts  are  ob- 
tained, let  trials  be  made,  by 
fowing  a  certain  kind  of  feed  be- 
fore, at.  and  attor  the  foliation, 
or  the  flowering  of  fome  particu- 
lar plant,  and  the  produce  com- 
pared. Let  accurate  experiments 
ot  this  kind  be  yearly  repeated, 
with  all  ihe  molt  ufcful  fpring 
plants  ;  by  this,  in  a  few  years, 
complete  kalendars  may  be  ob- 
tained toi  every  Jcgfce  of  lati- 
tude 


160 


K  A  L 


tude  in  this  country.  The  con- 
fequence  will  be,  that  the  farmer 
will  be  able  infallibly  to  read  the 
true  tiiiiCS  of  fowing,  by  cafting 
his  eye  upon  the  trees  and  ihrubs 
that  are  about  him.  We  have 
already  fach  a  rule  as  this,  with 
relpeft  to  Indian  corn  ;  but  it 
perhaps  ought  to  undergo  a  fur- 
ther examination. 

But  fuch  rules,  after  all  that 
can  be  done,  mufl  not  govern  us 
invariably.  The  right  times  of 
feeding  admit  of  (omc  latitude, 
on  account  of  the  degree  of  dry- 
3iefs  of  the  foil,  and  ot  its  expo- 
iure  to  the  folar  warmth.  Land 
ihould  have  the  right  degree  of 
moiflure  when  feeds  are  fown  on 
it ;  and  a  fouthern  expofurewill 
afford  an  earlier  vegetation  than 
a  northern. 

That  I  may  fet  an  example  oi 
what  I  have  been  recommending, 
and  begin  the  neediul  work,  here 
follows  an  account  of  the  leaiing 
and  bloifoming  of  trees  and 
fhrubs  in  that  part  of  Neweng- 
land  which  lies  in  the  44th  de- 
gree of  latitude,  in  the  fpring  o£ 
the  year  1789. 

Leafing,  RIofToming. 

Goofebery,     April  16     May  12 
Englilh  Willow       28 
Wild  red  Cherry    29     -     -     19 
Lilac       -       -  30 

Currant  ;  May  1-9 
Alder  -  -        5 

Apple  Tree     -         -       6     -    25 
Thorn  Bufh       -      -      7 
White  Birch  -         8 

White  Maple        -  9 

Beech       .       _       .      10 
Phmi  Trees     -      -       ij 
Hi2;le       -       -       -      14 
Elm         -         -      -      i> 
Summer  Pear       -        17     -     31 
^^''lleat  Plum     -       .     .     -       19 
Common  red  Cherry   19     -      20 
Damafcene  Plum      -       -         22 
Grey  Oak  -  20 

White  Oak  23 


K  I  L 

!      KALI,  Sa/icor?ua,  glafs  wort» 
1  or  rock  weed,  a  fea  plant  which 
grows  upon  rocks  near  the  flibre. 
i  By  burning  of  this  weed  a  hard 
I  fixed  fait  is  obtained,  which  is  a 
'  principal  ingredient  in  the  com- 
pofition  of  glafs.     Rock  weed  is 
J  alio  an  important  manure. 
!      KALMIA,    angujli  folia,     a 
j  flirub    commonly    called  laurel, 
or  lamb  poifon.     It  is  an  ever- 
green, with  narrow  leaves  of  a 
dirty  green  colour.     The  flowers 
are  red,  growing  round  the  up- 
per pa>t  of  the  flem.     It  grows 
plentifully    in    low    flat     land, 
which  has  nevef  been  ploughed^ 
It  indicates  a  cold  foil. 

But  I  mention  it  in  a  work  o^ 
this  kind,  on  account  of  its  poi- 
fonous  quality.  Sheep  and  goats, 
efpecially  young  lambs  and  kids, 
will  eatit,  whcncompelledbyhun- 
ger,  by  which  they  licken  and  die. 
The  W'ay  to  cure  them  of  this  fick- 
nefs,  is  drenching  them  repeated- 
ly with  milk,  mixed  with  oil,  or 
frefti  butter.  Or,  2  tea  of  rue, 
given  in  Icafon,  may  have  the 
fame  good  effett. 

KID,  the  young  of  a  goat.  Sec 
Goat. 

KILLING  of  beafls.  As  fev- 
eral  of  the  tame  kinds  of  animals 
are,  by  divine  leave,  ufed  as  the 
food  of  man,  it  is  requifite  to  de- 
prive them  at  their  lives  by  vio- 
lence. This  may  well  be  ac- 
counted a  difagreeable  operation, 
as  it  is  apt  to  hurt  the  feelings  of 
tender  hearted  people,  w  ho  have 
not  accuftomed  themfelves  to 
it. 

Mercy,  which  ought  to  be  ex- 
tended to  beafts,  and  even  to  the 
meaneft  animals,  pleads  that  their 
lives  Uiould  be  taken  in  a  way 
which  is  lead  painful.  The 
fpeediefl  method  is  therefore  in 
general  to  be  preferred.  The 
ufual  method  of  flunning  neat 
cattle  by  a  blow  on  the  head  is 
laudable. 


K  I  L 

laudable,  as  they  have  pr.il).iMy 
:u)  fenie  of  pain  after  it.  Hut 
iorone  to  knock  dorvu  ;i  hcafl 
whilo  aiuuhcr  is  holdiiicr  him,  is 
not  without  danqcr  to  ihc.  holfl- 
cv  ;  and  fuch  a  pratlicc  oui;jht 
not  to  be  contiiuied.  Iiiftcad  ot 
this,  the  bcall  Ihouldbe  lied,  and 
in  luch  a  manner  that  he  cannot 
cfcape,  nor  caufe  the  blow  to  be 
mifplaced  by  ilarting.  Thrufl- 
inp;  the  pointed  knife  into  the 
heart  ot  a  hog,  if  it  can  be  done 
without  crrii\K,  is  nearly  the 
Ame,  as  he  expires  in  a  tew  fec- 
onds.  But  who  cm  approve  of 
the  barbarous  pra^Uce,  of  hanp;- 
iiig  up  calves  ali\e  by  the  heels  ? 
Or  ot  carrying  thcni  to  the  butch- 
er on  horfes  in  a  poflure  ftili 
more  uneafy  ?  Decapitation  with 
a  finale  ftrokc  is  a  good  method 
of  killing  flicep,  lambs,  and 
calves.  Some  will  obie^i  that  it 
isnot  cleanly  ;  but  greater  clean- 
linefs  will  not  atone  for  cruelty. 
It  Ihould  be  remembered  that  no 
death  can  be  more  inilantaneous 
than  beheading  ;  therefore  none 
lefs  paintul. 

For  our  own  advanta;^*,  care 
llioidd  be  taken  that  the  blood  be 
entirely  difclnrged  ;  and  bchead- 
iMg  is  favourable  to  this  defign. 
lilood  is  not  wholcfome  food  ; 
one  reafon  perhaps  why  it  was 
anciently  foi bidden  by  divine 
uithority  ;  and  the  lawtulncfs  of 

ating  it  leenis  difputable  among 

liridians. 

Tlie  time  of  killing  beef  is  to 
be  regulated  by  the  market,  and 
the  advantage  and  convenience 
of  the  tarmor.  And  the  fame 
things  muff  fix  the  time,  if  he 
fells  them  to  the  butchers.  Reef 
that  IS  only  grafs  fed  muft  be  kill- 
ed as  early  as  the  beginning  of 
November  ;  becaufc  after  this 
time,  grafs  will  not  incrcafe  the 
faincfs  of  cattle.  This  may  be 
afforded  at  the  loweft  price,  per- 


K  I  T  i8f 

haps  2]  pence  prr  Ik,  without  lofs. 
Cattle  that  are  l.ttr  1  till  Decem- 
ber mufl  have,  befides  grafs  or 
hay,  corn  or  juicy  vegetables,  or 
both,  to  iiicreale  their  fatnefs. 
1  he  price  of  beef  therefVjre  ought 
to  be  higher,  by  about  two  far- 
things. If  not  killed  till  January, 
the  price  Ihould  continue  rifing, 
at  lead  in  flic  fame  j)roportion  ; 
and  foon,  till  the  time  ot  fatting 
by  grazing  returns.  / 

KILN,  a  fabrick  for  admitting 
heat,  to  dry  or  burn  various 
things.  Malt  is  dried  on  a  kiln. 
Another  fort  of  kilns  is  ufed  for 
the  burning  of  liinc  (lone.  A 
lime  kiln  Ihould  be  conflru61ed 
of  a  fort  of  Hones  which  will  eii'- 
durc  the  fire.  Hut  it  fuch  can- 
not beeafily  obtained,  bar  1  burnt 
bricks  wilt  anfwer,  and  laft  a 
goodwiitle.  The  Ihapeofalimc 
kiln  (hoidd  be  like  that  of  a 
pitcher,  widcff  in  the  middle,  and 
gradtially  narrower  to  the  top 
and  bottom.  Tiie  fire  will  be 
the  more  ccnfined,  and  acl  the 
more  powerftllly.  In  countriefe 
where  lime  fl  >nc  is  plenty,  each 
eonfidcrablo  larmer  is  furniried 
with  a  lime  kiln,  in  which  he 
makes  lime  to  maniue  his  foil. 
This  practice  might  doubtlcfs  be 
imitated  with  advantage,  in  a  few 
places  in  this  coutury,  where 
this  fort  of  ftoi'.e  is  at  hand. 

KINR.     See  the  artirjc  Cow. 

KITCHEN  GARDEN,  a 
garden  to  produce  vcgttablcR  foj- 
the  kitchen.  Mr.  Mdl  t  fayr, 
"  A  kitchen  gniden  is  dimolt  as 
neccflary  to  ;\  coimtry  feat,  as  a 
kitchen  totlie  houfc  :  For  with- 
out one  there  is  no  way  of  being 
fupplied  with  <i  '  of  ne- 

ccflary   food.  i     pro- 

pofes  to  rcfide  in  i!ic  country, 
Ihouid  becarclul  to  make  cli<icc 
prcvionlly  of.  a  pro|)er  fpot  of 
ground  for  this  mtrpofc  ;  l)ccaufe 
fruit  trees  and  aTparagu.s  require 

three 


i88  KIT 

tfiiree  years  to  grow,  before  any 
produce  can  be  expected  irom 
iheiTi."  The  fame  -vvriter  recom- 
mends, "  that  this  garden  be  near 
to  the  houfe,  that  fo  it  may  be 
the  better  attended  to  ;  that  the 
^oil  be  two  feet  deep,  on  account 
of  raifing  parfnips,  and  other  long 
rooted  efculent  plants  ;  that  it 
fhouid  have  a  good  expofure  to 
the  fun  ;  that  no  plants  that  re- 
quire much  depth  of  foil  fhouid 
be  cultis'ated  in  the  borders  that 
are  planted  with  trees,  left  the 
xoots  ot  the  trees  be  difturbed,  or 
injured  ;  that  if  the  foil  be  too 
much  inclined  to  wetnefs,  it 
fhouid  be  laid  drier  by  hollow 
drains.  But  he  prefers  a  fpot 
that  is  not  naturally  low  and  wet, 
as  the  fruits  and  herbs  raifed  on 
dry  ground  are  wholefomer,  and 
better  tailed/' 

Thefe  directions  are  excellent. 
3tit  I  cannot  approve  of  the 
quantity  of  land  he  propofes  to 
be  laid  out  for  a  garden.  Four 
or  five  acres  I  fnould  think  three 
or  four  times  too  much  tor  almoft 
any  perfon  in  this  country.  Halt 
ah  acre  will  be  fufficient  for  al- 
raofl:  any  family,  unlefs  wc  ex- 
cept thofe  who  have  independ- 
ent fortunes,  or  can  afford  to 
Iceep  two  or  three  gardeners  in 
pay.  A  fmall  one  well  tended, 
■will  be  rriore  profitable  than  a 
large  cne  poorly  cultivated. 
£very  man  may  determine  the 
fize  of  his  own  garden  by  his  a- 
bility  and  circumftances. 

Dwarf  trees  arc  moft  fnitable 
for  the  borders  of  fmall  gardens; 
or  it  may  be  ftill  better  that  trees 
fhouid  be  in  a  garden  by  tbem- 
felves.  Too  many  of  the  falling 
leaves  of  trees  are  difagreeable  in 
a  garden,  and  their  fhade  is  no 
advantage  to  vegetation  near 
them.  But  every  one  has  a  right 
to  confult  his  own'fancy  in  fuch 
ruattfers.     Where    herticultural 


LAM 

neatnefs  is  meant  to  be  prererve4 
the  plough  muff  not  be  introduc- 
ed, but  tlie  whole  dug  with 
fpades,  fhovels  or  forks. 

The  breadth  of  the  walks,  that 
they  may  not  oHend  the  eye, 
fhouid  be  proportionable  to  the 
largenefs  of  the  garden  :  The 
broadeft  fhouid  be  lengthwife 
through  the  centre,  and  narrow- 
er ones  round  by  the  outfidc 
borders.  A  walk  fhouid  be  a  lit- 
tle rounding,  highefl  in  the  mid- 
dle, for  the  fake  of  drynefs.  See 
the  articles  Garden,  and  Garden- 
ing. 


LAMBS,  the  young  of  fhecp. 

The  firft  care  of  them  is  to  fee 

whether  they  can  come   at  the 

teat  ;  and  if  not,  to  clip  away  the 

wool  ot  the  ewes  which  hinders 

1  them,  as  alfo  all  tags  of  wool  on 

j  the  udders  of  the   ewes,  which 

1  the  lambs  are  liable  to  take   hold 

of  in  (lead  of  the  teats. 

If  a  ewe  refufe  to  let  her  lamb 
fuck,  fhe  and  her  lamb  fhouid  be 
(hut  up  together  in  a  clofc  place, 
till  fhe  grow  fond  of  him.  For 
this  purpofe,  fome  fay  that  fur- 
prifing  a  fnecp  '.vith  a  dog  will 
be  effeftual. 

Care  fhouid  be  taken  to  feed 
the  ev.-es  plentifully  after  yean- 
ing, and  with  fome  juicy  kind 
of  food,  that  fo  the  lambs  may 
not  fail  of  having  plenty  of  milk. 
The  rams  may  be  gcldcd  at  any 
time  from  one  to  three  weeks 
old,  if  they  appear  to  be  well  and 
flrong. 

They  fhouid  not  be  weaned 
till  they  are  fix  weeks,  or  two 
months  old.  At  this  age  they 
Ihould  be  taken  from  the  ewes, 
and  have  the  befl  of  paflure  dur- 
ing the  firfl  fortnight  ;  by  the 
end  of  which  time  they  will  be 
fo  naturalized  te   living  wholly 

UDO.T 


L  A  R 

pnri  grafs,  tliat  thpy  may  be 
turnrd  into  a  pnorcr  palliiic 

The  woill  wodlcd  !;ii:ib"!,  and 
bad  rolonrM  onis,  .uid  tliiWr  that 
are  very  fniall,  lii  )ut  1  bi.^  iK-llincd 
to  the  knile,  and  not  weaned. 
So  great  is  the  needot  increarm^ 
the  manufacture  of  woollen  in  this 
country,  that  I  muft  earneftly 
recommend  it  to  the  farmers,  not 
to  kill,  or  fell  for  killing,  any 
lamb,  till  it  is  near  hali  a  year 
old,  or  till  the  wool  be  come  to 
fuch  fulnefs  of  growth,  as  to  be 
valuable  for  fpinning.  To  kill 
them  earlier  is  fo  wallefula  prac- 
tice as  to  be  incxcufablc. 

Thofe  cwc  hmbs  which  are  kept 
for  ftock,  Ihould  not  come  at  tiic 
rams  :  For  if  they  have  lambs  at 
a  year  old,  it  flints  ihcm  in  their 
growth  ;  and  they  have  fo  little 
uiilk,  that  their  lambs  common- 
Iv  die  tor  want  of  noiuilhment. 
Or  if  they  chance  to  live,  tiiey 
will  be  apt  to  be  always  fmall. 
This  pmcfice  is  one  reafbn  why 
our  breed  of  Ihccp  in  this  coun- 
try is  lb  poor.     Sec  tlie   article 

LAMPAS,  "  an  excrefcence 
in  the  roof  of  the  mouth,  which 
hinders  a  horfe  from  feeding,  and 
happens  ufually  to  young  horfes. 
It  is  cured  by  applying  a  hot 
iron  ma<le  for  tliai  purpofe.  It 
is  fuccefsfully  pcrfi>rmed  in  nil 
parts  ;  fo  that  there  is  no  need  of 
any  caution,  but  only  tiiat  tlie 
farrier  do  not  penetrate  fot>  deep, 
To  as  to  Icalc  tlie  thin  bone  that 
lies  under  the  upper  bars  ;  for 
that  would  beatten<lcd  witli  very 
troublefome  and  dangerous  lyn:i)- 
toms."     iUblons  Farrirry. 

LAND,  a  general  nameappli- 
«d  to  th«'  luifacc  of  the  earth,  or 
to  the  ground. 

LARCH.   Pinut  lanx,    "   a 

genus  of  trees,  whofe  leaves  are 

1  >ng  and  narrow,  produced  out 

f  litUc  tubercles,  ui  tlic  form  ©f 


1.  A  Y  189 

a  painters  pencil.  The  cones 
arc  produced  at  remote  diIUnce:t 
from  the  male  flowers,  on  the 
lame  tree  :  The  male  Mowers  are 
very  like  fmall  coin-s  at  their 
firff  appearance,  bui  afterwards 
flretchout  in  length.  In  autumn 
they  calf  thttir  leaves.  From  th« 
wounded  bark  of  this  tree  exudes 
the  purefl  Venice  turpentine." 
Cowpl^tf.  Farmer. 

A  fort  of  trees  whicbgrow  nat- 
urally, and  in  great  plenty,  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Newen- 
gland,  called  juniper,  I  take  to 
be  t(ve  true  larch,  as  it  anfwers 
to  the  above  delcription,  as  well 
as  to  that  given  by  Mr.  Miller. 
Thcy  thrive  bell  in  poor,  wet  and 
cold  fbds,  and  fhouid  by  all 
means  be  cultivated.  This  is 
ealily  done  by  lowing  the  feeds 
which  are  found  in  tiioir  cones. 
The  trees  arc  an  excellent  tim- 
ber for  fbmc  ules.  They  are 
conunonly  ided  as  pods  tor 
fences,  and  are  laid  to  be  more 
durable  than  aimofl  any  other 
timber,  when  fo  ufed.  But  tor 
rails  in  fences,  or  any  work  that 
is  expofed  to  the  weather,  this 
limber  will  l.ill  a  long  tiinc. 

LAYERS,  tender  twigs  buri- 
ed in  earth,  which  having  flruck 
root,  arc  afterwards  cut  off,  and 
become  dillincf  plants. 

Potatoes,  and  many  other  her- 
baceous plants,  may  be  in  this 
manner  propagated.  But  there  is 
lutlc  advantage  to  be  gained  by 
doing  it. 

As  to  thofe  trees  and  fhrubs 
which  yield  no  feed  in  this  cli- 
mate, neither  can  be  propagated 
by  cuttings,  there  may  be  often 
occifion  tor  bymg  them.  The 
manner  of  doing  it  is  as  follows: 
Take  fhoots  v\  the  laft  year's 
growth,  bend  them  to  the  earth, 
and  burv  them  .n  good  mellow 
[  foil  half  a  foot  under  the  furface, 
and  iaAea  ihepi  ',vitU  hooks  tu 
prevent 


i^o  LEA 

prevent  tlieir  rifing,  bending 
the  tops  fo  as  to  bring  them 
above  the  furface.  A  flit  up- 
■«rards  in  the  twig  Ihould  be  made 
in  the  part  that  lies  deepeft  in 
the  foil,  or  a  wire  drawn  fail 
round  it,  to  prevent  the  fap 
mounting  too  fall ;  and  mofs 
ihould  "T"  laid  on  the  furface,  to 
prevent  'be  fudden  dnt-ing  of  the 
mould.  "vft;rwards  they  fliould 
be  water:  '^  there  may  be  occa- 
fion.  If  -  •"  form  roots,  they 
may  be  r  "■  md  tranfpiaiTted 
the  nex-  o  the  nurfery. 

The    ^  'aying    ever- 

greens i=  -Ji    Auguft  ;  for 

lavin?  d?       .:ius  tree?.  Otiober. 

"LAYL  ^ND,  or  LEYL  A  XD, 
or  LAYS,  Fallow  ground,  or  that 
which  lies  imtiiled. 

LEAVES,  the  moft  extreme 
parts  of  the  branches  of  trees, 
flirubs.  Sec. — "  Their  ofHce  is  to 
fubtilize  the  nourifhing  fap,  and 
convey  it  to  the  little  buds,  and 
to  cover  and  defend  the  flowers 
and  fruit. 

"  Dr.  Grew  obferres,  that  the 
fibres  of  leaves  confift  of  two 
general  kinds  of  velTels,  viz.  for 
fap.  and  for  air  ;  and  are  ramifi- 
ed out  of  greater  into  lefs,  as 
veins  and  arteries  are  in  animals. 

"  If  the  furfaces  of  the  leaves 
are  ahered,  by  reverling  the 
branches  of  trees  on  which  they 
grow,  the  plants  are  flopped  in 
their  growth,  until  the  foot  ftalks 
are  turned,  and  the  leaves  recov- 
er their  former  pofiiion.  If 
leaves  are  eaten,  or  cut  off,  the 
enclofed  buds  will  not  grow,  and 
the  plants  wiJ!  be  weakened. 
The  winter  feeding  of  wheat, 
therefore,  is  hurtful  ;  and  it  has 
been  found  fo  by  experience. 

"  Another' principal  ufe  of  the 
leaves,  is  to  throw  off  by  iranf- 
piration  what  is  "unnecefTary  to 
the  growth  of  plants,  anfwering 
to  the  difcharge  made  by  ^veat 


LEE 

in  animal  bodies.  As  plants  re- 
ceive and  tranfpire  rr.uch  more, 
in  equal  times, than  lirge  animals, 
fo  it  appears  how  necefTary  the 
leaves  aie  to  prefervc  the  plants 
in  perfect  health  :  For  it  has 
been  found  by  the  mofl  exaft 
calculation,  made  from  repeated 
experiments,  that  a  plant  of  the 
funflower  receives  and  perfpires, 
in  twenty  four  hours,  feventeen 
times  more  than  a  man."'  Ccm^ 
pUit  Far?n.er. 

Mr.  Bonnet  made  many  ex- 
periments, which  proved  that 
leaves  imbibe  the  moiflureofihe 
atmofphere  on  their  under  fur- 
face  ;  excepting  fuch  as  have  the 
upper  furface  covered  with  hairs, 
or  down.  The  leaves  undoubt- 
edly ferve  for  infpiration,aswell 
as  for  tranfpinitioa  ;  and  plants 
draw  through  their  leaves,  fome 
confiderable  part  of  their  nour- 
ilhraent. 

Leaves  alfo  fer^e  for  ornament, 
and  to  fcreen  vegetables,  and 
their  fruits,  from  the  too  intenfc 
heat  of  the  fun  in  furamer. 

Leaves  of  trees  are  ufeful  as  a 
manure,  excepting  thofe  of  the 
refinous  kinds.  They  fhouid  be 
colle6fed  into  farm  yards,  tram- 
pled by  the  cattle,  and  mixed 
with  their  excrements.  Some 
recommend  leaves  of  oak  for  hot 
beds,  inftead  of  tanner's  bark,  as, 
by  fermenting  more  lli»wly,  they 
afford  a  more  regular  and  perma- 
nent heat.  Dr.  Hunter  proved 
the  advantage  of  them  by  his 
continued  prattice.  SeeG^t^rgi- 
cal  Ejfays,  by  A.  Hunter. 

LEES,  the  grofs  fediment  in 
fermented  liquors.  Moft  kinds 
of  lees  contain  much  of  the  food  . 
of  plants.  But  they  (hould  not 
be  applied  to  the  foil  as  a  manure 
till  dieir  acidity  is  deftroyed,  by 
mixing  and  fermenting  them 
w-ith  large  proportions  of  alkali- 
oas   fubflances,   fuch  as  marie, 

lime. 


L  I  M 

\\mc,  aflics,  foot,  fee.     Even  the 
J  ;  cyder  mills,  which  has 

1,  iiccn  conliiicrcd  hy  our 

faiuurs    as    good    for    nothing, 
might   be   thus  changed    into  a 
good  nianurc.     It  is  nearly    the 
lame  fiihltancc  as  the  Ices  of  cy- 
der.    Cyder   lees   will  alio  pro- 
duce brandy  bv  dillillation. 
I.ICB:.  Scc'l/i/fCh. 
LIMK,   a   crunably    fott   Tub- 
ftance,   made  by  burning  ftones, 
and  the   Ihells  of  Ihell  fi(h,  and 
flacking  iheni  with  water. 

Lime  has  been  proved,  by  the 
long  experience  ot  European 
fanners,  to  be  oncof  the  moll  ef- 
ficacious manures.  This  may  be 
thought  ftrange  by  thole  who 
know  it  to  be  a  mere  alkali,  con- 
taining neither  oil  nor  fait,  which 
are  certainly  the  principal  ingre- 
dients in  the  iood  ol  plants.  Od 
is  an  indifpcnfably  nccclfary  part 
of  this  food. 

But,  by  experiments  made  of 
late,  it  has  been  cU-arly  proved 
that  plants  are  greatly  nourilhed 
by  fixed  air,  of  which  it  is  known 
that  lime  contains  a  large  quan- 
tity. It  has  been  proved  by  thce.x- 
pcriments  of  Mr.  Lavificr,  that 
one  third  part  ot  calcarious  earths, 
and  particularly  of  lime  ftone, 
confiAs  of  fixed  air. 

But  bcfides  affording  to  plants 
this  noiirifhment;  which  is  known 
to  be  in  plants,  lime  afts  as  a 
manure,  by  attrafiingand  imbib- 
ing the  oils  and  acids  which  are 
contained  in  the  earth  and  atmof- 
phere.  It  not  only  collcirfs  thefc 
ingredients  of  vegetable  food, 
but  fo  alters  them  as  to  fit  them 
to  ent'T  the  roots  of  plants. 
With  the  acids  it  forms  a  fait, 
whicli,  by  mixing  with  the  oils, 
becomes  a  faponaceous  mucila?;e, 
which  is  the  true  pabulum  for 
the  nourilhmctit  of  plants. 

Thefe  changes  cannot  be  made 
n  the  ingredient!  of  which  veg- 


L  I  M 


*9i 


tabic  food  is  compofed.  without* 
conlidr  !  menta- 

tion.     I  ,  breaks 

and  mellows  the  Joil.  and  fo  in- 
crcaics  the  paihirc  o!  plant.s,  that 
the  roots  can  nicn:  freely  extend 
ihctnrelyes  in  qucU  ol  tlicirfood. 
Accordingly  it  is  found  that  lim- 
ing renders  a  foil  very  foft  and 
open. 

And  AS  lime,  when  it  is  flack- 
ed,  is  a  very  loft  lubflance,  1  can 
fee  no  reafon  to  doubt  of  it« 
containing  a  ver^  confi  irr  ible 
quantity    of    thole  iy 

Imall    particles   of  .  .|i 

enter   inf^  -e 

part  of  ihf  ,)^ 

It    u\'.ii   n.  ,.e 

IS  fi:   L)   ;;:i;  ^ 

ol    li'lrinLiIvr.  ■;© 

ingic»iie!if.  ,f 

produces     i-  -71 

though  iw)t 

tions  as  duii^    \  i 

to    be    the  moll    .  .  I 

manures. 

Lime  has  been  complai..^  .  .  ., 
as  impoverilhing  the  foil  ;  ard 
it  has  been  ohcii  remarked,  that 
though  one  d re  (Ting  will  pro- 
duce feveral  good  crops,  the 
land  is  lefs  fruitful  forfome  time 
after,  than  before  it  has  becR 
limed  ;  and  that  a  fecond  drelT- 
ing  with  lime,  will  not  have  fuch 
an  cdeH  as  the  firll,  in  increafing 
the  fertility  of  the  foil.  But  the 
farmer  Ihould  confider  how  far 
he  has  been  rccornpenled  by 
extraordinary  crops,  for  the  ex- 
haulling  of  his  foil  ;  and  that  if 
lime  will  not,  other  manures  will 
recruit  it.  hio  will  fallowing, 
refl,  or  uling  it  as  u  paflure. 

It    is   granted   iliat   linie  may 
have  an  ill  elicU,  when  it  is  injti- 
dic^onlly  applied,  as  in  too  great 
quantities,  or  to  an  improper  foil 
l  hree  cart  loads,  or    120  i 

els,  are  allowed   to  be   a    ; 

cient  dreflinf  for  an  acre.  But  in 


^92  L  I  M 

Ireland,  where  they  plougli  ex- 
tremely deep,  they  lay  on  twice  as 
much.  This  dreffing  enriches 
cold,  ftiff  and  clayey  foils,  lor 
jnany  years  after  ;  and  in  iuch 
foils  it  may  be  faiely  repeated. 
If  it  force  any  foils  too  much,  it 
can  be  only  thofe  which  are 
weak  and  fandy. 

The  beft  time  for  applying 
lime  as  a  manure  is,  when  land 
is  newly  broken  up,  or  alter  ly- 
ing a  long  time  in  grafs.  This 
may  be  afcribed  to  the  plenty  oi 
roots  in  the  foil,  which  the  lime 
foon  difTolves,  and  changes  into 
food  for  plants. 

Mr.  Evelyn  advifed  to  the 
mixing  of  lime  with  turf  in  al- 
ternate layers,  to  lie  ia  heaps  for 
months  ;  in  which  time  it  wdll 
become  fo  rich  and  mellow  as  to 
run  like  alhes.  He  thought  it 
would  nouriih  the  foil  more  than 
if  ufed  alone  in  a  greater  quanti- 
ty, and  without  any  danger  of  ex- 
haufling  the  vegetative  virtue  of 
the  earth,  which  Ihould  be  i)re- 
ferved.  It  it  were  mixed  with  a 
large  proportion  otciay,  or  with 
mud  trom  the  bottom  of  ponds  or 
rivers,  it  might  be  applied  even  to 
fandy  and  gravelly  foils  without 
c    rger,  and  to  great  advantage. 

Lime  is  a  very  important  ingre- 
dient in  compofls,  as  by  raifmga 
llrong  fermentation  it  diiTolves 
and  prepares  the  other  materials. 
There  fhould  be  fome  layers  of 
it,  wh.ere  it  can  be  eafiiy  obtain- 
ed, in  every  heap  of  compoif.  It 
\yi!l  be  the  fooner  fit  for  ufe,  as 
well  as  prove  to  be  a  more  fertil- 
izing compofition. 

When  lime  is  laid  on  land 
which  has  a  quick  defcent,  it 
fhould  be  always  mixed  with 
dung,  and  laid  on  the  higheff  part ; 
bacaufe  it  fo  loofens  the  foil,  as 
to  difpofe  it  to  be  plentifully 
wafhed  downwards  by  rains,  foil 
and  manure  together. 


I.  I  M 

Lime  is  an  excellent  manurs 
for  foils  that  are  mofly,  as  it 
fpeedily  diffolvcs  the  oil  which 
is  contained  in  mofs,  which  is 
not  foon  diffolved  by  other  nia- 
imrcs,  and  changes  it  to  vegetable 
food.  It  deftroys  all  aquatick 
weeds,  and  difTolves  the  remain- 
ders of  decayed  vegetables  in  the 
foil.  Therefore  it  docs  well  in 
moory  and  peaty  fwamps  that  are 
drained. 

While  I  am  treating  on  this 
excellent  manure,  I  have  the  dif- 
agreeable  reflection,  that  it  will  be 
to  little  purpofe  ;  as  lime  is  f* 
fcarce  and  dear  in  moff  parts  of 
the  country,  that  it  muft  not  be 
ufed  as  manure.  Moll  people' 
can  fcarcely  obtain  a  fufficient 
quantity  of  it  for  building.  But 
thofe  farmers  ^vho  know  tbcy 
have  lime  ftone  or  lliells  in  plen- 
ty near  them,  fhould  not  negleft 
to  make  ufe  of  them  as  manures, 
after  reducing   them  to  lime. 

LLME  STONE,  a  ftone  of  a 
calcarious  nature,  which,  by  cal- 
cination, or  burning  in  the  fire, 
becomes  lime.  There  are  many 
kinds  ot  lime  Jtone  ;  the  hardeft 
kinds  make  the  befl:  lime,  and 
require  the  moH  burning.  Chalk 
will  burn  into  lime,  ot  the  nature 
ot  ftone  lime,  but  a  great  deal 
weaker  ;  lime  may  be  made  of 
marble  and  alabafter,  &c.  But 
the  ftones  ufed  for  lime  are  moft- 
ly  ot  a  bluilh  colour,  orinclining 
to  grey.  They  are  fometimes 
purely  calcarious,  but  often  mix- 
ed with  undiifolvable  ftones, 
which  lefTen  their  value. 

Some  countries  are  very  plen- 
tifully furnilked  with  thefe 
ftones,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
in  particular.  It  is  ftrange  they 
have  been  found  in  fo  few  places 
in  Newengland.  It  has  proba- 
biy  been  owing  to  want  of  atten- 
tion. An  infallible  way  to  dif- 
tinguifii   the-Ti   is,   by   dropping 

up©a 


L  O  A 

Upon  ihem  a  tew  drops  of  aq\ia 
foriis,  fpiril  ot  fcd  lalt,  or  oil 
ot  vitriol.  All  tlule  llonos,  on 
whicli  thfjfc,  or  any  other  Hrong 
acids,  cHcrvc'fce.  onilc  intobub- 
blcs,  arc  lime  Hones,  and  will 
bum  into  lime. 

It  i .  ^,'rv.Mtly  to  be  wifhed,  that 
iojr.c  jKiloni  in  ihe  various  parts 
of  this  country,  wotdd  be  turnilh- 
ed  with  one  or  other  ot  theic 
aci(1s,  and  make  frequent  trials 
with  them.  They  wIk) arc  not  fur- 
nilhcvlwith  the  proper  acids,  may 
prove  flones,  by  burning  them 
lor  lomc  days  in  a  Imith's  Hrc, 
and  then  throwing  them  into) 
water.  Pollihly  we  may  hnd 
the  benevolent  Author  of  nature 
has  not  kit  us  (o  unfurnilhed 
with  thefc  valuable  ftoncs,  as  we 
have  been  ready  to  imagine, 

LOAM,  orjc  ot  the  principal 
kinds  oi  earih.  Some  fuppole  it 
to  be  not  oneoi  the  natural  (oils  ; 
but  gradually  made  fmce  the  cre- 
ation, by  the  putvefied  vegetables 
which  have  tallcn  upon  the 
earth.  This  docs  not  appear 
probable  ;  tor,  it  lo,  why  do  we 
meet  withany  orher  kind  of  foil  ? 
This  foil  confilis  ot  very  fine 
particles,  without  grit,  almoft  as 
nnc  as  thofe  ol  clay,  but  do  not  co- 
here like  them.  It  it  lie  long 
under  water,  it  is  apt  to  have 
the  appearance  ot  clay.  It 
receives  water  readily,  and  re- 
uins  it  long  ;  on  which  ac- 
counts it  IS  prcierable  to  clay  or 
fand.  It  is  better  adapted  by 
nature  to  nourilh  vegetables  than 
cither  the  one  or  tlic  other.  But 
it  needs  manure,  and  will  com- 
monly pay  well  for  it  by  the  in- 
crcale  ot  its  crops. 

Loams  are  ot  various  kinds. 
Some  IS  It  I  If,  approaching  to  (he 
ruitdre  of  clay,  and  is  apt  to  t>c 
adhelivc  in  wet  weather.  This  is 
not  tit  torthcnourilliing  ot  thole 
vrjfetdblts    wkick  i«r«juirc  muck 

Z 


LOU  193 

heaf.  It  needs  to  be  drefTed 
with  hot  and  opening  manure* 
tor  amy  kind  of  crop.  Other 
loam  is  more  light,  foft  and  mel- 
Itn/,  and  does  not  fo  much  need 
the  moft  heating  manures.  Some 
loam  is  of  a  dark  red,  hazcly,  or 
brown  colour.  This  is  com- 
monly a  moft  excellent  foil. 
Other  loam  is  of  a  light  yellow, 
or  whitilh  colour,  and  requires 
abundance  of  manuring  to  ren- 
der it  fruitful. 

All  kinds  ot  loam  are  apt  to 
be  too  wet,  and  to  be  covered 
with  a  thort  green  mofs,  if  they 
lie  tlat.  In  this  cafe,  ridge  plough- 
ing is  beft,  and  hollow  drains 
otterr  neceflary.  Loam  that  hai 
a  mixture  of  gravel,  or  land,  is 
warmer,  and  fitter  tor  tillage  ;  but 
all  loams  are  good  for  the  grow- 
ing of  grade'?. 

LOCUST  TREE,  Robinia,  > 
well  known  tree,  which  grows 
in  great  plenty  in  the  vicinity  o£ 
Bollon,  and  is  a  native  of  this 
country,  but  does  not  flt>itrilh  fa 
well  in  the  Province  of  Maine, 
as  the  froft  of  winter  is  apt  to 
kill  the  extremities  of  the  limbs. 
There*  are  particular  places,  how- 
ever, in  this  diltrid,  where  the 
growth  ot  this  tree  is  confidera- 
bly  rapid< 

This  tree  would  be  morepri;?- 
ed  for  its  beauty,  were  not  its 
limbs  olicn  broken  by  high 
winds.  Its  lea\  es  put  out  late  n\ 
the  Ipring,  and  tall  off  early  in 
autumn.  It  bloflbms  about  the 
beginning  of  June,  at  whicti 
time  it  makes  a  l^eautilul  appear- 
ance, and  perlumcs  the  circum- 
ambient air  with  an  agreeable 
odour.  The  branches  are  armed 
with  hooked  Ipines  ;  and  the 
leaves  comjiofcd  of  ten  pair  of 
oval  lobes,  terminated  with  an 
odd  one. 

The  Wood  is  not  only  good  tew- 
el,  but  exccllcui  timber,  very  du- 
rable 


1^4 


LUC 


rable  in  any  fitiiation;  and  particu- 
larly when  ufed  as  polls  in  fences. 

This  tree  grows  beft  in  afcindy 
foil,  and  will  pupagate  itfelf  in  the 
jnoft  barren  places,  where  the  foil 
IS  fo  light  as  to  be  blown  away  by 
winds.  By  fliekeringfuch  places, 
and  dropping  its  leaves  on  them, 
it  causes  a  fward  to  grow  over  them, 
and  grafs  to  grov.-  upon  them.  It  is 
not  advifable  to  plant  groves  ot 
the  locull  tree  on  the  borders  of 
fields,  on  account  ot  their  fpread- 
ing  too  much  by  fcattering  their 
feeds,  unlefs  on  thofe  Vrhich  are 
iTioft  barren.  But  thofe  who  pof- 
fefs  hills  ot  barren  land,  and  in  a 
climate  that  fuits  them,  fhould 
not  delay  to  make  fcrefts  of  thcfe 
trees  on  fuch  fpots.  It  may  be 
cafily  done  by  fowing  the  feeds 
in  a  nurfery,  and  tranfplanting 
them.  A  plenty  of  -nood  may  be 
thus  fpeedily  produced,  without 
the  leail  injury  to  the  laad,  yea, 
with  advantage  to  it. 

It  is  much  to  be  regretted,  that 
oi  late  years  a  v.onn  has  dcllr»y- 
ed  many  of  the  trees,  by  eating  and 
boring  them  through  the  trunks 
and  linibs.  Perhaps  it  will  be 
found  that  quickfilver  is  a>  anti- 
dote to  thefe  infefts. 

LUC£RN,  medicagp,  a  plant 
with  a  perennial  root,  and  an  an- 
nual top.  I'he  bloifoms  are  of 
the  butterfly  kijid,  of  a  fine  pur- 
ple colour,  growing  upon  fpikes 
Irom  two  to  three  inches  long. 
The  feeds  are  kidney  fliaped,  and 
contained  in  pods. 

1  his  plant  is  fuppofed  to  have 
beenbroughtfrom  Media,  wlience 
the  namesmedicago  and  mcdica. 
It  has  long  been  profitably  culti- 
vated inFrance,mofc  in  the  fouth- 
ern  than  northern  parts  of  that 
country,  where  they  call  it  Bur- 
gundy  hay. 

It  loves  a  foil  moderately  rich, 
and  not  very  dry.     It  is  tender  , 
while  young,  and  muil  be  culti-  I 


L  U  F 

vated  with  care  ;  afterwards  ir 
grows  more  hardy.  No  other 
plants,nor  weeds,  fhouldbe  luffer- 
ed  to  grow  with  it.  Tliemofl  ap- 
]>ro\  ed  method  of  culti\  aiing  it 
IS  by  traniplaniing  it  in  rows.  It 
grows  fo  iait  that  iix  crops  of 
hay  may  be  cut  from  it  in  one 
year. 

After  each  cutting,  the  weeds 
fiiould  be  killed,  and  the  ground 
fiirred  with  the  dutch  hoe.  It 
ihould  be  cut  a  good  while  be- 
fore the  time  of  its  bloffcming. 
The  leaves  and  flems  are  fo  juicy, 
that  they  require  abundance  of 
drying,  to  make  them  into  hay,^ 
The  beft  ufe  it  can  be  put  to  is, 
to  cut  it  and  give  it  green  to  cat- 
tle and  horfes..  It  is  a  very  fweet 
and  fattening  food  for  them  ^ 
and  fome  lay  it  will  cure  them, 
when  they  happen  to  be  Cck. 
Three  acres  ot  luccrn,  in  Eng- 
land, has  yielded  fo  much  as  tcJ 
feed  ten  v.orking  horfes  from  the 
end  ot  April  to  ^he  firft  of  Octo- 
ber, in  which  time  they  would 
have  eaten  20  tons  of  hay.  Mr. 
iloque  fuys  it  has  yieldc*d  him  at 
the  rate  of  eight  tons  oi  hay  per 
acre.  And  M.  Duhamel  had  40 
tons  green  from  an  acre,  equal 
to  ten  tons  ot  hay.  Volumes 
have  been  written  on  the  virtues 
and  advantages  of  this  plants 
But,  irom  repeated  trials,  it  ap- 
pears that  our  winter  frolls  def- 
troy  it.  I  have  been  informed 
that  it  profpers  well  in  \'irginia. 
In  that  and  the  more  fouthern 
ftates  greater  attention  than  hith- 
erto has  been,  ought  to  be  paid' 
to  its  cultivation. 

LUPINES,  a  fpecies  of  wild 
pea,  cultsNated  principally  for  a. 
green  dreiling.  They  will  grow 
well  in  almofl.  any  foil  ;  efpecial- 
ly  in  that  which  is  dry,  landy 
and  poor. 

The  red  and  blue  lupines, 
which  are  cultivated  in  gaidens, 

arc 


M  A  L 

■arr  -..ui  lo  grow    wild    ia   great 
picntv  in  Spain. 

LVK,  or  /K,  a  fluid  itTjprt\:;nat- 
^ci  with  (alts. 

M. 

MALANDKRS,  a  horfe  Mif- 
-rafc,  cauic(l  by  corrm)t  bl<>o<l,or 
over  hard  laboi'ir.&c.  It  conlillsof 
chops,  or  cricks,  oil  the  inlido  ol 
the  tore  legs  againd  the  knee, 
xlifcharping  a  red  Ih'arp  humour. 
To  cure  this  dirca(c,  walh  tlic 
cracks  with  warm  loap  luds  or  old 
urine  ;  then  rub  them  twice  a 
<lay  with  an  ointment  oi  ho^s 
lard  mixed  with  two  drachms  ot 
fublimafc  mercury.  Or  applv 
a  poultice  of  the  roots  of  marlh 
mallows  and  flax  feed.  fottci>cd 
with  linfeed  oil,  tying  it  on  with 
a  roller.  Continue  that  till  the 
r.'cds  lall  off  and  the  lores  bo- 
omc  clean.  Afterwards  %  niix- 
f.ur  it  turpentine  and  quickfil- 
vci  \\\\\  ho  a  proper  applicaricn. 
MAL  r,  barley,  or  other  corn, 
prepared  for  making  beer  or  ale. 
As  it  is  of  great  i;n;>c^rtance  that 
<hc  people  ot  this  country  ihouiti 
make  a  greater  ule  of  malt  than 
they  do  at  prefcnt,  I  will  here 
^ivc  the  prorefs  ol  making  it, 
from  the  DidionAry  cj  Arts  and 
Sct<rncrs. 

"  In  making  malt  from  barlcn, 
the  ufual  method  is  to  fleop  the 
i;rain  in  a  fi:f?icicnt  quantity  ot 
' .  iiei:,  for  two  or  three  days,  till 
;i  fwclls,  becomes  plimip,  fomc- 
•.hat  tender,  and  tinges  the  wa- 
ter of  a  bright  brown,  or  reddilh 
c  ilour.  Then,  this  water  be- 
;  A^i  dr.iincd  away,  the  barley  is  re- 
moved from  the  ftecpitig  ciflcrn 
to  the  floor,  where  it  is  thrown 
into  wlmi  i.s  called  the  wet 
I  <y.ich  ;  that  i-.  an  even  heap. 
'  img  to  the  height  of  about  two 
Icet.  In  this  wet  couch,  thct :ap- 
luJ  pari  ot  the  operaiion  is  p^f- 


M  A   L  155 

formed  ;  for  here  th<r  lorley 
fjwntaneoully  heats,  an<l  begin"? 
to  grow,  Ihooiing  cut  lirll  theiad- 
icle,thenthcplun;c,rpircorh!adc. 
liut  the  procels  is  to  be  flop- 
pL'd  fhort  at  the  irruption  of  the 
radicle,  othcrwilo  t!ic  malt  would 
\u-  fpniled.  In  order  to  flop  it, 
they  ipread  the  wet  couch  thin 
over  a  large  floor,  and  keep  turn- 
ing it  once  in  fo;jr  or  hve  hours, 
forthc  fpacc  of  two  days,  layinp 
it  fomewhat  thicker  each  time. 
After  this  it  is  again  thrown  into 
a  large  heap,  ^nd  there  luflercd  to 
grow  fenfibly  hot  to  the  hand,  as 
it  uiually  will  in  twenty  or  ihirty 
hours  :  Then  being  Ipread  again, 
and  cooled,  it  is  thrown  upon 
the  kiln,  to  be  dried  crifp  with- 
out fcc^rching.  If  thele  direc- 
tions be  toJiowcd,  the  malt  will 
alwavs  be  good. 

"  The  metho<l  of  malting  In- 
dian corn,  or  Virginia  wheat,  i"? 
much  Icfs  labori«)Us.  For,  il  this 
corn  be  buried  two  or  three  inch- 
es deep  in  the  earth,  and  covered 
•witli  the  loolc  mould,  in  ten  or 
twelve  days  time  the  corn  will 
fprout,  and  appear  like  a  green 
field  ;  at -vvhich  time  ln-ing  taken 
up,  and  wafhed  or  fanned  from 
the  (Urt,  it  is  immediately  com- 
mitted to  the  kiln,  and  by  thi<; 
means  becomes  good  malt.  ' 

MALT  OUST,  the  duff  which 
falls  from  the  kiln,  while  malt  is 
drying.  Repeated  cxpcriin(5nts 
made  by  l.uropcans,  have  eflab- 
liftied  the  credit  (»f  this  dull  as  a 
manure  for  ftiflloamsand  clays. 
A  g(K}d  drciling  of  it  has  been 
found,  to  incrcafe  a  crop  ol  bar- 
ley as  much  as  litiy  per  cent,  and 
wheat  If  ill  more.  The  quantity 
ufcd  is  from  thitty  to  Hxty  bufti- 
cls  per  acre,  according  tocircum- 
llanccs.  .  It  is  ufcd  moflly,  or 
tinlv.av  a  toj)»lretiing.  It  exerts 
its   "  '    '     'id-lcniy  as  to  be 

n- .  d  with  one  cropu 

It 


igS  M  A  N 

It  (houid  not  be  fown  togtUier 
^\•ith  winter  wheat,  but  upon  it 
^n  December  or  January  tollow- 
ing  :  For  it  it  be  f'own  early,  it 
Will  exert  its  ftrengUi  too  fbon, 
and  bring  the  wheat  forward  too 
laft,  as  has  been  proved  by  exper- 
iments. For  barley,  this  dreffing 
ihould  be  fo\yn  with  the  feed  and 
harrowed  in.  A  fmall  drefling 
of  this  manure  on  grafs  land, 
mightily  increafes  the  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  fweetnefsof  the  grafs. 

Maltfiers  fliould  carefully  pre- 
ferve  this  precious  manure  in 
fome  place  where  it  will  not  con- 
tract dampnefs.  It  may  be  of 
life  to  farmers  in  their  neigh- 
bourhood :  But  it  cannot  be- 
come a  manure  of  general  ufe, 
the  whole  quantity  that  is  made 
being  fo  fmall. 

MANURE,  any  kiad  of  fub- 
{lance  fuitable  to  be  laid  on  land 
to  increafeits  fertility. 

Manures  contribute  fevcral 
vrays  to  the  producing  of  this  ef- 
fect :  Either  by  increafing  the 
quantity  ot  vegetable  food  in  the 
ioil  — orby  preparmg  the  nour- 
ifhment already  contained  in  the 
foil  to  enter  the  roots  ot  plants — 
or  by  enlarging  the  vegetable  paf- 
jure  in  which  roots  fprcad  and  fcek 
their  fojd — or  by  attratiing  the 
food  of  vegetables  from  the  air. 
Some  of  the  manures  increafe 
Iruitfulncfs  in  all  thefe  ways,  par- 
ticularly the  dung  of  animals, 
rotted  vegetables,  &.c.  Other  ma- 
nures perform  each  office,  ex- 
cepting thefirft  :  And  fome  have 
no  other  immediate  effeftbefides 
opening  and  loofening  the  foil  : 
But  even  thefe  laii  kinds  may 
fometimes  be  ufed  to  great  ad- 
vantage. 

There  are  different  ways  of  or- 
dering and  managing  manures, 
according  to  their  different  na- 
tures. Som.e  are  to  be  applied 
to  land   without    akeiaiion,  or 


MAN 

mixing  ;  the  reft  to  be  prepared 
by  compounding  and  lermcnta- 
tion  :  Some  arc  fuitable  for  ftiff 
and  fome  for  light  foils  :  Some 
to  be  mixed  in  the  foil  by  the 
plough  and  harrow  ;  other  kinds 
to  be  ufed  only  as  top  drefUngs. 
Farmers  and  gardeners  fliould 
not  be  fo  inattentive  to  their  own 
intereft,  or  that  ot  their  employ- 
ers, as  to  fuffer  a  variety  of  valu- 
able manures  to  lie  ufclefs,  while 
they  are  fiiffering  for  want  of 
them.  I  have  drawn  up  the  fol- 
lowing lift  for  their  benefit,  hop- 
ing that  fuch  a  variety,  all  ot 
which  can  be  had  by  one  orotlir 
cr,  in  this  country,  and  by  moft 
farmers  in  plenty,  might  excite 
the  ambition  offom.e  torsakeufe 
of  their  advantages,  and  fuffer 
no  manures  to  efcape  their  atten- 
tion. 

The  fubftances  fit  to  be  ufed 
as   manures,   are  cither  animal, 
vegetable,  tcffil,  orniixed. 
I      Animal  manures  are  fuch  as 
I  thefe  that  follow  : 
I      Putrefied Jlefii,  fuch  as  the  car- 
j  caffes  ot  animals,  or  meat  not  well 
j  faved.     This  may  be  an  ingredi- 
ent in  compoft,  or  buried  at  the 
foot  of  fruit  trees  to  increafe  their 
fruitfulnefs.     Dead  horfes,  dogs, 
I  cats,   rats,   and    uneatable  birds, 
I  fhould.  in  Head  ot  putrefying  the 
'  air  by  rotting  above  ground,  be 
I  thus  converted  to  an  economical 
purpofe.     When  the  carcaffes  of 
animals  are  buried    in  dunghills, 
it   may   be   proper   to  lay   over 
them  fome  bu(l5es  of  thorn,  to 
prevent  ravenous  dogs  from  tak- 
ing them  away. 

Bleed,  mixed  with  faw  duff, 
and  ufed  as  a  lop  dieffmg,  &c. 
See  the  article  Blood. 

Hair,  a  top  diefling  for  grafs 
land  ;  under  the  furlace  of  a  dry 
foil  in  tillage  ;  or  ufed  in  com- 
poft. In  either  way  it  is  an  ex- 
cellent fertilizer. 

Feathers^ 


MAN 

^"enthrrsy  fuch  as  have  been 
" « »rn  out  in  beds,  or  arc  unfit  to 
go  into  them  -in  coinpoll. 

Rrfnfr  xvool,  fiich  coarfc  dag 
loots  as  are  not  Hi  t(>r  carding — 
lovered  with  tlic  plough  in  a  dry 
foil.  They  will  lorvc  as  fpungcs 
to  retain  moiihirc,  and  be  a  nth 
totxl  for  plants  when  they  arc  dil- 
folved.     i^o  will 

U'colUn  rags,  chopped  to  piec- 
es, tor  a  lic»h»  foil.  They  Ihouid 
be  ctit  as  fraall  as  an  inch  fquare. 
Twenty  four  buflicls  are  faid  to 
be  a  fufhcient  quantity  lor  the 
drcflingof  anacre.  Thefeftiould 
be  under  the  furface. 

Ilonfs  of  c,xttl>-,J]ifeb,  &c.  It 
large  hoots  were  fet  in  holes  with 
the  points  downward  in  a  dry 
foil,  fo  low  as  not  to  be  diflurbed 
by  the  plough,  they  wowld  caufe 
the  land  to  retain  moifture,  and 
hold  the  manure,  not  only  by  the 
fpungincfs  ot  their  fubftance,  but 
alio  moreefpccially  by  their  hol- 
lownefs. 

Hours,  of  all  kinds,  pounded  or 
broken  into  fmall  pieces,  with 
hammers  or  malleLs.  This  is  an 
incomparable  manure,  it  they 
have  not  been  burnt,  nor  boiled 
in  foap.  But  in  cither  way  they 
fhoula  befd\ed  tor  manure.  Six- 
ty bulhcis  are  a  fiiHicicni  dreiring 
lor  an  acre. 

Raw^/itns  o^  aW  kinds  of  ani- 
mals. Thefc  Ihould  be  cut  into 
fmall  pieces,  and  ufed  for  light 
foils,  ploughed  in. 

Uathfr,  new  or  old,  in  fmall 
bits,  for  dry  foils,  ploughed  in. 

Curriers'  JJiujnijrs,  cut  fmall, 
for  a  foil  ol  fand  or  gravel, 
ploughed  in. 

Ou,  of  all  r'>rts,  ufed  in  com- 
poits,  not  applied  to  the  foil  ti'l 
a  year  after  it  is  mixed,  that  it 
may  be  difiolvrd  snd  altered. 

J  i/h,  of  all  kinds,  from  the 
whale  to  the  mulcle  ;  they  are 
bcfl    ufed    in    compofls  ;    and 


MAM 


>97 


fliould  lie  a  year,  that  thrir  oil 
may  be  dilTolved.  ard  fitted  fur 
the  nourllhrng  ot  plants. 

Ojfal  of  filh,  in  tompofls,  fit 
tor  one  foil  or  another,  accord- 
ing to  the  predominant  ingredi- 
ents ot  tlie  ujixture. 

Thciegttahic  manures  arc  good, 
though  not  fo  flrong  as  animal 
ones.  They  can  be  had  in  great- 
er plenty  in  mod  places  ;  and 
ought  to  be  laid  on  in  larger 
quantities. 

Green  vegetable,  fuch  as  all  the 
otherv/iie  ufelefs  weeds  in  fields 
and  gardens.  Thefe  (hould  be  col- 
letlcd  and  rotted  in  heaps.  They 
arc  a  good  manure  for  all  foils, 
and  to  nourifh  ail  lorts  of  plants. 

Aqihitick  iveed^y  fuch  as  grow 
in  the  i)orders  of  ponds  and  riv- 
ers. Thcfe  fhould  be  collected 
in  Iar"[e  heaps  on  the  higher 
groimd,  and  covered  with  turls, 
the  grafs  fide  outwards.  Thefe 
heaps  will  be  eafily  made  in  fomc 
places,  and  will  be  a  valuable 
manure.  Some  fay,  care  thould 
be  taken  to  prevent  their  taking 
fire  by  fermenting,  as  their  heat 
will  be  very  great. 

Sfrj:i\  and  other  offal  of  corn 
of  all  kimls,  rotted  in  farm  yards, 
or  dung  pits. 

Rejuje  hay,  both  frcfh  and  fait, 
rotted  in  yards,  and  trampled  ou 
by  cattle,  and  mixed  with  their 
excrements. 

Thatch,  that  crrowshy  the  fides 
of  fait  creeks,  or  the  parts  ot  it 
which  cattle  will  not  eat.  (liouUl 
be  tlirown  into  the  tarni  yard,  lo 
putrefy.  Thus  a  gu-at  incrcafe 
«t  good  manure  may  he  made. 

ihchuuim  ot  all  dr>-  vcgei.i- 
hies,  fuch  as  the  fialhs  of  pota- 
toes, t>eans,  peas,  ii.c.  Kven  the 
offal  of  flax,  if  it  have  fiitficient 
time  to  rot,  will  beaf;i)od  manure. 

I'-ri^y  a  vegetable  peculiarly  a- 
dapicd  lo  the  purpoic  ol  making 
manure.     Sec  /cv  7. 

Las 


Fermented 

with  other 

^manures.to 

f  be  laid  on 


1^8  M  A  N 

Lees  o\  fermented  liquors,  rot- 
ten iniit,  and  pomace,  in  compoft. 

Oil  cakcs^  which  may  be  got  at 
the  mills  where  linfecd  oil  is  fac- 
tured,  for  top  drelling,  being 
lirft  pulverized. 

Ta  n  ners  barr.,from 
the  oak  tree. 

Leaves  of  decidu- 
ous trees, 

Rotten  wood,  }  clavev  and  ! 

n""     A„  Uiff  foils.    ! 

Decayed  Jhips,      J  1 

Wood  qJJies,  a  good  top  dreffing  j 
for  alraofl  any  kind  of  foils,  but » 
beft  for  a  moift  one.  | 

Coal  ajhts,  top  dreffing  for  j 
cold  damp  foils. 

Coal  diijly  top  dreffing  for  low  j 
meadows,  j 

Malt  dujl.    See  that  article,     i 

Sea  plants^  rock  weed,  eel  j 
grafs,  Bcc.  are  the  moft  valuable  ' 
of  green  vegetables  for  manure.  ; 
They  fhould  be  either  ploughed  , 
into  the  foil,  or  mellowed  in  . 
compoft  dunghills.  Itisawrong 
practice  to  ufe  them  as  top  dreff-  j 
ings.  Aluch  of  their  virtue  in  ! 
this  w^y  is  loft. 

Mofs,   mixed    with   dung    in  j 
holes  for  a  dry  foil.     Good  for 
potatoes. 

Linen  rjgs  ;  thefc  will  be  a  ma- 
nure worth  faving,  but  they  take 
a  long  time  to  puuety — m  com- 
poft. 

Tke  fojjil  or  earthy  manures 
are  thefe  : 

Une,  mixed  with  the  foil,  or 
in  compofts,  for  ftiff  foils.  See 
the  article  Lime. 

Marie,  moft  fultable  in  gener- 
al for  light  foils.  See  the  article 
Mark. 

Sand,  in  roads,  waflied  down 
from  hills,  to  open  a  ftiif  clayey 
foil.     See  the  article  Sane. 

Plaijler  of^    Abforbent    ma- 
Paris,  and       I    nures   for    cold 
^'{^     of  I    wetfoils,  for  top 
hainjloncs^    J    dreffing. 


M   A  X 

Gravel,  for  a  wet  puffy  fwanrp. 
Clay,  to  mix  with  the  plough 
and  hartow  in  a  fandy  or  gra'el- 
ly  foil.  It  ftiouM  be  expofed  to 
the  action  of  thefroft  one  winter 
before  it  is  ploughed  in.  Other- 
wife  it  will  remain  a  long  time 
tmdilTolved. 

ITo  be  mixed 
with  a  fandy  or 
gravelly  foil;  but 
beft  in  compofts, 
with  dung.  See 
the  article  Mud. 

AJhes  of  fea  coal— for  coldiliflf 
land. 

Ptjf,  when  reduced  to  afhes, 
top  dreffing  for  all  foils,  beft  tor 
a  cold  one.     See  Peat. 

Turfs,  either  in  compofts,  or 
dried  and  burnt.  They  may 
be  taken  from  the  fides  of  high- 
ways without  damage.  Thefe 
places  arc  the  walk^of  cattle  and 
fwine,  where  much  dung  is  drop- 
ped ;  the  turt  is  tlierefore  a  rich 
ingredient  in  manure. 

Shells  of  Ihell  filh,    ploughed 
in  whole,  are  a  good  manure  for 
drv  foils  ;  and  ground  or  pound- 
ed'fmall  for  ftift  land. 
Brick  diiji,  1  To  open  a  clayey. 
Burnt  clay,  J  or  warm  a  cold  foil . 

Beach  fand,  to  open  a  ftilF,  and 
warm  a  cold  foil,  1  hat  which 
has  a  fine  grain  is  the  beft. 

Pit  fand,  of  any  coloiu-,  to 
meliorate  a  foil  of  ftiff  clay.  It 
fhould  be  laid  on  plcntituHy. 

The  mixed  folid  manures  are 
thefe. 

Dvng  of  all  kind<:.  Though 
it  chieriy  ccnfifts  oi  rotten  vege- 
tables, there  is  a  mixture  of  ani- 
mal juices  in  it,  and  fome  oi  the 
fineft  particles  of  the  earth. 
Moft  dungs  ffiould  be  mixed 
with  the  foil,  by  the  plough  or 
hartow.     See  the  article  Dung. 

Comppfis  of  every  kind,  fit  tor 
light  or^  Hiff  foils,  according  to 
ibe  diHercnce  of  their  predomi- 
nant 


l^f  A  N 

r  Its  ;  or  a  general 

.  foils. 

i,u  jKiabi ngs  of  Inuk  ya rdi , 
for  all  kinas  of  foil,  but  when 
containing  chips,  IhaNings  of 
wiHxi,  or  much  law  dull,  tor  ftiff 
foils. 

Ruhbtlh  of  old  houfis,  for  cold 
and  flifir  foils.  This  contains 
much  nitre — in  compoils  it  is  of 
molt  advantage. 

Ear(h  that  has  been  long  un- 
der cover.  This  commonly  col- 
lects much  nitre.  Bcft  in  com- 
poils. 

Scraping  of  flreets,  a  general 
manure,  fit  lor  all  foils.  Fann- 
ers who  live  in  the  vicinity  of 
cities,  and  great  towns,  Ihould 
always  avail  themfelves  ot  this 
kind  of  manure. 

Mixed  liquid  mantircs. 

Old  brine  ol  failed  meat  or  fifh, 
which  contains,  befidcs  lalt,  fonic 
blood,  oil,  &c.— in  compoils. 

Sea  u:aUr^  which  contains 
other  things  befides  water  and 
fait,  fit  to  nourifh  vegetables.  It 
may  be  fpnnk.lcd  on  land,  or 
ufcd  in  compoils. 

..V.j^/'yi/i/j  — replete  with  a  pre- 
pared loud  tor  plants  ;  excellent  i 
tor     watering    gardens    in    dry  ! 
weather.     None  ot  this  ihould  be 
loll.     If  the  garden  be  dillant,  or 
wet.  it  may  enrich  the  dunghill. 

Vrin'  of  all  animals  that  are 
mingciu.  This  contains  earth 
and  animal  juices,  falts  and  oil  ; 
and  is,  next  lo  dung,  perhaps  the 
moil  valuable  and  important 
of  all  manures.  Sc*e  the  article 
I.  'i  ir.i'. 

V.'.:i-r  tn  the  hollows  of  farm 
yards.  Inllead  of  fufFering  this 
rich  liq!U)r  to  foak  into  the  bow- 
els ot  the  earth,  it  iti  iken 
up  by  mulch,  or  !•  .  .  -nt 
fubliance  thrown  uuu  it,  uj  i 
carried  out  in  a  water  cart, 
fprinkJed  over  a  foil  that  uecu^ 
it. 


MAN  199 

Water  that  runs  ftom  compojl 
dunghills.  This  Ihould  be  thrown 
back  upon  dunghills,  or  elfc  ufcd 
as  the  preceding  artitlc. 

Liquors  from  du  Itcu/n.  This 
fhould  be  ufcd  in  compofts. 

Alter  all,  I  may  add  Salt^  be- 
ing dillinct  from  all  other  ma- 
nures, an  important  ingredient  in 
the  food  ol  plants,  and  adapted 
to  prepare  other  ingredients. 
Some  apply  it  as  it  is,  but  it  has 
a  better  efic£i  when  ufed  in  com- 
pofts. 

If  our  farmers  in  general  would 
be  perfuaded  to  avail  themfelves 
ot  io  many  of  thcfe  manures  as 
tall  in  their  way,  or  can  beeaftly 
obtained,  we  ihould  no  longer 
hear  io  many  difmal  complaints 
as  we  do,  of  Ihort  crops,  and  worn 
out  lands.  The  tace  of  the  coun- 
try would  foon  be  iurprilingly 
improved. 

But  that  manures  may  fully 
anfwer  their  intention,  they  mull 
be  judiciouily  applied.  \\'e 
ihould  not  only  apply  each  ma- 
nure to  the  foil  for  which  it  is 
moll  iuitable,  but  at  feafons  when 
it  will  produce  the  moll  valuable 
cfTetlrt.  For  a  general  rule,  it  is 
hcil  to  apply  ihofe  rich  tcnnent- 
ing  manures,  which  are  to  be  mix- 
ed in  the  foil,  as  near  as  may  be 
to  the  time  when  the  ground  is 
iecded.  Dung  Ihould  be  plough- 
ed in  with  tiie  feed  turruw,  as  it 
is  called.  Compoils  may  be  har- 
rowed in  with  the  iced.  The 
reafon  for  applying  ihefc  ma- 
nures at  this  time  is  obvious. 
They  will  begin  to  raile  a  fer- 
mentation in  the  toil,  almoU  as 
loon  as  they  arc  applied  ;  fo  that 
if  there  be  no  Iced,  nor  plants  to 
be  nourifl'.ed  bv  them,  ionic  part 
of  the  good  cfleti  ol  the  manure 

1  be  loll.     As  part  o*  the  ter- 

;:iation  will  be  pail,  before  the 

plants  begin  to  grow  ;  fo  there 

may  be  dangor  ot  its  being  o\  er, 

before 


203 


M  A  X 


before  ihey  have  attained  to  their 
fall  growth.  It  fo,  the  ioil  will 
harden,  and  the  plants  wiil  re- 
ceive the  leaft  quantity  of  nour- 
ifhincnt  at  the  time  when  they 
need  tlie  greatefl. 

As  to  thofe  manures  which 
raifc  little  or  no  fermentation, 
they  may  be  laid  on  at  any  time 
when  the  farmer  has  leifiire  for 
it,  as  fand  on  a  clayey,  gravel 
on  a  boggy  and  puffy  foil  ;  or 
clay,  iiiarle,  or  mud,  on  a  light 
foil. 

It  has  been  too  much  praftifed 
in  this  country,  to  apply  fcanty 
dreffings  to  lands  in  tillage,  hard- 
ly fufficient  to  have  a  perceptible 
effect,  and  to  repeat  it  year  alter 
year.  But  this,  I  think,  is  a 
wrong  practice.  A  fufBcient  dreff- 
ing  once  in  two  years,  I  have  al- 
ways found  to  do  better  than  a 
half  dreCing  each  year.  This 
lafl  method  does  not  fo  well  agree 
with  a  fucceflion  ot  crops  ;  be- 
caufe  fome  crops  require  a  much 
greater  degree  of  itiength  in  the 
foil  than  others  do.  Let  us  then 
rather  follow  the  example  oi  the 
European  farmers,  who  common- 
ly manure  very  plentifully  once 
in  a  courfe  of  crops,  and  no 
more  ;  and  the  year  the  manure 
is  laid  on,  take  a  crop  that  re- 
quires the  greatefl  afliftancc  irom 
manure,  or  that  bears  high  ma- 
nuring 'jcft,  or  makes  the  beft  re- 
turns for  manure  :  A{terv>ards, 
crops  that  need  lefs  manure,  till 
the  end  of  the  courfe.  Perhaps 
tlie  year  ot  mailuring  in  this 
country  fhould  be  chiefly  tor  In- 
dian corn.  This  crop  is  not  ea- 
lily  overdone  with  manure,  and 
it  pays  well  fur  high  manuring. 
And  this  happens  well  for  us,  as 
a  hoed  crop,  when  the  dung  is 
ufed,  wii!  prevent  the  increafe  ot 
weeds,  which  a  plentitul  dunging 
will  greatly  promote  in  ever)' 
kiai  of  foil. 


MAR 

MAPLE,  acer,  a  tree.  See 
Sycamore. 

MARE,  the  fem.ale  of  a  horfe. 

Breeding  maies'lhould  be  free 
from  dileales  ;  and  have  good 
eyes  ;  becaufe  the  colts  are  apt 
to  inherit  their  dilterapers.  They 
fhould  be  the  flrongelt,  beff  fpir- 
ited,  and  well  Ihapcd  ;  not  of  any 
bad  colour.  If  any  dcfetts  are 
difpenfed  with,  the  mare  and  the 
ftallion  Ihouldbynj  means  have 
the  fame  defecls.  In  fuch  cafe 
there  can  be  but  little  profpeft 
that  the  iffue  will  be  good.  Some 
fay  they  Ihould  not  breed  with 
ftallionsot  the  fame  blood.  Crolf- 
ing  the  breed  is  faid  to  be  of  great 
confequence.  Mares  fhould  not 
be  fuffered  to  breed  till  after  lour 
years  old  ;  and  the  beft  ti.me  for 
them  to  take  horfe  is  about  the 
latter  end  oi  June,  then  they  will 
not  loal  till  the  fame  part  of  the 
month  of  the  following  May, 
when  the  grafs  will  be  gruwn, 
which  is  better  to  make  mares 
give  milk  than  dry  food  is. 

Mares  that  are  with  foal  fhould 
be  houfed  the  earlier  in  the  fall, 
and  fed  well  till  foaling.  For 
the  laft  month  or  two  before  foal- 
ing, they  fhould  not  be  ridden 
fwiftly,  nor  be  put  to  draw  at  all, 
nor  to  carry  heavy  burdens  on 
their  backs. 

MARKING  of  cattle.  As 
one  man's  cattle,  horfes,  and 
Iheep,  have  very  often  fuch  a  re- 
femblance  to  thofe  of  another, 
that  they  cannot  eafily  be  diflin- 
guifhed  ;  and  as  they  often  graze 
together  on  commons,  or  in  com- 
mon paffures,  marks  ior  thefe 
different  animals  have  been  found 
neceffary. 

I  have  kno'.vn  no  ether  mark- 
ing ufed  for  horfes  than  branding 
with  a  hot  iron,  on  the  fhoulccr 
or  thigh.  As  thefc  marks  are  not 
ornamental,  moft  perfons  choofe 
that  tlteir  horfes  fhould  have  no 

marks 


MAR 

mark«:,but  natural  ones,  as  they  arc 
called,  fiich  as  i)arlirular  fpois  on 
Ihcniof  differcut  colours,  ike.  In 
this  cafe,  thclc  natural  difcrinii- 
nations  fliouldbc  rcgillcrcd  ;  be- 
caufe,  in  cafes  of  dilpute  inlaw, 
no  owner's  word,  who  is  a  party, 
will  be  idkcn  us  evidence. 

"The  marking  of  neat  cattle  on 
the  horn,  with  the  branding  iron, 
isfocafily  donc,aild  without  giv- 
ing them  pain, and  is  fo  permanent, 
that  it  Ihould  never  be  neglcfcled. 
The  brand  (hould  be  made  near- 
er the  point  than  the  root  of  the 
horn,  on  the  outhde  which  is 
moU  expofcd  to  view,  and  not 
very  deep,  efpecially  on  young 
cattle,  which  have  thinner  horns 
tlian  older  ones.  Burning  a 
horn  through  to  the  pith  will 
hurt  a  creature,  and  will  fpoil  the 
horn  for  certain  ufcs  afterwards. 

The  fame  kind  of  mark  would 
be  preferahlie  for  fheep,  if  they 
all  had  horns  ;  as  thty  have  not, 
fonic  other  mark,  alike  fuitable 
for  all,  (hould  be  ufed.  Mark- 
ing them  on  the  wool  is  a  bad 
firafticc.  Some  ot  the  wool  is 
polled  and  loflby  it ;  and.atlong- 
en,itcaiilaflonly  tothcncxt  {hear- 
ing ;  oftentimes  not  fo  long  ;  and 
an  uncertain  mark  is  worfe  than 
none.  The  ear  marlt  muft  be 
ufed,  though  the  operation  gives 
fomc  pain  to  the  animals. 
Thefc  marks  may  be  diflintUor  a 
great  number  of  flocks.  And 
thefe  marks  (liould  be  matter  of 
record. 

MARLE,  a   fine  fat  kind  of 
earth,  but   litttlc    coherent,  and  i 
ejfily  dillolved  in  water.     It  is  j 
aflowcd  to  be  one  of  the  richcft 
of  manures.      It    is   of  various  | 
colours  in  different  places,  grey,  : 
blue,   brown,   yellow,   rid,   ancl  ', 
mixed.     It  isdilUnguifhablo  into  ', 
three    forts,  (lone     marie,    clay  ; 
niarle,  and  natcmarlc.    Thcfiiil 
i-.  hud,  the  fec-on  I   f<»ft,  the  Ul\ 

A  a 


MAR  aot 

is  found  inlliin  lamina, like  (latc; 
Each  kind,  however,  is  of  the 
fame  nature  as  the  others. 

Marie  is  faid  to  hav?  been  found 
in  fcveral  parts  ot  this  country. 
Foflibly  it  may  abound  iji  all 
parts  ;  if  To,  it  may  double  the 
value  of  our  lands  when  it  comes 
to  be  in  general  ufe.  People 
fhould  make  themfelves  ac- 
quainted with  the  nature  and  ufe 
of  it,  that  they  may  be  difpofed 
to  feek  for  it,  and  be  able  to  dif- 
tinguifli  it  trom  all  other  earths. 

It  often  bears  lb  near  a  rcfem- 
blance  to  clay,  that  the  one  may 
be  eafily  millaken  for  the  other. 
That  we  may  be  able  to  diftin- 
guilh  thefe  lubftanccs,  w'e  Ihould 
remember,  that  marie  is  apt  to 
break  into  little  Ikjuare  bits,  like' 
dice  ;  that  when  it  is  wetted,  i£ 
has  not  the  tenacity  of  clay  ;  that 
alter  being  cxpofed  to  the  weath- 
er, it  eafily  lalls  to  pieces  with  a 
blow  ;  that  after  lying  on  the 
furtacc  for  fome  time,  it  looks  as 
ii  it  were  coverctl  with  white 
froft,  or  with  a  fprinklingof  fine 
fait. 

Marfe  effervefces  with  acid.s  j 
but  thiscffer;.  eiccncc  does  notdif- 
tinguilh  it  from  other  calcariou»> 
foftils. 

It  has  been  faid  that  a  mofl  in- 
fallible way  to  (liftinguiih  marie 
from  other  earths,  is,  to  drop  a 
piece  ot  dry  marie,  as  big  us  a 
nutmeg,  into  a  giafs  of  clear  wa- 
ter, where  it  will  lend  up  many 
fparkles  to  the  iurlaceof  the  wa- 
ter, and  foon  diflolve  into  a  foft 
pap.  But  I  have  found  that 
fome  clays  exhibit  nearly  tho 
fame  appearances. 

Sometimes  the  beds  of  marie 
are  near  the  furfacc,  but  they  are 
oltcncr  found  deep  in  the  earth. 

It  is  fomct.mcs  tdund  on  the 
banks  of  ditches,  by  means  of 
the  rank  growth  of  weeds  and 
i^rafs  on  it.     Boiiiig  wiih  a  l«)ng 

aui^cr, 


20» 


M  A  R 


aager,  or  the"  fcrew  borer,  inay 
difcover  where  it  is.  Two  ki nets 
of  marie  were  lat.elj'  i"ound  at 
Fenobfcot  in  digging  a  well. 
Sometimes  it  is  very  dry  and 
€ompa£t  in  the  earth,  but  in  fome 
places  alraoft  liquid.  Earths, 
thrown  out  of  wells,  if  they  have 
a  clayey  appearance,  Ihould  al- 
ways be  examined. 

Maries  have  been  known  to 
fertilize  all  kinds  of  foil,  but 
light  fandy  ones  more  than  any 
other.  But  as  Dr.  A.  Hunter, 
by  decompounding,  has  proved 
that  marie  confifts  of  particles 
of  lime  ftone,  mixed  with  clay  or 
fand,  or  both  ;  according  as  ei- 
ther of  thefe  ingredients  is  more 
Eredominant  in  it,  the  foil  will 
e  indicated  for  ^N^hich  it  is  mofh 
fuitable.  That  which  contains 
the  leaff  proportion  of  clay  will 
be  proper  manure  lor  a  riifTfoil, 
being  of  themoft  ahforbent  kind  ; 
that  which  has  the  largell  propor- 
tion of  clay  fliould  be  applied  to 
a  fandy  foil.  To  difcover  the 
proportion  of  thefe  fubffances  in 
marks,  the  fame  ingenious  wri- 
ter advifes  as  follows  : 

"  Having  dried  and"  powder- 
ed the  marie  to  be  examined, 
pour  upon  any  given  weigiit  of  it 
a  fmall  qviantity  of  water.  To 
this  mixt'jre,  well  fhaken,  add  a 
little  of  the  acid  of  fea  fait, 
and  when  the  confeqaent  cRer- 
vefcencc  is  over,  add  a  little 
more.  Repeat  thi'^  addition  at 
proper  intervals,  till  no  more  et- 
iervefccncc  enlues.  I  hen  liirow 
the  whole,  with  an  equal  or 
greater  proportion  of  water,  into 
a  filler  of  grey  jjaper,  whofe 
weight  is  known.  V/henali  the 
fluid  parts  have  paffcd  through, fill 
up  the  filter  again  and  again,  with 
warm  water.  By  this  means  the 
diifolvcd  particles  of  calcarious 
earth,  adhering  to  the  refidue,  or 
ont<ingled  in  the  pores  of  the  paper. 


MAR 

will  be  walhcd  awaj%  and  not^ 
in^  but  what  is  really  uniolubj^ 
will  remain  in  the  filter.  Thi^ 
r>'fidiium,  with  the  filter,  mufl 
be  completely  dried  and  weigh- 
ed. 1  hen  (he  difference  be- 
twixt its  w^eight  and  the  orig- 
inal weight  of  the  filter,  givt;* 
you  the  weight  of  unfolubie  parts 
contained  in  the  marie  under  ex- 
am ination.  This  being  knpwn, 
the  proportion  of  calcarious  earth; 
in  the  fame  marie  is  evident. 
The  proportions  of  clay  and 
fend  in  it  are  difcoveredby  fijb- 
je6fing  the  refiduum  to  a  proper 
elutriation.  This  operation  is. 
very  fimple,  and  pertormed  thus  : 
Having  weighed  the  dry  refidue^ 
mix  and  Ihake  it  well  with  a  fuf- 
ficienr  quantity  of  water.  After 
allowing  a  little  time  for  the  fub- 
Sdence  of  the  groffer  parts,  let 
the  water,  with  the  fineft  parti- 
cles of  clay  fufpended  in  it.begent- 
ly  poured  off.  When  this  is  done, 
add  more  water  to  the  remainder, 
and  alter  fuflicient  mixture  and 
fublidence,  pour  ofFthat  likewife. 
In  the  fame  manner  repeat  the 
operation,  again  and  again,  tilji 
the  water  cornes  over  perfe6Uy^ 
pure.  The  fubftance  which  theq; 
remains  is  land,  mixed  perhaps 
with  Ibme  ftakes  of  talc  ;  and 
whatever  this  fubftance  wants  of 
the  weight  of  the  refidue  employ- 
ed, is  tlie  weight  of  pure  cjay 
canied  away  l)y  the  water  in  the 
procefs  of  elutriation."  Gtorgicat 
EJfuys. 

Ii  five  parts  in  fix  prove  to  be 
calcarious  in  a  piece  of  marie, 
the  lime  is  predominant,  and  it  is 
fit  for  the  ftiffer  foils  ;  if  two 
thirds  only  he  calcarious,  and  the 
refl  clav,  it  is  fit  for  a  fandy 
foil,  &c. 

The  calcarious  part  of  marie 
does  not  produce  fo  quick  an  ef- 
fect as  lime,  when  ufed  as  ma- 
nure ;  becaufe  die  latter  is  burnt, 

and 


MAR 

»nd  flakes  fuddcniy.  Thisfcmis 
to  be  the  true  di (Terence,  wliu  ii 
is  not  efTential  ;  hccaurc  tlii-  till- 
qaricus  part  oi  inaric  gradually 
flakes  in  the  earth  without  burn- 
ing. Like  lime,  it  attra^ls  and 
inibibes  the  acids  otthccarth  aiul 
air,  forming  a  fait,  which  dif- 
folves  the  oils,  incrcafcs  the  paf- 
tUre  of  plants,  and  prepares  the 
food  of  plants  to  enter  their  roots. 

The  quantity  of  marlc  to  be 
applied  to  an  acre  is  about  fixty 
loads.  Some  fandy  foils  may 
bear  more  of  the  clay  marie  ; 
rich  foils  need  not  near  fo  much, 
of  the  kind  of  marie  which  fuits 
them. 

Marie  fhouid  be  mellowed  by 
the  Iroflofonc  winter  before  it 
is  buried  in  the  foil ;  even  in  this 
cafe,  it.  will  iioitcrlili;'.e  the  foil  fo 
much  the  firll  year  as  afterwards. 
Some  marlos  do  not  produce 
their  fuU  eHl-rttill  the  third  year, 
as  they  dilFolve  flowly.  Sonte 
lay  the  good  eiTcct  of  one  full 
ilrcfTing  with  marlc  will  lall  thir- 
ty years. 

As  good  foils  may  be  over- 
done with  this  manure,  it  is  bet- 
ter to  err  at  firfl  in  laying  on  too 
Jittic  than  too  much.  More  may 
be  a.ldeil  at  any  time.  As  the 
iirincipal  effects  of  marlc  are 
like  tliffe  of  lime,  it  is  not  to  be 
expertfd  that  marlinpf  a  fccond 
Time  will  have  fo  good  an  cfle^l  as 
•. !:•  Tuft.  I'hisobfervation  is  faid 
"  !'e  confirmed  by  experience. 

1  licrc  is  another  fori  ot  marlc 
no  lefs  vaiuable  than  the  foinior 
kiad  ;  and  much  ufcd  in  old 
cMUDfries.  It  is  cotnpofed  chief- 
ly ol  br«Aen  (hells,  which  were 
undoubtedly  once  the  (hells  of 
riirine  annuals,  mixed  with  a 
proportion  of  fmd.  It  fome- 
nmes  alfo  contaiiii  a  mixture  of 
!iiofs  and  (Iccd)  cd  wood. 

This  iiiarle  is  ufually  found 
;.:!Jcr  rnofiiOrpeat,  iiiiow  funk- 


7VI  A  R  203 

en  partR  of  tlie  earth  ;  and  efpe* 
cially  thole  whii  h  aie  iiiRli  to 
'Jh-  fed,  or  coii(!«lir.il!e  nvcrs. 
Mr.  Mills  fa^s,  "  Whoever  finds 
this  martc  finds  a  niinc  ot  great 
value.  It  is  one  of  the  befl  and 
moll  general  inanuies  in  nature; 
proper  lor  all  foils,  and  particu- 
larly lo  for  clay."  This  fort  oi 
marie,  as  wcllasthcother.may  be 
eafily  found  by  boring.  It  has 
been  fometimes  dl (covered  by 
ant  hills,  as  ihefe  infetts  brine 
up  fome  fmall  pieces  of  Ihells 
from  their  holes.  One  would 
think  tliat  this  country  mufl  be 
turnifhedasjdcntifullyasany  oth- 
er with  this  kind  of  rcarlc  ;  wheth- 
er we  fuppofe  the  beds  to  hav^ 
been  formed'  by  the  general  del- 
j  uge,  by  thcragingol  thefea  andin- 
1  undationsrmcet!K\tgr<^atcvent,or 
by  t  he  f  hi  f  ting  of  the  beds  of  rivers. 

The  goodnefs  of  this  marlc 
depends  ui)on  the  fhclls,  whicli 
are  the  principal,  and  fometimes 
alrnofl  the  whole  that  itcontains. 
It  is  much  of  tfie  nature  of  lime^ 
and  will  go  funher  than  other 
marie.  It  tlleivcfccs  flrongljr 
with  all  acids. 

MARSH,  according  to  Dr. 
fohufon,  a  fen,  bog,  or  fwamp. 
In  this  countr>'  the  word  is  ufed 
only  to  fignify  fiat  land,  border- 
ing on  tiie  fea,  and  lying  lo  low 
as  to  be  of(eu  oyerflo\%ed  by  the 
tides,  when  they  arc  fullcft. 

Marlhes  are  difliriguifhed  into 
liigfi  raarfh  and  low  m^rlh.  The 
former  hears  a  veiy  (h^rt  grals,  but 
in  many  places  very  tliick  ;  the 
latter  produces  a  tail  rank  grals, 
called  thatch.  Roifi  iiiefc  forts 
ot  grals  arc  tn<»  highly  imprej;- 
nated  with  Inlt  to  be  a  conflant 
food  tor  cattle  ;  but  the  long 
prafs  is  falter  tl:uii  the  fhort,  as  it 
IS  oftener  wetted  with  fea  water 
during  its  prowil^ 

It  js  eilremed  healthy  for 
h^rfes,  cattle,  aud  ihcep,  to  have 

iom* 


204  M  E  A 

fbme  of  this  fort  of  land  in  their 
paflure  ;  or  to  be  turned,  now 
and  then  for  a  few  days,  iftto  a 
marfli.  At  leaft  it  faves  the 
trouble  and  cxpenfe  of  giving 
them  fait.  In  England,  it  is 
thought  to  fave  fheep  from  that 
fatal  diilemper,  the  rot. 

Marfhes  are  certainly  the  rich- 
eft  ot  our  lands,  as  appears  by 
the  aftonifhing  degree  of  fruitful- 
nefs,  apparent  in  thofe  peices 
from  \vhich  thfe  fea  has  been  ex- 
cluded by  dikes.  Marlh  may  be 
fo  far  improved  by  diking  and 
tillage,  without  manuring,  that 
inftead  ot  producing  leis  than 
one  ton  of  fah  hay  per  acre,  it 
fliall  produce  three  tons  of  the 
beft  kmds  ot  hav.  The  value  of 
this  foil  mail  needs  be  great,  as 
it  is  not  cxhaufted  by  cropping, 
and  needs  no  manure,  unlefs  it 
be  f«nd,  or  fome  other  cheap  fub- 
ftance,  to  dry  and  harden  it. 

Some  marfhes  require  a  long 
dike  to  exclude  the  fea,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  land  it  contains  ; 
others  a  Ihort  one,  as  where  the 
marfh  is  narroweft  towards  the 
fea.  He  tiiat  poffefiTes  a  marfh  of 
the  latter  kind,  can  vrndertake  no 
bulinefs  that  will  be  more  profit- 
able than  diking  it.  Two  men 
can  eafily  build  a  rod  of  dike  up- 
on high  marlli  in  a  day.  Through 
the  hollows  and  creeks,  more 
work  will  be  ;-eqaired. 

If  a  marfh,  after  it  is  diked, 
fliould  be  rather  too  wet  for  til- 
lage, a  ditch  ihould  be  made  round 
by  the  upland  to  cut  off  the  trefti 
water,  both  above  and  below  the 
furtace,  and  lead  it  to  the  outlet 
or  fluice.     See  Dike,  and  SIukc. 

MATTOCK,  a  pickaxe. 
This  isa  ufet'^ul  inilrument  in  fink- 
ing wells,  digging  trenches,  ditch- 

'mEADOW,  grafs  land  for 
mowing.  In  this  country'  the  word 
is  feldom  ufed  to  fignify  upland 


M  E  A 

mowing  ground,  but  that  which 
is  low  and  moift,  and  feldom  or 
never  ploughed.  In  other  coun- 
tries it  is  the  name  of  al!  mowing 
grounds. 

Too  much  or  too  little  moif- 
ture  is  hurtful  to  thefe  meadows. 
Thofe  that  are  apt  to  be  too  wet 
fhould  be  made  drier  by  ditching 
or  b^'  draining,  if  it  be  pra6iica- 
ble.  They  may  be  made  drier 
alfo  by  fpreading  fand,  gravel,  or 
coal  dull,  upon  them  :  At  the 
fame  time,  their  fruitfulnefs  will 
be  increafed,  and  better  kinds  of 
grafs  may  be  introduced. 

When  they  are  become  dry, 
I  they  Ihould  be  ploughed  and  till- 
'  ed,it  the  foil  be  not  a  tough  clay 
'  with  only  an  inch  or  two  ot  black 
]  mould  above  it.     In  this  cafe,  I 
j  thmk  a  low  meadow  fhould   not 
be  ploughed  at  all.     Inftead  ot 
ploughing,  perhaps    it  would  be 
better  to    cut  away  the  hillocks 
and  unevenneifes  ;  which  by  rot- 
ting in  heaps,  or  burning,  may 
be  converted  into  good  manure 
lor  the  foil.     And  to  increafe  the 
thicknefs  of  good  foil,  let  fand 
and  other   earths,  with  dung,  be 
fpread  over  it. 

When  the  foil  is  a  loofe  crum- 
bly clay,  fach  as  is  found  under 
fome  meadows,  fuch  a  meadow 
may  be  converted  to  tillage  land 
with  great  advantage. 

Floodmg  in  the  fpring  not  on- 
ly enriches  the  foil  of  meadows, 
but  makes  them  bear  a  fliarp 
drought  the  better.  It  caufes  the 
grafs  to  grow  fo  rapidly  that  the 
foil  is  fooner  fcreened  from  the 
fcorching  heat  ot  the  fun. 

Particular  care  fhould  be  al- 
ways taken  to  keep  cattle  out  of 
meadoM's  in  the  fpring  and  fall, 
when  they  are  very  wet  and  fott. 
For  they  will  fo  break  and  fpoil 
the  fward  with  their  feet,  that  it 
will  not  be  fit  for  mowing,  nor 
bear  more  than  half  a  crop.    All 

the 


MEL 

e  fall  fc«4in^  of  fuch  land 
mould  be  over,  ocforc  the  heavi. 
ell  rains  of  autunjn.  In  the 
fpiing,  no  hoof  fhould,  by  any 
means,  be  fiiffcrcJ  to  go  npon  a 
foft  mca'low.  It  ttccafions  fo 
much  lofs  and  cjamagc,  that  a 
farmer  had  better  give  treble  price 
for  hay  to  feed  his  cattle,  or  buy 
corn  lor  them,  than  to  turn  them 
in,  as  fomc  do,  to  eat  the  giafs 
that  Hrfl  fprings,  and  which  has 
but  little  more  nourilhment  in  it 
than  water.  No  hulbandiy  can 
be  worfe,  if  hufband/y  it  may  be 
.illed. 

Meadows  that  bear  poor  water 
grafles  Ihould  be  mown  rather  be- 
fore the  grafs  is  grown  to  its  full 
fize.  The  hay  will  be  fo  much 
fweetcr  and  better,  that  what  it 
wants  in  quantity  will  be  more 
than  made  up  in  its  quality.  And 
the  lofs  ot  quantity  may  perhaps 
be  made  up  in  tall  feeding  ;  or 
elfc  a  fecond  crop  may  be  taken. 

I  have  long  ohferved  that  heavy 
rains  commonly  fall  before  the 
end  of  Augull,  by  wliich  low 
meadows  are  often  flooded. 
Therefore,  there  is  danger  in  de- 
laying to  mow  them  till  it  is  fo 
late.  The  crop  may  be  either 
totally  loft,  or  men  rauft  work 
in  the  water  to  favc  ii  in  a  damag- 
ed condition. 

MK.^SLES.adireafein  fwine. 
Thr  eye;  are  red  and  inflamcil, 
^nd  the  fkin  rifes  in  pimples,  and 
rims  in'o  fcabs.  To  cure  a 
fwine  of  this  difeafe,  tiike  half  a 
fpoontul  of  fpirit  of  hartOio.n, 
and  two  ounces  of  bole  armeni- 
ae,  mix  it  with  meal  and  water, 
and  give  it  him  in  the  morning 
when  he  is  hungry.  Repeat  the 
dofe  every  day,  till  he  is  cured, 
which  will  be  in  four  or  five 
d.ivs. 

S^r.LON,  a  plcarmt  tan--d, 
ig  fruit.     It  grous  beffina 

•rm  climate  ;  and  is  large  and 


M  E  S  205 

excellent  in  the  fouthern  dates. 
But  they  will  ripen  in  Neweng- 
land,  in  the  common  way  of 
planting  ;  but  are  not  fo  Lirgc, 
nor  fo  early  in  the  mod  northern 
parts.  Some  iniprorcinent  has 
lately  been  made  in  this  fruit,  by 
bringing  feeds  from  the  fouth- 
ward.  Whether  this  will  be  a 
lafting  advantage  time  will  fliew. 

Ot  all  the  kuids  of  melons, 
Mr.  Miller  greatly  prefers  the 
cantaleiipe,  a  native  of  America. 
But  I  have  not  heard  whether  it 
has  yet  found  its  way  into  this 
country. 

The  fame  writer  fjys,  the  feeds 
of  melons  {hould  be  three'  years 
old  before  they  are  planted  ;  and 
that  thofe  feeds  which  are  fo  light 
as  to  fwim  on  water,  are  not  good 
to  plant.  Melons  grow  beft  on 
a  fandy  loam,  which  has  a  warm 
expofure  tothefouih  orfoutheaft. 
The  vines  fhould  be  Iheltercd  a 
gainft  cold  winds  which  flop  their 
growth  ;  and  again  ft  boifterous 
winds  from  any  quarter,  which 
will  hurt  them, by  diflurbing  and 
difplacing  their  vines. 

A  good  manure  to  be  put  un- 
der melons,  is  an  old  compofl  of 
good  loam,  with  the  dung  of 
iicat  cattle  or  fwine.  The  ends 
of  the  runners,  and  the  fruit  lat- 
eft  formed,  flioui'l  be  taken  off, 
that  the  fruit  firft  formed  may 
have  more  nouiilhmcnt,  grow 
larger,  and  arrive  to  the  greater 
nerfettion.  To  raile  melons  oil 
not  beds,  under  l.amcs,  or  un- 
der hand  glalfcs,  fee  Gardener's 
Diclionary. 

MESLIN,  wheat  mixed  with 
other  grain  in  fowing.  The 
name  is  moft  commoMJy  applied' 
to  a  mixture  of  wheat  and  rye. 
But  there  is  an  unfitncfs  in  fow- 
ing thtfe  together,  as  wheat  re- 
quires the  be!l  foi|f;»nd  tillage, 
an.l  rye  Will  anfwcr  with  the 
poorcft. 


2o6 


M  E  T 


I  fliouli  greatly  prefer  the 
rtixture  of  fpring  wheat  and  bar- 
ley, as  barley  requires  nearly  as 
good  a  foil,  and  as  many  ploiigh- 
iftgs,  as  wheat.  But  that  which 
chiefly  recommends  this  mixture, 
is,  that  wheat  will  not  blight 
when  it  ii  fown  with  barley. 
This  has  been  proved  by  the  ex- 
perience of  a  number  of  farmers 
in  my  neighbourhood,  who  are 
encouraged  to  perfift  in  the  prac- 
tice. This  confirms  a  hint  that 
w^as  thrown  out  by  Mr.  Eliot, 
in  his  EJfays. 

Whatlhouldbe  the  reafon  why 
barley  prevents  the  blighting  of 
wheat,  may  be  worthy  of  the  in- 
quiry of  naturalills.  May  it  not 
poITiblybe  this  ?  That  the  large, 
biifhy  beards  of  the  barlev  To  en- 
clofe  the  necks  of  the  Items  of 
wheat,  as  to  defend  them  in  fome 
degree  from  cold  in  the  cool 
nights  ;  fo  that  the  fap  in  the 
items  of  wheat  is  not  fo  much 
thickened  by  the  cold,  as  to  be 
obftrufted  in  its  afcent  to  the  ear  ? 

The  worflcircumftancea'iend- 
irig  this  kind  of  meflin,  is  the 
difficulty  oi  feparating  the  two 
fons  of  grain.  Though  wheat 
does  no  harm  in  malt,  barley  is 
a  poor  ingredient  in  bread.  So 
that  there  is  need  of  making  the 
reparation.  Barley  being  light- 
er than  wheat,  will  moftly  fall 
nearer  to  the  uil  of  the  (beet  in 
winnowing,  by  means  of  which, 
fome  ef  the  wheat  may  be  almoft 
or  quite  extricated  from  the  bar- 
ley. Throwing  it  with  a  Ihovel 
may  do  (lill  more  towards  feparat- 
ing the  two  forts.  The  lighter 
grain  will  drop  fhort  of  the  heap. 
METH  EGLIN,  a  pleafant  fer- 
mented liquor,  made  of  honey 
ao  j  water.  It  is  made  thus  :  Put 
fo  much  na-iv  honey  into  fpring 
water,  that  when  the  honey  is 
dJlTolved,  an  egg  will  not  fink  to 
the  bottona.    Boil  the  liquor  for 


M  I  C 

an  hour.  When  cool,  barrel  it 
up,  adding  a  fpoonfulot  yeaft  t6 
ferment  it.  Some  add  gihger 
half  an  ounce  to  a  barrel,  and  as 
much  cloves  and  mace  ;  but  I 
have  had  it  very  good  without 
any  fpices.  One  hundred  weight 
of  honey  will  make  a  barrel  of 
metheglin,  as  ftrong  as  good 
wine.  I  once  had  a  barrel  made 
with  90  pounds  of  honey.  Af- 
ter iermenting  and  fining,  it  was 
an  excellent  liquor  ;  fome  part 
of  which  I  kept  bottled  fevcrai 
years ;  it  lofes  the  honey  tafte 
by  age,  and  g'-ows  lighter  colour- 
ed :  But  on  the  whole,  it  does 
not  improve  by  age»  like  forac 
liquors. 

MICE,  a  well  known  genus 
of  quadrupeds,  troublefome  to 
all  houfekeepers,  but  more  ef- 
pecially  to  farmers,  and  thofc 
who  keep  quantities  of  grain  in 
their  houfes,  or  in  granaries. 
Farmers  fliould  know  the  beft 
ways  of  oppofing  their  depreda- 
tions, and  of  deflroying  thsm. 
The  field  moufe  eats  the  bark  of 
trees  in  nurferies  and  young  orch- 
ards, when  fnow  is  on  the  ground, 
and  moftly  when  it  is  deep.  A 
good  M-ay  to  prevent  this  mif- 
chief  is  to  tread  down  the  fnow, 
and  make  it  verycompacl,  about 
the  ftems  of  the  trees.  And 
though  laying  mulch  about  the 
roots  of  trees  be  good  for  the 
tree<:,  it  occafions  the  mice  to  in- 
creafe  ;  therefore  I  do  not  go  in- 
to that  practice,  while  the  trees 
are  fniall,  and  have  a  fmooth 
ba'rk.  It  is  only  v/liile  ihe  trees 
are  young  (hat  mice  eat  the  bark. 

In  fpring,  tlie  field  mice  eat 
corn  and  other  feeds  under  the 
furface  ;  in  the  fummer  they  hurt 
the  grafs  ;  and  in  autumn  I  have 
fo«nd  that  they  eat  potatoes  be- 
fore  they  are  dug  up.  I  know 
not  whether  the  field  moufe  and 
thofe  in  hcufcs,  barns  and  grana- 
ries. 


M  I  L 

rie^,  be  of  the  fa;ne  fpecics  ; 
ihoUKh  the  forinerart!  larger.  But 
it  hasDccn  tournl  that  both  may  be 
dcdroyvil  hy  the  fame  poifoii. 

Tike  a  fpooniul  ol  flour, mix- 
ed with  fonic  Icrapiiigs  oi  old 
clicefe,  and  {teds  ot  hemlock, 
njade  As  fine  as  poflible.  Set  it 
where  ihcy  haunt.  It  it  be  fct 
in  a  liourc,  let  it  not  be  in  the 
fame  apartment  with  any  thing 
that  is  to  be  ufed  as  the  food  of 
man.  This  mixture  will  deflroy 
all  the  mice  that  eat  it. 

But  fince  many  fear  to  ufe  poi- 
fon,  th<^y  may  take  them  alive  in 
wire  cages.  However,  inftead 
of  the  round  ones  which  arc  com- 
monly ufcd,  I  would  recom- 
mend fquare  ones,  cnclofcd  in 
thin  wooden  boxes,  with  a  hole 
ill  the  box  againft  tlie  entrance 
of  the  cage  ;  bccaufe  a  moufc 
will  not  To  readily  enter  into  a 
place  where  he  fees  another  con- 
fined, rhe  bait  may  be  a  rind 
of  cheefe  fcorchcd,  made  fall  to 
the  cenire(;f  the  bottom  of  the 
cage,  and  fo  far  from  the  hole 
that  a  moufe  cannot  reach  it  till 
he  has  got  quite  into  the  cage. 
For  if  he  Ihoidd  ftick  in  the  paf- 
fage,  he  will  prevent  the  entrance 
ofothers. 

MILDEW,  or  MELDEW, 
or  HONEY  DEW.  a  certain 
fwcot  tafted  clammy  fubflancc, 
found  in  mornings,  on  the  leaves 
of  (omc  vegetables,  the  pores  of 
which  do  not  abforb  it.  Many 
have  believed  Uiat  this  dew  is  the 
real  c;aufe  of  the  luA,  or  dark 
colouied  fpots.  on  the  Items  and 
leaves  of  blaflcd  grain.  Thii 
has  bei:u  the  popular  way  of  ac- 
cquutuiK  for  the  difeafe,  antong 
my  cquutiymen.  It  has  been 
fuppofed,  tliat  this  raoiflurc  ad- 
heres to  the  ulams,  and  fo  con- 
dcnfcs  as  to  ohllrufl  their  pcrfpi-  .' 
ratiqn,  by  which  they  lickCQ  ajid 
become  unfruitful.  I 


M  I  L 


JO/ 


1  he  French  call  this  diftempcr 
in  grain  ;  ouiU<,  or  ruft.  it  is  un- 
doubtedly the  fame  which  the 
Romans  called  Rubi^o.  The 
ftenis  and  leaves  are  be(iiattcrc(i 
with  brown  loots,  and  the  grain 
appears  fhrunk  and  Imall.in  oror 
portion  as  thefe  fpots  abound  OQ 
the  plants.  It  mollly  attacks 
wheat  and  rye,  but  lometimes  al- 
fo  oats  ajid  barley. 

Mr.  Worlidge,  an  ingenious 
writer  on  hulbandry,  was  an  ad-! 
vocatc  for  the  hypothefis  I  have 
mentioned.  He  therefore  adviifJ 
ed  to  brufliing  off  fuch  dew  witbv 
a  r»jpe,  before  the  fun  could  con- 
denie  it  on  the  grain.  But  it  19^ 
much  to  the  difcredit  of  this  opin-. 
ion,  that  though  brufbing  has  oft- 
en been  tried,  it  has  never  beea. 
certainly  known  to  have  had  the 
defiled  cffeO.  I  am  one  among  the 
many  who  have  tried  it  without  ci- 
{ct\.  M.  Duhamel  made  trials, 
to  determine  wlicther  this  were 
t'ne  real  caule,  by  applying  to  the. 
leaves  of  plants  fuch  glutinous 
lubllances  as  were  fufhcient  to 
flop  the  perfpiration  ;  but  it  had; 
no  fuch  efletl  as  rult.  Hovr 
much  lefs  can  fuch  an  e{fc£l  be 
expected  from  adhefions  tq  the 
llcms,  fince  the  leaves  are  the 
principal  organs  of  perfpiration? 
Or  when  not  a  fourth  partof  the 
fuilace  o|  a  plant  is  ever  covered 
by  the  fpots  ? 

Some  impute  this  diftcmperin 
grain  to  intenfe  heai  from  the 
fun,  happening  after  dry  gloomy 
weather.  But  it  is  known  that 
it  attacks  young  plants  in  aur 
timii),  when  the  heat  from  the 
fun  IS  not  grea;,  nor  the  weather 
dry,  and  covers  tlie  leaves  with 
fpots  ol  ruO. 

.VIr.  MilLr  and  others  fuppofe 
infects  to  ha\c  a  hand  in  this  djf- 
temper  ;  either  originally,  or  af- 
ter tnc  Rems  are  wounded.  Bia 
nicrofcopical  obfcrvations  have 

not 


208 


M  I  L 


not  afforded  reafon  to  believe 
this  to  be  the  true  caufe.  And  Mr. 
Til  let  has  obferved  that  thc^fpots 
are  of  difFv^rent  colours  ori  dinerent 
plant?,  according  to  their  differ- 
ent kinds  of  fap  ;  from  whence 
it  may  feem  probable  tliatthfefap, 
rather  than  infects,  or  their  eggs 
or  excrements,  is  the  fubflance 
of  which  the  fpots  are  formed. 

Some  have  fuppofed  the  fpots 
to  be  made  by  the  intenfe  aftion 
of  the  fun  on  the  drops  of  com- 
mon deu',  A\-hile  they  adhere  to 
the  items  after  the  fan  is  up,  and 
coUedt  the  rays  as  lenfes,  by 
■which  the  ft  ems  are  over  heated 
under  the  drops,  or  rather  burnt. 
But  the  ihape  of  thefe  drops  will 
hardly  juftify  fuch  an  opinion  : 
For  though  their  convexity  on 
the  outfide  is  confiderable,  their 
concavity  on  the  infide  is  altnoft 
the  fame'  Or  if  it  fhould  be  al- 
lowed that  the  rays  do  converge 
a  little  in  the  drops,  yet  their  ac- 
tion on  the  ftems  cannot  be  fo 
great  as  to  diffolve  their  fub- 
i^ance  into  that  powder,  of  which 
the  ruft  is  known  to  conlilf .  Be- 
fides,  if  this  were  the  caafe,  the 
fpots  would  be  made  only  on  the 
caflern  fides  oi  the  ftems,  which 
is  contrary  to  faft.  They  ap- 
pear equally  on  every  fide  oi  the 
Items. 

Mr.  Tlllet's  hypothefis  feems 
to  bid  fairer  than  either  of  the 
toregoirg  to  account  for  tliisdif- 
temper.  He  thinks  it  is  caufed 
by  a  fharpnefs  in  the  air  in  dry 
cloudy  weather,  which  breaks 
the  vefiels  interwoven  with  the 
fiibftance  of  the  blades  and  ftems, 
and  makes  thein  difcharge  a  thick 
oily  juice,  which,  by  degrees,  is 
turned  into  that  ruily  powder. 
He  examined  W' ith  a  microfcope. 
and  faw  fmall  openings  in  the 
membrane  covering  the  plant 
where  the  powder  lay  :  And  ob- 
ferved   thai     the    juice    iflued 


M  1  L 

through  thefe  fmall  openings^ 
over  Avhich  he  faw  fome  pieces 
of  the  membrane,  which  partly 
covered  the  openings.  Hence 
he  juftly  concluded  that  the 
caufe  of  the  difeafe  is  the  wound- 
ing of  the  fap  vcCels,from  which 
wounds  the  fap  exudes,  which 
fhould  pafs  into  the  ear  to  per- 
feFt  the  grain  :  But  I  greatly 
fofpect  he-  does  not  here  affign 
the  true  caufe  of  thefe  fraSures. 
If  they  were  caufed  by  any  un- 
faAotirable  ftate  of  the  air.  one 
w'ould  think  that,  of  tw  o  adjoin- 
ing fields,  one  would  not  efcapc 
this  diftemper,  and  the  other  be 
ruined  by  it,  which  is  not  an  ua-^ 
common  cafe.  And  M.  Chat-, 
eauvieux  has  remarked,  that  the 
whole  of  the  fame  field  of  wheat 
is  not  ufually  affcfted  at  the  fame 
^ime.  Beiides,  M.  Duhamel 
often  applied  to  plantii  acid  and 
corrofive,  alkaline  and  fpiritoiis , 
liquors  ;  which  trials  did  not 
produce  any  thing  like  nift. 
How  then  can  any  fuch  effluvi- 
um in  the  air  be  fuppoled  to  cor- 
rode and  break  the  %^effels  of  the 
ftems  ? 

M.  Chaieauvieux  helieved 
that  the  powder  which  forms  the 
ruft,  is  the  extravafated  juice  of 
the  plants,  becaufe  it  fiops  their 
grow- th.  As  he  had  not  obferved 
the  ruft  to  com.e  but  in  dry  weath- 
er, and  when  there  were  no  dews, 
he  conjectured  that  the  want  of 
moifture  caufes  the  furfaces  of  the 
ftems  to  crack,  and  pour  forth 
their  contents.  Whether  this 
be  the  true  caufe  or  not,  future 
obfer\'ations  and  experience  may 
enable  us  to  determine.  To  me 
it  does  not  appear  very  probable ; 
becaufe,  in  this  country,  in  fome 
of  the  drieft  feafons,  grain  has 
been  moft  free  from  ruft:.  I  rath- 
er think  this  is  generally  the  cafe. 

Were  it  proper  that  I  fhould 
attempt  to  afhga  another  caufe, 

after 


M  t  L 

after  the  vain  inqiiirirs  ot  io  ma 
ny  vi  my  fuperiours,  I  (houlJdl- 
cii})c  the  burflln;;  ot  the  fap  vef- 
fcls  to  cold.  Till-  taiti  that  have 
led  mc  lo  form  this  hypothcfis  are 
chiefly  thcfe  :  I'lrft,  that  in  the 
colder  parts  of  Noi  th  America, 
grain  is  far  ottcncr  hurt  by  thv5 
dillemjier  than  in  the  warmer  ; 
ofic^iiT  In  the  northern  than  in 
the  iouthcm  ftates.  Secondly, 
bccaufe early  rioc grain  molf  com- 
monly ofcapcs  the  ruft.  Thirdly, 
bccaufe  the  riift  does  not  often 
apprar  on  fi!mmcr  grain,  before 
t!;?  nights  begin  to  grow  colder, 
as  they  do  about  the  latter  end  of 
July.  From  thefe  obfer\'ations, 
I  have  been  led  to  think,  that  the 
increafing  cold  of  thefe  nights 
thickens  the  fap  in  the  leaves 
and  the  neck  of  the  Hem,  julf  be- 
low the  ear,  where  it  has  thethin- 
neft  covering,  fo  as  to  form  ob- 
ftrut^ions  in  the  fap  vclTels :  After 
which  the  pre itu re  of  the  fap  up- 
wanls,  in  a  warm  daV,  is  [o  Arong 
as  to  burft  the  vcllelsj  and  out- 
ward membrane,  and  fo  to  form 
fjafTages  for  the  fap  to  the  fur- 
ace  of  the  lleuK,  &c.  I  am  the 
more  induced  to  adopt  this  hy- 
pothefis,  becaufe  I  have  obferv- 
ed  the  fprits  nfually  appear  firll 
on  the  neck  of  the  flem,  and  are 
always  there  in  the  greatcU  plen- 
ty. 

By  a  grejfcr  degree  of  cold 
than  that  whicii  formed  the  firll 
ohUruttions,  I  conceive  new  ob- 
ftruttions  are  formed  below  the 
wounds  or  fijfures,  by  means  of 
which  new  cracks  arc  made  from 
whence  the  fap  exudes  :  .''\nd 
thus  the  (lems  may  become  Itjot- 
ted,  as  they  fomciimcs  are,  quite 
to  the  ground. 

I  dare  not  abfolutcly  depend 
upon  the  tru:h  of  this  theory, 
though  I  d<j  no',  conceive  how  it 
can  be  oiherwilc.  I  wtjuld  ear- 
nrftly  requcll  all  who  arc  «d)lc, 


Mil       205^ 

to  make  obfervations  concerning 
this  diflempcr,  that  fo  my  opin- 
ion may  be  either  confirmed  or 
refuted  ;  efpccially  that  light 
may  be  thrown  on  a  lubjetl  that  is 
very  intereftingto  the  mhabitants 
of  thu  country.  For  we  are  not 
to  expeft  that  we  (liall  be  able  ef- 
fctfually  to  prevent  or  cure  this 
diffempcr,  by  which  we  fuflfer 
greatly,  until  the  caufe  of  it  be 
fnvefligatcd. 

It  I   have  been  fo  happy  as  ta» 
affign  the  real  caufe  ot   rufl  on 
gram,    will  it    not    follow,   that 
the  moft  probable  way  to   pre- 
vent it  mull  be,  to  bring  our  feed 
from  a  more   northern   climate, 
where  it  has  been  ufed  to  bear  a 
i  greater   degree  of  cold    than  it 
j  will  meet  with   here  ?  This  has 
I  been  found  to  be  the  cafe  by  ex- 
j  pcrience ;  and  fcems  to  be  much 
in  favour  of  my  hypothefis.  But 
it  foon  alters  by  repeatedly  fow- 
ing  it,  fo  as   to  become  natural- 
i/.ed  to  our  climate  j  and  as  lia- 
able  to  this  dillemper  asany  oili- 
er   feed  :  Whence    I  conclude, 
that  it  ought  to  be  renewed  once  in 
thieeor  four  years,  at  tiie  longefl. 
M.  Chatcauvieux  cured  rufly 
plants  of  wheat  in  autumn,  by 
taking  off" the  leaves  clofe  to  the 
ground.     If  the   rull  comes    ort 
after  the  flems  are  grown,  he  fup- 
pofed  It    to  be   incurable.     But 
the  rufling  of  the  leave*  is  not 
always  followed  by  the  rufling 
ot   the  Hems  ;  and  it   the  latter 
efcape,  the  grain  will  be  well  fil-  ^ 
led.     If  there  be  no  way  ot  cur- 
ing this  dillemper,  we  (houldne- 
gleM  nothing  that  we  can  do  to 
prevent  it.     As  to  fpring  grain, 
this  I  conceive  may  be  done  by 
now  feed  from  tlie  northward,  by* 
i  lowing  early,  and  only  on  warm 
'  foils  ;  giviii";  u  plenty  ot  tillage 
I  before  fowing,  and  warm  top  dref- 
fiiigs  about  tn."  time  of  caring. 
I  By  thcfc  a^^n.   the  grain  will 
b  get 


210  M  I  L 

get  beyond  its  milky  flate,  be- 
fore tbe  time  when  rail  is  ex- 
pefted  to  appear  ;  and  the  crop 
■w'll  be  good,  though  fome  fpots 
Ihould  be  formed  on  the  grain 
afterwards,  or  when  the  grain  is 
nearly  arrived  at  its  moll  pertett 
ilate  of  fulnefs. 

Winter  grain  is  not  fo  often 
blafted,  becaufe  it  ripens  earlier. 
But  that  it  may  efcape  an  autum- 
nal ruft,  it  fhould  not  be  fown  be- 
fore the  hottefloffummer  ispaft. 
Some  grains  of  wheat  fown  by 
M.  Chateauvieux,  on  the  fixth 
of  July,  were  tot^iUy  deftroyed 
by  the  ruft  in  autumn.  Early 
fown  winter  grain  undergoes  too 
great  a  change  of  ^v'eQther,  from 
hot  to  cold. 

Some  writers  tell  of  other  dif- 
tempers  in  grain,  belides  ruft,  u{- 
tilago  and  fmut  ;  but  I  have  met 
with  no  other  in  this  country  of 
any  confiderable  extent  ;  there- 
fore, I  fhall  not  trouble  the  read- 
er with  the  mention  of  any  other. 
See  the  articles  Bui  nt  Gram  and 
Smut. 

MILK,  a  nutritious  liquor, 
which  nature  prepares  in  the 
breafts  of  female  animals,  for  the 
jiourifliment  oi  their  young. 
The  milk  of  cows  is  tloat  with 
which  the  faimer  is  moft  con- 
cerned. 

That  the  greateft  quantity  of 
milk  may  be  obtained  from  cows, 
they  ihould  not  calve  out  ot  the 
right  feafon.  April  is  a  good 
dme  of  the  year,  it  the  calves  are 
to  be  reared  ;  if  not,  perhaps 
May  is  better,  being  pather  more 
favourable  to  the  dairy.  But  that 
cows  may  give  plenty  of  milk 
to  nourilh  their  calves  at  this  fea- 
fon, they  fhould  not  be  wholly 
confined  to  hay,  or  any  other  dry 
meat:  But  be  daily  fed  with 
feme  kind  of  juicy  food,  fuch  as 
potatoes,  turnips,  carrots,  See. 
until  they  have  plenty  of  grafs. 


M  I  L 

In  feeding  milch  cows,  the' 
flavour  of  the  milk  Ihould  be  at- 
tended to,  unlefs  itbe  when  their 
calves  fuck  all  their  milk.  Feed- 
ing them  with  turnips  is  faid  to 
give  an  ill  tafte  to  the  butter 
made  of  the  milk.  The  decay- 
ed leaves  of  cabbages  will  un- 
doubtedly give  a  bad  tafte  to  the 
milk,  though  the  found  heads 
will  not.  There  is  no  fear  of 
potatoes  and  carrots  having  any 
bad  efFe£l:  upon  the  milk  in  this 
way.  The  quantity  of  milk  is 
greatly  increafed  by  potatoes, 
but  it  becomes  thinner.  Some 
think  carrots  have  a  tendency  to 
dry  up  the  milk  in  covv's  ;  but  I 
have  affured  myfelt  of  the  con- 
trary by  much  experience. 

The  milk  of  cows  in  fummer 
is  fometimes  made  very  bitter 
by  their  feeding  on  ragweed, 
which  they  will  do,  when  they 
are  very  hungry.  To  prevent 
this  evil  it  is  only  fieceffary  that 
they  fhould  not  be  forced  to  eat 
it  by  the  v/ant  of  other  food. 

MILLET,  Panicum,  a  round 
yellowifh  white  grain,  which 
grows  in  panicles  at  the  top  of  the 
ffalk.  The  ftalks  and  leaves  are 
like  thofe  of  Indian  corn,  but 
fmaller.  It  grows  to  the  height 
of  three  or  four  feet.  A  fandy 
warm  foil  fuits  it  beft.  It  fhould 
be  fown  about  the  middle  of 
May,  in  drills  three  feet  apart. 
The  plants  fliouldbe  fo  thinned  at 
the  firft  hoeing  as  to  be  about  fix 
inches  apartin  the  rows.  It  will 
produce  as  large  crops  as  Indian 
corn,  and  bears  drought  admira- 
bly well.  Cattle  are  fond  of  eat- 
ing it  green,  preferring  it  to  clo- 
ver. A  crop  of  it  fov,  n  thick, 
and  mowed  green,  would  be  ex- 
cellent fodder. 

Some  fay  a  crop  may  be  ob- 
tained by  fowing  it  at  about  mid- 
fummer.  Perhaps  it  may  be  fo 
in  hotter  climates.  I  tried  the 
experiment 


•Experiment  in  the  /jjih  Jegrecof 
I  itaiulc,  and  the  ii.iu  was  little 
better  than  mcvc  rli.-li,  lor  want 
of  continuance  ot  heat  to  fill  the 
jrain. 

This  grain  appciirs  to  he  fiib- 
left  to  nodilleinpcr;  but  when  it 
IS  nearly  ripe,  the  birds  are  apt 
to  get  a  great  deal  oi  it,  it  it  be  not 
watched  carefully. 

The  way  to  harveft  it  is, -to  cut 
off  the  pannicles  with  a  knile, 
near  the  uppermoU  joint  ot  the 
ilalk,  put  them  intofacksorfhccts, 
carry  them  to  the  barn  floor,  and 
«nipty  them  into  heaps,  covering 
tliem  with  cloths.  Alter  lying  five 
or  fix  days,  it  mull  be  thraihed  and 
cleaned.  It  Ihouldbe  dried  well 
in  the  fun,  before  it  is  (lowed  a- 
way  in  the  granary  ;  tor  it  will 
not  keep  well  with  any  nioifture 
in  it. 

Millet  is  an  excellent  food  for 
fowls  and  fwine  ;  lor  the  laiti^r 
it  Ihould  be  ground  into  meal. 
Some  mix  it  \vith  flour  in 
bread  ;  but  it  is  better  for  pnd- 
ding.s.  There  is  alfo  a  red  fort  of 
millet  ;  but  this  1  have  never 
feen. 

MOSS,  Lii'i.'.n^  a  fort  of  plaiu 
that  is  injurious  totlie  growth  of 
other  plains  in  general.  It  was 
lormcrly  thought  to  be  an  ex- 
crcfcence  ;  btit  even  the  nii- 
nutcfl  kinds  are  now  known  to  be 
propagated  by  feeds,  and  have  or- 
gans ot  generation. 

Low  meadows  arc  often  infeft- 
cd  with  tnofs,  which  prevents 
the  flourilhing  of  the  giafs,  and 
indicates  the  coldncfi  and  lournefs 
of  the  foil.  To  cure  meadows  of 
mofs  tijcy  fliouM  be  top  drefTeJ 
with  lime, afhes, and  other  abfor- 
bcnt  manures  ;  as  well  as  laiil 
drierbyditc!)  '  '  lining.  Al- 
irrwhifhli!  •  •  put  t'>  ii -'.f 

len  u  V.  .;i  inin  ivc- 
^f  lands,  when  th. 
Uid  Ju.vn  to  grafs,  often  become 


M  O  S  2ti 

niofly,  cfpeclally  when  they  are 
too  long  in  grafs.  Cold  loamy 
foils  are  moil  fuhjeD;  to  this  e« 
vil.  The  mofs  on  fucii  land  is 
often  (o  fmall,  as  to  appear  only 
j'.s  a  giecn  mouldinefs  of  the  fur- 
t.icc.  But  this  mould  confifts  of 
dillinfl  minute  plants,  as  well  as 
all  other  niouldinel's,  as  may  be 
feen  by  the  help  of  microfcopcs. 
If  drcflings  ot  warm  manures  do 
not  prove  fiiilicient  to  clear  the 
ground  of  this  mofs,  it  fliould  be 
icarified,  or  harrowed,  or  clfe 
broken  up  and  tilled.  For  if  it 
be  permitted  to  continue,  it  will 
rob  the  grafs  of  moft  of  its  foocL 

A  very  long  white  or  ycllowifh 
mofs  grows  in  wet  fwamps. 
Draining  the  fwamps,  and  let- 
ting fire  to  the  mofs  in  a  dry  fea- 
fon,  will  connnonly  be  fufficient 
to  lubdue  it, 

I  mentioned  mofs  under  the 
head  of  manures.  As  mofs  i.s 
known  to  contain  a  large  propor- 
tion ot  nndiirolvedoil,  any  thing 
that  will  diffolve  that  oil,  will 
convert  it  into  a  rich  food  for 
plants.  Lime  is  excellent  for 
I  tkis  purpofe  :  Mofs  and  lime, 
therefore,  mixed  in  compofldung 
hills,  may  well  be  c.\pcfclcd  to 
make  a  good  inanure. 

As  mols  retains  water  more 
tlwn  almofl  any  thing  clfe,  fomc 
UdVe  foiiuil  advdnt.igjhy  mixing 
it  with  [dudy  and  gravelly  foils. 
It  enables  the  foil  to  retain  th(H 
moiftnre  it  nc^ivc.s  from  rain^ 
and  dews,  and  to  hold  the  ma-^ 
nurcs  that  arr  laid  on  it  :  And' 
tUc  luols  itielf  llowlv  diffolvL^i 
aiitl  bcc'jnics  (. 

Richard  To 
tcr  in  the  ■  aei 

cxperimc:  .  in 

iheciiltui 
was  /nam: 


i  i.onm:s;u      yellow    uxms.       i  lie 

firft 


$12 


M  O  S 


iirft  row  yielded  438  fe  of  pota- 
toes;  the  fecond  515  ft.  Kn- 
couraged  by  this  great  fuccefs, 
he  tried  a  row  of  potatoes  on  lia- 
ble dung  by  itfelt,  another  on 
mofs  by  itfeif ;  the  crops  were 
of  equal  weight  ;  thofe  on  rqofs 
more  fizeable  than  the  other.  In 
the  firft  experiment,  I  fuppofe 
the  heat  of  the  liable  dung  dif- 
folved  the  mofs  as  faft  as  was 
neceffary  for  the  nourilhment 
of  the  potatoes,  \yhich  vvas  moft 
needed  in  the  latter  part  pf  fum- 
mer.  The  refult  of  the  latter 
experiment  is  more  furprifing. 
Doubtlefs  the  ground  had  been 
before  richly  furnifhed  with 
fome  fubftance  which  was  adapt- 
ed to  diflblve  the  mofs  :  Perhaps  it 
had  be-en  limed  in  the  year  pre- 
ceding. If  fo,  it  renders  the  Itory 
more  credible. 

Nothing  is  more  common 
than  to  fee  mofs  of  a  light  green 
colour  upon  foreft  trees.  The 
feeds  being  carried  in  the  air, 
lodge  in  the  crevices  of  the  bark, 
where  they  vegetate  and  grow 
into  plants  of  a  larger  or  fmaller 
ifize,  according  as  they  happen 
to  be  more  or  lefs  fliaded.  This 
is  fo  dilferent  from  the  yellow 
fwamp  mofs,  that  cattle  cat  it  very 
greedily. 

Mofs  on  fruit  trees  is  detri- 
m.ental  to  their  fruitful  nefs. 
"  The  remedy  is  fcraping  it  off 
from  the  body  and  large  branch- 
es, with  a  kind  of  wooden  knite, 
that  will  not  hurt  the  branches  ; 
or  with  a  rough  hair  cloth, 
which  does  very  well  after  a 
foaking  rain.  But  the  moll  ef- 
fectuaf  cure,  is  taking  away  tlie 
caufe.  This  is  to  be  done  by  drain- 
ing off  all  fuperfluous  raoiflure 
from  about  the  roots  of  the  trees. 
And  it  may  be  guarded  againll 
in  planting  the  trees,  by  not 
fetting  them  too  deep  in  the 
foil. 


M  O  U 

"  If  trees  (land  too  thick  in  a 
Cold  ground,  they  will  always  be 
covered  with  mofs  ;  and  the  befl 
way  to  remedy  the  fault  is  to  thin 
them.  When  the  young  branch- 
es  of  trees  are  co^'ered  witii  a 
long  and  Ihaggy  mofs,  it  will  ut- 
terly ruin  them  ;  and  there  is  no 
way  to_prever]t  it,  but  to  cut  off' 
the  branches  near  the  trunk,  and 
even  to  take  off  the  head  of  the 
tree,  ifneceffary,  for  it  will  fprout 
again.  And  if  the  caufe  be  in 
the  mean  time  removed  by  thin- 
ning the  plantation,  or  draining 
the  land,  the  young  fhoots  will 
continue  clear  after  this. 

"  If  the  trees  are  covered  with 
mofs  it!  confequence  of  the 
ground's  being  too  dry  (as  this  will 
happen  from  either  extreme  in 
the  foil)  then  the  proper  remedy 
is,  the  laying  mud  from  the  bot- 
tom of  a  pond,  or  river,  pretty 
thick  about  the  roots,  opening 
the  groimd  to  fome  dillance  and 
depth  to  let  jt  in.  This  will  not 
only  cool  it,  and  present  its  giv- 
ing groVth  to  any  quantity  of 
mofs  ;  but  it  will  prevent  the 
other  great  mifchief  which  fruit 
trees  are  liable  to  in  dry  grounds, 
which  is  the  falling  of  the  fruit 
too  early."  Mortimer's  llujhund- 

MOULD,  a  word  that  imports 
the  finefl  parts  of  a  foil,  or  the 
furface  abovethe  foil.  It  is  the  flra- 
tum  or  layer  of  earth  which  forms 
the  furface, or  turf,  in  paflures  or 
grafs  land,  in  which  the  roots  get 
the  principal  part  of  ilieir  nourilh- 
ment. The  plough  afts  in  tl.e 
mould  ;  hence  the  name  mould- 
board  is  given  to  that  part  of  a 
plough  which  turns  up  the  foil  and 
mould.  In  fome  places  this  lay- 
er is  thicker,  \x\.  otfiers  thinner. 
The  deeper  it  reaches,  the  richer 
the  land  may  be  efleemed  ;  and 
it  is  the  more  valuable.  It  is  com- 
monly black,  or  of  a  dark  brown 
colour. 


M  O  W 

colour.  The  layer  wliith  is 
next  under  it  is  foii.whicli  is  al- 
fu  fit  for  tillage.  But  in  tilled 
lauds  the  rich  inoulij  and  foil  arc 
blended,  and  the  mixture  has  the 
name  ut  muuld. 

The  bell  mixed  mouUl  is  of  a 
hazelly  or  ciieluui  colour;  neither 
too  adhclivc  nor  too  loofe  ;  nei- 
ther baking  to  a  crull  with 
drought,  nor  turning  to  morter 
Kith  wctncfs  ;  it  is  fwcet  fcent- 
cd  ;  and  tcels  unttuous  and  fine. 
All  good  mould  and  foil  will  be- 
come black,  by  being  expofed 
to  the  fun  and  air  for  a  year  or 
two.  An  alh  coloured  mould 
b  not  good,  a  pale  vellow  mould 
fl.ll  worfe. 

A  good  mould  contains  much 
of  that  extremely  fine  impalpa- 
ble earth,  which  is  a  real  iu^re- 
dient  in  the  food  of  plants.  This 
IS  called,  by  fome  writers,  vege- 
uble  mould. 

The  word  mould  is  alfo  ufcd 
to  fignifv  foil  that  is  made  loofe, 
light  and  fine  by  tillage  and  ma- 
nuring. Hence  i)lants  arc  faid  to 
b--  moulded  when  this  fine  earth 
IS  drawn  up  to  their  ftems  by  the 
hoe.  And  a  garden  mould  is 
made  bv  tilla>;e  and  manure. 

MOULD  BOARD,  that  part 
of  a  plough  which  turns  over  the 
furrow.  For  ploughing  green 
fward  an  iron  mouldboard  is 
befl  :  For  it  it  be  wood  it  oujht 
to  be  plated  witii  iron  to  prevent 
its  hcin;  foon  worn  through.  For 
]  '  :  in  tillage  laud  a  wood. 

e:;  ;ioard  will  anfwer. 

MOW,  a  quantity  ot  hay,  or 
grain  \n  the  flraw,  piled  in  a  barn 
for  kee;i:ng.  Ground  mows  ^re 
more  liable  to  take  damage  by 
radifturc,  than  mows  upon  fcat- 
folds.  Mows  oi  grain  Ihould  be 
laid  upon  the  latter.  Tiielargei  the 
mow,  the  drier  tli.-  hay  orlljc-avcs 
ihould  be  of  which  ii  couOUs. 
See  Fodder, 


M  O  W 


213 


MOWING,  the  operation,  or 
art  of  ciuiing  down  grafs,  corn, 
S:c.  with  a  lithe. 

I  hey  who  have  not  been  in 
ihi-ir  youth  accullomcd  to  do 
this  work,  arc  fcldom  found  to 
be  able  to  do  it  with  cafe  or  ex- 
pedition. But  when  the  art  is 
once  learnt,  it  will  not  be  loft. 

As  this  is  one  of  the  moll  la- 
borious parts  of  the  hulband- 
man's  calling,  and  the  more  fa- 
tiguing as  it  muft  be  performed 
in  the  hotieft  ieafon  of  the  year, 
every  precaution  ought  to  be 
ufcd  which  tends  to  lighten  the 
labour.  To  this  it  will  conduce 
not  a  little,  for  the  mower  to  rife 
very  eaily,  and  be  at  his  work 
before  the  rifing  of  the  fun.  He 
may  eafily  perform  half  the  ufual 
day's  work  before  nine  in  the 
morning.  His  work  will  not 
only  be  made  eafier  by  the  cool- 
nels  of  the  morning  air,  but  alfo 
by  the  dew  on  the  jBfrafs  which 
is  cut  the  more  tafily  lor  being 
wet.  By  this  means  he  may  lie 
ftill  and  reft  himfcif  during  all 
the  hottell  of  the  day,  while  oth- 
ers who  begun  late  are  fweatiug 
themrelvescxceflivcly  ;  and  hurt- 
ing their  health,  probably,  by 
taking  down  large  draughts  of 
cold  drink  to  flake  their  raging 
thirft.  The  other  half  ot  his 
work  may  be  performed  after 
three  or  four  o'clock  ;  and  at 
night  he  will  find  himfelf  free 
from  fatigue. 

It  the  mower  would  hu.Q)3n<i 
his  ftrength  to  advaiit.ige.  he 
ihould  take  caie  to  havehis  iilhc, 
AuA  all  llie  apparatus  tor  mow- 
ing, in  the  beft  order.  Who- 
ever docs  his  work  with  iiifuffi- 
clcnt,  or  bad  tools,  the  mower 
Ihould  not.  His  fiihc  ought  ta 
tu: adapted  :')ilif  r.iiiaccon  v\hich 
hcmows.  It  til  ■  *'  '■  'el, 
and  ficc  from  o.  -e 

may  be  lur.g  4ud  auuji:  uu.uMt : 

4Xii 


ii4 


MOW 


and  he  will  perform  his  work 
wUh  lefs  labour,  and  greater  ex- 
pedition. But  if  the  furtace  be 
uneven,  cradley,  or  chequered 
with  ftones,  or  ftumps  ot  trees, 
his  fithe  rauft  be  fliort  and  crook- 
ed. Otherwife  he  will  be  obliged 
to  leave  much  of  the  grafs  uncut, 
or  ufe  more  labour  in  cutting  it. 
A  long  and  ftraight  fithe  will 
Only  cut  off  the  tops  of  the  grafs 
in  hollows. 

A  mower  Ihould  not  have  a 
fnead  that  is  tooflender  ;  lor  this 
■will  keep  the  fithe  in  a  continu- 
al tremor,  and  do  much  to  hin- 
der its  cutting.  He  muft  fee  that 
it  keeps  perfeftly  faft  on  the 
fnead  ;  for  the  leaft  degree  of 
loofenefs  will  oblige  him  to  ufe 
the  more  violence  at  every  ftroke. 
Many  worr}'  themfelves  need- 
lefsly  by  not  attending  to  this 
circumftance. 

Mowing  with  a  company  ought 
to  be  avoided  by  thofe  who  are 
not  very  ftrong,  or  who  are  little 
ufed  to  the  bufinefs,  or  who  have 
not  their  tools  in  the  befl:  order. 
Young  lads,  who  are  ambitious  to 
be  thought  good  mowers,  often 
find  themfelves  much  hurt  by 
mowing  in  company. 

Mowers  fhould  not  follow  too 
clofely  after  each  other  :  For 
this  has  been  the  occafion  of  fa- 
tal wounds.  And  when  the  dan- 
gerous tool  is  carried  from  place 
to  place,  it  fhould  be  bound  up 
with  a  rope  of  grafs,  or  otherwife 
equally  fecured. 

"  Mr.  de  Lille  introduced  in 
England,  the  mowing  of  %vheat. 
The  method  is  this  :  The  fithe 
he  ufes  is  at  leaft  fix  inches  fhort- 
er  in  the  blade  than  the  common 
fithe  ;  and  inftead  of  a  cradle, 
has  two  twigs  of  ofier  put  femi- 
circuiar  \vife  into  holes  made  in 
the  handle  of  the  fithe,  near  the 
blade,  in  fuch  a  manner  that  one 
femicircle  interfefts  the  other. 


M  O  W 

"  By  this  method  of  mowing 
wheat,  the  flanding  corn  is  al- 
ways at  the  left  hand.  The 
mosver  mows  it  inward,  bearing 
the  corn  he  cuts  on  his  fithe,  till 
it  come  to  that  which  is  Handing, 
againft  which  it  gently  leans. 
Alter  every  mower  follows  a 
gatherer,  who,  being  provided 
with  a  hook  or  flick,  about  two 
feet  long,  gathens  up  the  corn, 
makes  it  into  a  gavel,  and  lays 
it  gently  on  the  ground.  This 
muft  be  done  with  fpirit,  as  an- 
other mower  immediately  fol- 
lows."    Co?nplete  Farmer. 

As  reaping  is  flow  and  labori- 
ous work,  it  would  be  right  tor 
our  countrymen  to  learn  this 
method  of  mowing  their  wheat ; 
which  will  undoubtedly  anfwer 
alfo  for  other  forts  of  grain. 

MOWING  GROUND,  a 
name  commonly  given  in  this 
country  to  land  that  is  mowed  lor 
hay  ;  which  being  fit  for  either 
mowing  or  tillage,  is  occafion- 
ally  ufed  for  the  latter. 

The  generality  of  farmers,  in  • 
this  country,  lamentably  miftake 
their  intercft,  by  having  too  large 
a  proportion  of  their  lands  in 
grafs  for  mowing.  Half  the 
ufual  quantity  with  the  beft  man- 
agement, would  produce  as  much 
hay  as  they  need,  a  great  deal 
more  thnn  they  comuionly  get ; 
befTdes  faving  them  expenfe  and 
much  hard  labour  ;  and  allow 
them  to  convert  half  their  mow- 
ing land  to  tillage  or  pafture  ; 
efpecially  to  the  latter,  which  is 
raoft  wanted. 

A  Newengland  farmer  is  not 
contented,  unlefs  he  yearly  mows 
over  the  greater  part  ot  his  clear- 
ed land  ;  becaufe  he  fuppofes 
that  if  he  does  not,  he  fhall  be 
able  to  winter  but  a  frHall  ftock. 
His  grafs  on  themoft  of  his  acres 
muft  needs  be  very  thin,  even 
when  tlie  feafons  are  moft  fa- 
vourable ; 


MOW 

-vourable  ;  therefore,  if  a  fummcr 
happen  to  be  rlry,  the  fDil,  whicli 
is  (o  poorly  covered  js  to  retain 
neither  dews  nor  rains,  is  uiia- 
\oi(lably  parched  di\d  bound. 
'I'hc  grafs,  thus  deprived  ot  its 
nouriuimeni,  does  not  get  half  its 
ufua!  growth  in  a  drv  leafon  ;  and 
thccrop  turns  out  to  bealinoftnoth- 
ing.  The  dillielFcd  farmer,  not 
knowing  how  to  get  todder  iorhis 
cattle  in  the  enfuing  winter,  with 
fevcre  labour  or  coft,  mows  his 
dead  grafs, andgcts  perhaps  four 
or  five  cocks  from  an  acre.  He 
cannot  fell  off  many  ot  his  flock, 
becaufe  oi  the  general  fcarcityot 
hay  ;  nor  fatten  thera  to  kill,  for 
•want  of  grafs ;  therefore  he  keeps 
them  along  ptH)rlyand  pinching- 
ly,  till  the  pro\ind  is  bare  in  the 
following  fpring  ;  then,  to  (ave 
their  lives,  he  turns  them  into 
his  mowing  ground,  as  foon  as 
there  is  the  leuft  appearance  of 
green  grafs.  They  potch  the  foil 
to  the  depth  of  fix  or  eight  inch- 
es, whicn  is  fufficienr'to  pre- 
vent the  growth  ot  a  good  crop 
that  year  ;  as  it  finks  a  great  part 
of  the  furface  to  Inch  a  deptli 
that  it  can  produce  nothing  ; 
tears  and  maims  the  roots  which 
rem.iinin  their  places  ;  and  leaves 
the  furface  f<>  uneven,  that  it  a 
crop  of  grafs  fhould  grow,  it 
could  not  be  mown  clolely,  it  at 
all.  Therefore,  through  want  ot 
har,  the  foil  and  fward  muft  be 
mangled  in  the  fame  way  the 
fpring  following  ;  and  (o  on 
from  year  to  year  perpetually. 
How  abfurd  and  ruinating  is  this 
praflice  ! 

If  our  farmers  would  refolve 
they  will  mow  but  halt  the  quan- 
tity of  ground  which  they  have 
mowed  hitiierto,  I  Ihould  think 
they  might  foon  finvl  their  ac- 
count in  it.  But  it  will  be  nec- 
effary  that  they  fhould  adopt 
a    new    kind  «f    management, 


MOW  215 

with  rcfpctl  to  their  mowmg 
grounds. 

In  the  fir  ft  place,  let  them  not 
lay  down  to  grafs  tor  mowmg, 
any  lands  that  are  quite  exhaull- 
ed  by  fevcre  cropping  ;  nor 
without  manuring  them  well. 
Good  crops  of  grafs  are  not  to 
be  expected  when  tlier«  is  no 
flrength,  or  next  to  none,  in  the 
foil.  Therefore  the  lands  Ihould 
be  dunged  when  the  grafs  is  fown, 
unlefs  we  except  clover  and  oth- 
er biennial  graffcs.  And  even 
for  thefe  it  is  often  quite  neceffa- 
ry,  always  advantageous. 

Mr.  Miller  advifes  to  fowing 
perennial  gralTes  in  autumn,  not 
with  corn,  but  by  thcmfclves. 
This  is  the  right  v/ay  to  have  the 
ft)il  well  filled  with  good  grafs 
roots,  before  it  fubfides  and  be- 
comes compact.  I  think  the  far- 
mer need  not  grudge  to  forego 
his  corn  crop  in  this  cafe  ;  but 
perhaps  this  is  not  necedary  ; 
for  no  crop  will  be  milled  by 
fowing  ^rafs  by  itfclf.  If  it  be 
fown  with  winter  grain  it  will 
not  produce  a  crop  for  mowing 
the  next  year  ;  but  if  fown  by 
itfell  it  will  produce  a  good  crop  ; 
and  a  plenty  of  lining  roots  will 
be  edablilhed  in  the  foil.  But 
when  grafs  is  fown  with  grain, 
the  grain  kills  part  ot  the  roots, 
and  flints  the  growth  of  the  reft 
to  fuch  a  degree  that  they  will 
never  recover.  But  whether  the 
feed  of  red  clover  will  come  up 
fo  well  if  lowed  in  autumn,  as  if 
fowed  in  the  fpring,  ii  perhaps 
yet  to  be  proved.  Concern- 
ing other  grafs  there  needs  no 
queflion. 

Alfo,  the  furface  fhould  be 
rolled  after  the  feed  is  fown,  to 
clofe  the  mould  about  the  feeds, 
to  prevent  their  being  removed 
by  ftrong  winds,  to  prevent  the 
furiace  from  t)eing  irregularly 
tora  bj  the  frofl  oi  winter,  and 

to 


i2i6         MOW 

to  make   the   foil  fmoother   for 
mowing. 

Graf's  land,  by  lying,  is  apt  to 
become  uneven,  and  knobby. 
For  this  reaCbn  the  good  tarmeis 
in  England  pafs  a  roller  over 
their  grafs  land  every  fpring  and 
fall.  It  gives  the  roots  ot  grafs 
a  more  equal  advantage  lor  nour- 
irtiment  and  growth,  and  facili- 
tates the  mowing  of  the  grafs,  and 
the  raking  of  the  hay. 

When  land  becomes  bound,  or 
moffy,   fo    as    to   diminifh    the 
growth  of  the  grafs,  if  it  be  not 
convenient   for   the     farmer   to 
break  it  up,  it  (hould  be  cut,  or  j 
fcarified,  with  fome  fuch  inftru- 
inent    as     the    three    coultered  I 
plough,  invented  by  M.  de  Chat-  | 
eauvieux.      Then   dreffed   with  j 
ibme  Ihort  rotten  manure  fuited  ; 
to  the  foil  ;  bufhed,  and  a  roller  ; 
palled  over  it.     Inllead   of   the 
three    coultered   plough,    when 
that  cannot  be  had,  a  loaded  har- 
row with  Iharp  Heeled  teeth  may 
anfwer.     There  is  no  danger  of 
deftroying  the  roots  ot  the  grafs  j 
by  this  operation.     Though  they 
are  broken  they  will  be  fpeedily 
renewed  ;  new    offsets  will    be 
more  plentifully  formed,  and  the 
crops  will  rife  with  renewed  vig- 
our. 

Let  farmers  keep  their  mow- 
ing  land  fo  completely  fenced, 
that  cattle  and  fwine  may  be  ef- 
feftually  prevented  from  break- 
ing in  at  any  time  ol  the  year. 
I  think  every  one  muff  be  lenfi- 
ble  of  the  necelTity  of  this. 

It  is  ridiculous  to  think  of  tak- 
ing many  crops  of  hay  from  any 
piece  of  upland,  in  uninterrupt- 
ed fuccelFion,  without  affording 
it  any  manure.  For  it  does  not 
imbibe  therichnefsof  the  atmof- 
phere  fo  plentifully  as  land  in 
tillage.  Grafs  land  fhould  there- 
fore, once  in  two  or  three  years 
at  leaft,  have  a  drefling  of  good 


M  O  W 

I  rotten  dung,  orof  acompoft  fuit^ 
i  able  for  the  foil.  But  the  heft 
^s'ay  is  to  do  it  every  year.  Au- 
tumn is  the  time  for  applying  the 
■  manure,  according  to  long  ap- 
I  proved  praftice.  Buta  v/riter  in 
the  Georgical  Effays  recommends 
doing  it  immediately  after  the 
firft  mowing,  when  a  fecond  crop 
is  expected,  which  will  nndoubt- 
'  edly  be  the  larger.  Whenever 
it  is  done,  a  bulh  harrow  fhould 
be  drawn  over  the  furface,  which 
will  break  the  fmall  lumps  re- 
maining in  the  manure,  and  bring 
it  clofer  to  the  roots  of  the  grafs. 
By  this  m.anagement,  four  or  five 
tons  of  hay  may  be  the  annual 
produce  of  an  acre.  Or  if  the 
furface  be  not  dunged,  the  crop 
fhould  be  fed  off  once  in  three 
years  ;  that  the  excrements  of 
the  cattle  may  recruit  the  foil. 

No  cattle  fhould,  on  any  ac- 
count, be  turned  into  a  mowing 
ground  in  the  fpring.  The  mif- 
chief  they  will  do,  will  be  ten 
times  more  than  the  ad\'antage 
they  can  get.  In  the  fall,  neat 
cattle  may  take  the  aftermath  : 
But  fheep  and  horfes  will  be  apt 
to  bite  fo  cJofe  as  to  injure  fome 
of  the  roots.  Therefore  I  think 
they  fhould  be  kept  out,  efpecial- 
ly  after  the  grafs  comes  to  be 
fhort.  Whatever  dung  is  drop- 
ped by  the  cattle,  fhould  be  care- 
fully beat  to  pieces,  and  fprcad, 
before  winter,  or  early  in  die 
fpring. 

Thefe  lands  fhould  never  be 
fed  fo  bare,  but  that  fome  quan- 
tity of  fog  may  remain  on  them 
through  the  winter.  The  fnow 
preffcs  it  down  to  the  furface, 
where  it  rots  ;  it  holds  the  rain 
water  from  pafTingoff  fuddenly  ; 
and  the  virtue  of  the  rotten graf? 
is  carried  into  the  foil,  where  it 
nourifhes  the  roots. 

Grafs  lands,  with  fuch  a  man- 
agement as  is  here  recommended, 
woald 


M  O 


t 


•!J  prndttrc  crop«;  inrprinnt;- 


iieiy  tidtural  tu  graiis. 
■..oc  woultl  be  covered 
ciily  in  the  Jpnng  vriih  a  fine 
verdure.  The  crops  would  ccv-- 
er  the  ground  fo  (oon  as  to  pre- 
vent nioli  ot  the  ill  etfeit  of 
droui;ht  m  lummer.  It  would, 
h\   !  >r"  Mig  a  tlofe  cover  to  the 

1  moll  ot  the  moifture 
I. ...I  i.iii>  in  dews  and  rains.  So 
that  a  dry  fnnimer  would  make 
bill  little  differ<'nce  in  the  crop  ; 
and  the  rich  lands  v.'ouid  olten 
produce  ixvo  crops  in  a  year. 

On  this  plan  ot  management, 

much  lal>our  might  be  laved  in 

haymaking;  anci  the  grafs  might 

"  c  cut  in  due  feafon  ;  not  on- 

1     .  icaufe   the  farmer  has  more 

0,  by  having   fo  much  lefs 

nw  to  do  ;  hut  alfo  bccaufe 

op  is  not  apt  to  dry  up 

ly,  as  a  poor  and  thm 

one.  I  iie  grafs  in  our  mowing 
grounds  is  often  faid  to  be  win-  I 
trr  killed.  It  is  obfervabie  that ' 
thi<  happens  only  in  the  little  , 
h';i.o\s  I  !.u  *s,  where  the  melting  ' 
Ino'.v  U)w.tr<i5  Ipring  torms  little  . 
pfjnds  ot  water.  A  cold  night  [ 
or  two  turns  thcfe  ponds  to  cakes  | 
ot  ice,  whitii  lying  long  upon  | 
ther'"-'^ '  '!"1K  them  io  much  that  ' 
they  Man   recover.     Or 

the  pww.  .i.uile  by  the  thawing  , 
ct  tile  ice  dellroy  the  roots  by  j 
'■        ■''"■-•them  ;  fo  winter  flood-  i 

ys  all  the  bell  gmlles.  j 

'     wcver,  only  ot  one  , 

vcd  in  the  hollows  ;  ' 

ii:i  :;  I  lies  .i^am  by  the  niidfum-  i 

mer,  or  autumn  tollowing.  j 

L  1 .  'i  and 

Icvr  e  di- 

:  ul    do    mucU    towards 

;  :ii»  ihi5   cNil.     B«t  if  a 

held  be  pertcctly  t  pt  to  , 

rctam  too  much  w,  ..iiin 

tillage,  it  (bould  be  laid  down  to 

Cc 


Mud  2if 

grafs  in  broad  ridgrs  or  h^A%.  1 
am  dc<] 

who  ll.l 

this  method.     1  iie  or 

furrows  between  the  :  aid 

be  tiie  breadth  of  two  or  three 
fwartli!?  afundcr,  that  the  f^afs 
may  be  mowed  with  the  Icis  iiu 
convenience.  Itisi>earas  much 
work  to  mow  a  half  fwarth  as  a 
whole  one  ;  which  is  a  good  rca- 
fon  why  the  beds  (hould  not  be 
very  narrow.  Ten  or  twelve  feet 
is  a  good  breadth,  as  it  is  equal 
to  two  Iwarths. 

MUCK,  dung  or  other  filth* 
fuitable  for  manure. 

MUD,  a  black  or  dark  colour- 
ed fcdiment,  found  at  the  bottom 
ot  ponds,  rivers,  creeks,  ditches, 
and  wet  funken  places.  It  is 
moftly  compofed  ot  a  fine  vege- 
table mould,  mixed  with  the  fub- 
ftance  of  perifhed  vegetables,  &c. 
and  theretore  it  contains  much 
of  the  natural  food  of  plants. 

In  ponds  and  rivers,  this  fedi- 
ment  is  made  up  of  fine  duft,  to- 
gether with  a  rich  variety  of  oth- 
er fubftances,  which  liave  been 
watted  in  the  air,  and  have  fallea 
into  the  water  ;  together  with 
the  fubtilcU  particles  of  the 
neighbouring  foils  walhed  down 
into  them  by  rains.  That  isfup- 
pofed  to  be  the  richelt  mud, 
which  is  near  to  the  borders,  and 
which  ha&hccn  alternately  flooded 
and  fermented;  as  it  will  ferment 
when  it  lies  bare,  in  fome  degree. 

In  rivers,  and  in  long  ditches 
that  have  currents,  there  is  h 
greater  proportion  of  foil  in  the 
mud.  It  has  been  1)1 .  '  '  iwii 
trom  folt,  nirllow  L:.  .srh 

which  ■  pals  ;  and  lome 

ot    it  ft^m    h«'d5    ot 

ni  ■  'in 

th  .         .  ..ch 

re  iu  lite  water. 

are  totally  dried 
up  ui  a  Uut  and  dry  furemer  ; 

an'A 


ai8 


M  U  D 


%t 


U  D 


and  all  ponds  and  rivers  are  fo 
diminifhed  by  a  copious  evapora- 
tion, as  to  leave  part,  and  the 
fichelt  part,  of  their  beds  uncov- 
ered. And  thefe  beds,  where 
there  has  been  no  rapid  current, 
are  always  found  to  contain  a 
rich  mud.  In  fome  places  it 
reaches  to  a  confiJerable  depth. 
This  mud,  though  taken  from 
frelh  waters,  has  been  iound  to 
be  a  valuable  manure  ;  more  ef- 
pecially  for  dry,  fandy  and  grav- 
elly foils.  I  have  known  it  to 
have  as  good  an  effeft  as  barn  dung, 
in  the  culture  of  Indian  corn, 
upon  fuch  foils.  The  advantage 
of  it  is  not  found  to  be  only  tor 
one  feafon  ;  it  meliorates  the 
land  for  feveral  years.  It  rcHores 
to  a  high  piece  of  ground  what 
x'egetable  mould  the  rains,  in  a 
long  courfe  of  years,,  have  been 
wafting  away  from  it. 

It  is  happy  for  the  farmer  that 
Providence  has  prepared  for  him 
thefe  magazines  of  manure  in  ai! 
parts  of  the  country.  None  but 
the  flupid  will  let  them  lie  un- 
noticed, or  unrem.oved.  When 
a  dry  autumn  happens,  the  pru- 
dent farmers  will  be  very  induf- 
trioiis  in  carting  mud  up  from 
evaporated  pond?,  and  other 
funken  places  in  their  farms,  and 
laying  if  upon  their  light  foils, 
efpecially  upon  high  gravelly 
knolls  ;  or  into  their  barnyardsj 
if  the  diltancc  be  not  too  great. 
Wc-had  a  fine  opportunity  for 
doing  nmch  of  this  work  in  the 
autumn  of  1786.  \Vc  might  thus 
in  great  meafurehaverecompen- 
ied  ourfelves  for  the  difiid van- 
tages wc  iuflered  by  the  uncom- 
mon drought. 

But  with  refjieft  to  ufmg  mud 
asamanure,  the  maritime  farmers 
have  the  advantage  of  all  others. 
For  the  fea  oofe,  that  uliginous 
matter  which  appears  0x1  the  flats, 
nd  IB  creeks  and  harbours,  along 


the  Ihores  of  the  fea,  has  all  the- 
virtues  of  frefti  water  mud,  witht 
that  of  fea  fait  fuperauded,  which 
is  one  of  the  mofl  important  in- 
gredients in  the  compofitioa  of 
the  belt  manures.  I  might  add, 
that  it  abounds,  more  than  any 
other  mud,  with  putrefied  animal 
fubflauces.  Much  of  thefe  are 
contained  in  the  fea  itfelf  :  And 
innumerable  are  the  fowls  and 
filh  that  have  perifhed  upon  flats 
frnce  time  began  ;  and  the  com- 
ponent parts  of  their  bodies  have 
been  fealed  dowi^  by  the  fuper- 
venient  flime. 

Mud  taken  from  flats  where 
there  are  fhell  fifh,  or  ev€n  where 
they  have  formerly  lived,  is  bet- 
ter for  manure,  than  that  which 
appears  •  to  be  more  unmixed. 
The  fhells  among  it  are  a  valua- 
ble part  of  its  compofltion.  If  it 
abound  much  with  fhells,  it  be- 
comes a  general  manure,  fit  to  be 
laid  upon  almofl  every  kind  of 
foil. 

Tb^t  mud,  however,  which  is 
a  richer  manure  than  any  other, 
is  taken  from  docks,  and  from 
the  fides  of  wharves  in  populous 
towns.  For  it  has  been  greatly 
eanchad  by  the  Icouring  of  foul 
itrcets,  and  from  common  (ew^ 
ers  ;  as  well  as  from  an  unknown 
quantity  of  animal  and  vegetable 
fubftanccs,  accidentally  fallen,  or 
deligneuly  throuvi.into  fuch  pla- 
ces. 

Sea  m.ud  may  be  taken  up  at 
any  feafon,  whenever  the  farmer 
has  moll  leiture.  It  is  a  good' 
method  to  draw  it  up  on  fleds 
from  the  flats  in  March,  when 
the  border  is  covered  with  firm 
ice.  1  have  thus  obtained  nmd 
from  fiats,  with  great  expedition 
und  little  expcnfe. 

Mud  that  is  newly  taken  up, 
may  be  laid  upon  grafs  land.  But 
if  it  is  to  be  ploughed  into  the 
foil,  it  tbould  firft  lie  expofed  to 

the 


M  u  r 

-The  froft  of  one  ■winter.  The 
iidft  will  tleftroy  its  tenacity,  aiul 
reduce  it  to  a  fiiif  powder  ;  alter 
xvhich  it  may  he  (prcatl  like  alh- 
cs.  BiU  il  it  be  ploiighetl  into 
the  foil,  before  it  li.is  been  nicl- 
Jowerl,  It  will  remain  in  lumps 
for  fcveral  years,  and  be  ol  lefs 
advantage. 

A  layer  of  mud  will  be  no  IkuI 
ingredient  in  a  heap  ot  compoit. 
Rut  it  lliouid  be  C(mtiRUous  to  a 
llratum  of  lime,  if  that  can  be 
obtained.  But  where  this  is  want- 
ing, new  horfe  dung  is  the  hefl 
fublhtute,  to  excite  a  ftrong  fer- 
tneniation. 

The  bcfl  method  of  managing 
^11  forts  of  nnul,  were  it  not  tor 
increafing  the  labour,  woulvibc  to 
lay  it  in  Kirm  yards,  and  let  it  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  ddn^ 
and  Hale  of  animals,  V/licn  it 
is  fo  managed,  the  comport  is  ex- 
cellent, and  fitforalmoll  any  (oil, 
though  beit  for  light  or.c^.  Per- 
haps the  advantage  oi  it  is  fo 
great  as  to  pay  lor  the  increafed 
expcnfe  of  twice  carting.  For 
it  will  abforb  the  flalc  of  cattle, 
and  retain  it  h('tt'*r  than  ftraw, 
and  other  light  kr^iluices. 

MULBiLRKV,  Morns,  Rv,cU 
known  tree,  the  leaves  of  which 
are  the  proper  food  of  (ilk.  worms. 
Yor  this  ufc,  ihoic  which  bear  a 
black  fruit  are  prelcrrcd.  Ac- 
cording to  Mr.  Miller,  the  male 
and  female  organs  ot  generatum 
arc  commonly  on  the  lanse  tree; 
i)ut  fomctimcs  a  tree  will  have 
only  male  flowers. 

It  would  be  right  for  ua  to 
jpron  igate  tl.cfc  trees,  as  it  might 
be  done  with  the  grcatcll  eale. 
We  may  do  it  by  tlieir  1-jcds,  or 
fcy  layers,  cuttinfjs  or  Hips.  If 
%vt  arc  not  difpofcd  to  make  ufo 
of  them  for  the  tecding  ol  filk 
worms,  t  '!'(   pay  {or  lUc 

trouble  «•  them,  by  ilieii 

iriiit  and  tiicii  iuui;?r.     1  hry  fuit 


N  A  V 


aft 


our  climalc,  anrl  grow  rapMJIy,  at 
leail  in  Cpnnc^lic  ut,  and  in  t^c 
we  Hern  parts  of  .VlafTachufctts. 

Pollibly  the  lime  may  come 
whc.i  we  may  be  gl.ul  lo  mak,e 
filk  lor  our  own  ule  in  this  coun- 
try. If  this  (hould  happen,  it 
will  be  regretted  if  there  be  no 
trees  in  the  country  from  which 
the  woims  ean  be  ted.  They 
v,-illgiow  well  in  a  deep  dry  foil 
which  is  moderately  rich. 

MULCH,  ruhbith  of  decayed 
vegetables.  Litter  is  a  word  qf 
the  fame  import. 

N, 

NAVE,  tlie  middle  part  of  a 
wheel,  through  which  the  axle 
pa.Tcs.     Sec  U'lieels. 

NAVEL  GALL,  "  adiforder 
on  the  top  of  the  fpinc,  oppofite 
to  the  navel,  whence  the  name. 
It  is  molt  commonly  caufed  by 
an  ill  formed  faddle,  or  want  of 
good  pa»k,  and  being  ncgleiled 
turns  to  a  foul  lungous  excref- 
cence  ;  and  fomctimes,  alter  long 
continuance,  to  a  fillulous  ulcer. 
While  there  is  moillureand  fen- 
fibility  in  the  part,  an  ointment 
may  be  applied  ot  (luickfilvcr 
and  turpentine  ;  an  ounce  ot  the 
former  to  two  ounces  of  the  latter, 
rubbed  in  a  niortdi  till  they  be 
well  incorporated  ;  and  then 
fprcad  upon  tow.  On  each  fide 
of  the  fpinc,  over  the  fwelling, 
may  be  laid  fmooih  dry  plcdgiis, 
or  bol Hers,  which  niiy  he  girt 
round  with  a  fiiifingle.  But  if 
the  io\c  be  deul  ami  lilelefs,  a 
good  Ihaip  knilo  mud  be  ufedlo 
cut  it  to  the  quick  ;  then  let  it  be 
drefled  according  to  the  dircdions 
for  the  ctire  o\  wound«. 

"  ,/  '  dsfroma 

iaddii  -r  of  the 

.iccidc.jis  iMinc. 

\i  is  dry  .  y  be 

cured  by   cuu.muit  ii  r.ili  will* 

4mI 


tf«0         N  £  W 

oil  of  bays,  until  it  turns  foft ;  | 
then  by  drefiing  it  with  quick-  j 
filver  and  turi)entine.  as  above  | 
direfted.  This  will  make  a  ' 
cure,  efpeeially  if  the  hard  horny  j 
fubftance  be  gently  icahfied  in 
iome places."  Gih foil's.  Farriery. 

NECTARINE,  Aimgdalus,^ 
fpecies  ot  the  peach,  with  a 
fmooth  rind,  and  a  firm  pulp. 
The  name  is  derived  from  nec- 
tar, the  poetical  drink  of  the  Gods. 

NEW  HUSBANDRY,  drill 
hnjhandry,  or  horfe  hoeing  hxif- 
handry.  It  chiefly  differs  from 
the  old  hulhandr}-,  in  this,  that 
the  foil  is  tilled  while  the  plants 
to  be  nourifhed  are  growing  in 
It.  This  mode  ot  culture  was 
introduced  into  England,  by  the 
ingenious  JethroTull,  Efq.  who 
wrote  largely  and  repeatedly  on 
the  fubjeti.  His  volume  in  fo- 
Jio,  entitled,  Kt^'  horfe  hoeing 
Hujbandry,  was  publilhed  in  the 
year  1731.  An  EfTay  on  tJie 
fame  fubjePr,  in  the  year  173.3. 
A  Supplement  to  the  EfTay,  in 
173 J.  Addenda,  and  Conciu- 
fion,  in  i''38,  and  1739.  ^^^^ 
gentleman  expended  as  it  v.-ere 
his  whole  life,  in  zealous  and  be- 
nevolent exertions  to  con/ince 
mankind  of  the  great  utility  of 
his  new  fyflem,  and  directing 
them  in  the  prattice  of  it.  But 
he  haa  the  mortification  of  find- 
ing, that  only  here  and  there  an 
enterprifing  genius  adopted  it  in 
pra6fice.  And  though  more  than 
fixty  years  have  noH'  elapfed, 
fince  he  made  it  public-k,  it  is  fo 
far  from  having  become  the  gen- 
eral praclice  of  farmers  in  that 
country,  that  there  is  no  reafon  to 
fuppofe  that  it  ever  will  :  Al- 
though it  has  been  recommend- 
ed, and  further  explained  and 
improved,  by  writers  of  note  in 
fevcral  nations. 

The  author  of  this  hufbandry 
pieant  to    apply   it   chiefly    to 


^N  E  W 

wheat,  as  being  the  moll  impor- 
tant kind  of  corn.  The  new 
hufbandry  differs  from  the  old  in 
the  manner  of  preparing  the 
ground  for  a  crop,  and  in  the 
manner  of  fowing  the  feeds. 
The  ground  is  ploughed  into 
ridges,  or  beds,  five  or  fix  feet 
wide,  aird  fmoothed  with  har- 
rows. Inflead  of  Towing  at  ran- 
dom with  the  hand,  or  broad 
caff,  as  it  is  called,  the  feed  is 
dropped  by  a  drill,  in  ifraight 
lines,  in  little  furrows  about  two 
inches  deep.  Either  two  or 
three  fuch  rows  are  on  one  bed, 
eight  or  nine  inches  apart ;  and 
the  feeds  are  elofely  covered  in 
the  furrows,  by  a  injali  barrow 
annexed  to  the  drill, 

Mr.Tull  invented  a  drill, or  drill 
plough,  on  a  new  conitruftion. 
It  is  not  only  efTeniially  differ- 
ent from  the  fembrador,  or  fower, 
invented  by  Don  Jofeph  de  Lu- 
catello  ;  but  an  improvement  up- 
on thedriil  which  was  invented 
by  Mr.Worlidge.  ^\'!ththisma- 
chine  one  may  fow  fuch  a  quan- 
tity of  feeds,  and  as  many  rows  as 
may  be  thought  neceffary.  lay 
the  feeds  at  a  convenient  depth, 
and  cover  them  nicely,  only  by 
drawing  the  machine  once  along 
the  ridges. 

As  foon  as  the  plants  are  a 
few  inches  high,  the  horfe  hoe  is 
introduced,  which  differs  but  lit- 
tle from  a  horfe  plough,  except- 
ing in  the  manner  of  connecting 
it  to  the  horfe  that  draws  it. 
With  this  plough,  palling  it  with- 
in three  or  four  inches  oi  the 
rows,  the  earth  is  turned  from 
the  rows  into  the  intervals 
or  alleys,  fo  that  die  furrows 
meet  each  other,  and  form  a 
fbarp  ridge.  This  is  the  firfl 
hoeing,  and  is  performed  late 
in  autumn,  juft  before  winter. 
It  lays  the  young  plants  i"o  dry, 
that  it  is  thought  tkey  are  in  no 
danger 


N  E  W 

»i«MCT/.v  of  being  killcfl  by  ihe 
sinter.  But  lomc  im- 
i  this  fyftv'ni  h  'vc  n-. 
c^d  omitting  or 

i.iuv'>..%  or  it  both  bf  p ^,..-  •, 

to  turn  back,  one  ol  them  to- 
wards the  row  before  the  liard 
t^.,•lr^  of  winter  ;  left  the  rirlgcs 
^' m1(1  be  too  much  In  danger  of 
"r  f\w^  wafhed  away  by  rains,  and 
j;  plants  removed.   1  his 

0  a  real  improvement 
Tiill  s  method. 

1  the  following  fpring 
{v.:^y  iiy  in  M.uch,  but  it  mult 
be  April  in  this  country]  the 
earth  is  turned  toward  the  rows; 
thi'n  in  M^y,  from  them  ;  and 
lallly,  in  June,  it  is  turned  back 
to  the  rows,  and  partly  againll 
the  ftcins,  when  the  grain  is  jull 
out  ot  blolibm  ;  which  lail 
pltMighing  is  tho'ight  to  do  more 
lervice  than  any  other,  as  it 
Ifreatly  helps  to  fill  out  tlic  grain  ; 
and  muft  not,  therefore,  ou  any 
account,  lie  otnitted. 

Each  of  the  ploughings  mull 
be  very  deep,  fo  as  to  keep  the 
ground  very  loofe  and  open. 
IJut  care  muft  be  alfo  taken  to 
tuirovcr  plants  that  chance  to  be 
biujcd  by  the  plough  ;  to  weed 
th.c  ;^rain  once  or  twice  in  the 
rows,  and  to  llir  the  earth  be- 
tween thf  rows,  with  a  pn>ng  hoe 
or  [land  iioe,  as  often  as  the  in- 
tefv^Is  are   ploughed,   or   horfc 

h.K.l. 

The  advantages  of  this  method 
•-"f  culture  are  laid  to  hi"  fliele  : 
'l':.r  r;  !•'!>'■:■:  !..-!  will  pro- 
'^i;.  .:  '       '  .    ;  .        ..h  would 

p    ■  >:    ;:   •  .i.ig  in  the 

■•'  •■    !    -1    '  i   crop  of 

:      '  .       :    "ach   ye.^r 
!  ;  "v     ;  :'  ■  •■  "t  ground, 

^vithotu  impu\ cnllnng  the  foil, 
as  the  uiterv.ils  arc  always  tal- 
lowed ;  tliat  there  is  no  need  of 
manuring  the  land  at  all,  as  the 
excraordioary  tillage  will  anfwcr 


NEW  221 

the  fame  end  as  manure,  and  a^ 
lefs  cxpcnfc  ;  that  there  w^ill  be 
no  crop  miflied  or  prevented  by 
a  year  of  fallow,  whicli  mull  take 
place  every  fecond  year  in  the 
old  way  of  cultivating  wheat, 
to  prevent  exhaufting  the  foil  ; 
that  the  crops  will  be  larger,  bet- 
ter and  luller  grain  by  far,  and 
entirely  free  from  the  feeds  of 
weeds. 

The  editors  of  the  laft  edition 
of  Mr.  7tt//'s  har/t:  kbcing  Huf- 
bandry,  by  a  computation  of  the 
expcnfe  and  profit  of  the  old  huf- 
bandry  and  the  new,  and  com- 
paring thcaccoimts,makc  the  clear 
profit  of  the  latter  appear  to  be 
more  than  double  to  that  of  the 
former.  This  may  be  fcen  at 
large  in  the  Comhlrtt  Yin  mer,  im- 
der  the  article  tlujhandry.  Oth- 
er ingenious  writers  iti  Great 
Britain,  fince  have  written  in 
confirmation  of  this  opinion. 
See  E/icyc/opcJiafZrtidc  AgricuU 
lure. 

I  do  not  at  all  fcruple  the  falr- 
nefs  ol  the  computations  ;  nor 
the  accounts  of  writers  in  other 
countries  to  the  Time  purpofe. 
But  there  is  no  arguing  with  any 
certainty  from  the  advantage  of 
the  new  hulbandry  in  England, 
or  other  parts  oi  Europe,  to  the 
advantage  of  it  in  this  country. 
Becaulc,  in  the  firft  place,  labour 
is  more  than  twice  as  dear  in  this 
country  ;  and  that  there  is  a 
greater  quantity  of  labour  requir- 
ed in  the  new  hufbrjidry  than  in 
the  old,  is  very  obvioufly  true. 
There  are  ar  lc;;ft  two  or  three 
pK)  :inary    to   a 

cro'  ,  d,  and   hand 

hoeing  ;  and  wccders  will  not 
accept  of  the  weeds  they  pull  as 
iuHicient  pay  for  pulling  them, 
as  p<x>r  woniv-n  fotnctimcs  do  in 
the  old  corruiics. 

Another  realon  lor  ruf|)C^iing 

that  the  new  huibandr)*  may  not 

aulwcr 


222 


N  E  W 


ahfwdr  fo  much  better  than  the 
old  in  this  country,  when  appli- 
ed to  wheat  and  rye,  is.thatthefe 
grains  are  here  very  fubjeft  to 
blading  ;  and  the  later  they  rip- 
en, the  more  they  are  in  danger 
of  this  diftemper.  Hoeing  of 
grain  will  caufe  it  to  ripen  later, 
as  may  be  (cen  m  the  border  ot  a 
field  that  is  contiguous  to  hoed 
ground.  The  plants  that  ftand 
neareft  to  ^he  hoed  ground  retain 
■their  greennefsmuch  longer  than 
the  reft  of  the  grain,  becaufe 
they  are  more  plentifully  fed. 
Hence  there  appears  to  be  fome 
reafon  to  doubt  of  the  advantage 
of  hoeing  wheat  and  rye  in  this 
country. 

But  if  there  were  no  \veight 
in  this,  nor  in  the  foregoing  ar- 
gument, yet  the  difference  of 
climate  mufl  be  taken  into  con- 
fideration.  Our  lands  are  hov- 
€n  and  mellowed  by  the  froft  of 
every  winter,  to  a  greater  depth 
than  the  hoe  plough  can  ever  ftir 
them,  by  which  the  roots  of  win- 
ter grain  are  often  ho  ven  out  of  the 
foil ;  but  in  England,  the  ground 
feldom  freezes  to  half  the  depth 
that  a  plough  goes.  Therefore, 
the  moft  forcible  argument  in 
favour  of  the  new  hufbandry, 
which  is  ufed  by  its  advocates, 
■will  not  fo  well  apply  in  this 
country  ;  which  is,  that  the 
ground  fettles  and  becomes  very 
compact,  during  the  long  contin- 
uance of  a  crop  of  grain  upon  it. 
i  fee  no  reafon  to  doubt  but  that 
our  extraordinary  degree  of  frofl 
fiiay,  on  the  whole,  have  nearly 
as  much  effeft  towards  loo  fen  ing 
and  breaking  the  foil  in  tillage 
ground,  as  one  ploughing  has. 
But  this  by  the  bye. 

Not  only  is  the  fuccefs  of  the 
new  hufodndry  in  this  country 
for  the  above  reafons  uncertain  ;, 
but  there  are  leveral  difadvan- 
tages    and    inconveni^ces,   at- 


N  E  W 

tending  this  hufbandry,  whiclr 
are  common  to  all  countries. 
One  of  thefe  difadvantages  is  the 
coft  of  the  drill  plough.  This  is 
every  where  a  material  objeftion 
to  the  new  hulbandry  m  the 
minds  of  common  farmers.  And 
the  curious  and  complicated 
flrufturc  of  this  machine,  which 
renders  it  liable  to  get  out  of  or- 
der, is  no  fmall  inconvenience  ; 
for  common  labourers  arc  not 
expefted  to  have  (kill  enough  to 
reftify,  or  repair  it.  Befides, 
the  accuracy  of  the  work  of  drill 
fowing  requires  forauch  thought 
and  attention,  that  the  ignorant 
and  carelefs,whoare  apt  todefpife 
new  inventions,  will  not  perform 
it  in  the  befl  manner.  So  that  a 
gentleman  rauft  always  do  his 
own  fowing  himfeif,  it  he  wifhes 
to  have  it  done  well.  And  not 
every  gentleman  who  has  a  farm 
will  be  difpofed  to  fubmit  to  this 
employment.  Neither  does  the 
drill  plough  perform  well  on  fid- 
ling  fituations  and  declivities. 
To  which  it  may  be  added,  that 
there  are  many  kinds  of  feed 
which  it  is  next  to  impolTible  to 
fow  well  with  this  machine. 
Such  are  all  the  hooked,  winged, 
flat,  long  (haped,  and  extremely 
light  feeds  ;  fuch  as  thofe  of  car- 
rots, parfnips,  lettuce,  &c.  It 
will  not  well  deliver  any  but 
thofe  which  are  ponderous, 
fmooth,  and  fo  round,  or  regular 
fhaped,  as  to  be  eafily  put  in  mo- 
tion. 

Thefe  difficulties  are  complain- 
ed of  in  the  old  countries  ;  but 
there  is  a  more  material  one  to 
conQ'iti  with  in  many  parts  of 
this.  In  many  of  our  fields, 
ftumps  of  trees,  roots,  rocks  and 
ftones,  are  fo  frequently  met 
with,  that  the  drill  plough  could 
not  be  ufed.  It  is  neceffary  that 
the  ground  fhould  be  perteftly 
clear  of  every  thing  that  can  ob- 

iiiua 


NEW 

fluct  or  lunder  the  going  of  the 


dn!!.     Th 
ai.-  not  i 
;i!n  oi    tl' 

And  K-.  t 
«inll  nsay 
ufed. 


^'''' 'Lies,  Icotitels, 

;  but  in  pro- 

■  !.    !iM)    be   rcniovcd. 

ut.ire   generations   ilie 

be  more  convciiicutly 


•    not   m<      " 

;h  any  vie 

coa:;-: ;  ;:ic.m   t'  .^   to 

applv  rlK-  :iL'>'.  .    .ire  to 

•  in.      1  here   is  nothing 

;  -^c*  Hnccrely  ^vilh,  than 

i«.)  Ice  c<r  ;Timents  made 

with  u.  ik  this  caution 

oil;;':!:  to  bcubierved,  never  to  at- 

rcitiDt  to  ruifc  fpring  wheat,  or 

^     rye,    in     this    manner. 

2!:  I  have  never  read,  nor 

horle    l\j>eing   fpring 

-.  ...  ii.ngland,  1  have  ktion-n 

it  tncd  by  fcveral  perfons  to  their 
moitification  and  lois,  in  this 
country.  The  crops  were  lo  en- 
tirely blafted  as  to  be  fcarccly 
worth  reaping.  Thi.*;  has  been 
the  cafe,  when  tlie  culture  has 
been  conducted  by  fome  oi  the 
mod  judicious  perfons,  with  great 
attention,  and  with  the  proper 
3'  The    true  reaion  ot 

t:  irriage  I  lake  to  be  this, 

t  later 

I  ,  Uter 

1  ^;ani,  it  could  not 

I  :;e  on»e  in  Auguft, 

v,\wA  loinc  ut  the  nights  are  ii) 
cold  as  to  blafl  the  grain,  by  ilop- 
ping  the  aicciit  ot  tlie  iap. 

But  let  the  new  husbandry  be 

t-  r  wheat,  lo^n  in 

;  tember,  on  a  warm 

1  a    ioutliern   cxpolurc, 

.1  'e  there   .'.re  no  Hones, 

:  and  let 

)tii    lome 

Miles 

.. ivan- 

,  and  in 

'<'?  crop 

1,  It 

ivj  uiakc 


ni)r  any  other 
the  Iced  be  bii    ,., 
place  at    ieall    a  b 

III  .1 ;  lii\';n  A         T  ■    ^^■■  " 


ol  wheat  canmn   h 
vjII  notbe  worth  \m. 


NEW  22J 

any  further  trials.  But  it/houlJ 
be  tried  on  rye  alfo  ;  tor  as  th.it 
is  known  tu  be  a  hardier  grain 
th  i  '  --•  it  is  poili'ujc  it  may 
ai;  rr  in  this  hulbandry. 

\\  c  need  not  be  a*.   ' 
of  procuring  drill  !• 
horfe  hocN,  to  n;  '  iu> 

of  thele  kinds  md 

is  •  "  i  and   well 

ba:  ;jels  may  be 

cxpcditiuuily  made  two  inches 
deep  with  the  head  ol  a  commoa 
rake,  and  the  leed  may  be  Icat- 
teredin  them  by  hand,  ar>d  cov- 
ered with  the  rake.  The  horfc 
hoeinz  may  be  well  enough 
pc  '..'ith  a  common  hortc 

pi  ^_,  ,^  ^  ing  it  twice  in  a  fur- 
row, 1 1  it  be  lound  necelFai  y,  tliat 
the  ground  may  be  llirrcd  to 
a  fuHicient  depth. 

If.  after  a  tair  trial  or  two,  the 
ne>v  culture  of  winter  wheat  and 
rye  fhould  prove  unfuccefstul,  it 
need  not  oifcourage  any  Irom 
fowing  their  grain  with  a  drill 
plough.  In  land  that  is  fit  tor 
it,  the  tbwitig  may  be  performed 
with  great  expedition.  If  the 
leed  were  to  be  drilled  in  rows 
about  nine  inclics  apart,  leaving; 
no  wider  intervals,  it  would  be 
attended  with  leveral  advantages- 
Half  the  feed  may  befaved  by  it, 
which  is  a  matter  i»t  iome  im- 
portance, efpccially  in  a  time  of 
ic.^rnty  of  gram. 

!  d  be  good,  it  will  un- 

d<  I  ill  come  up  well  and 

proiprr  :  iiecaufe  it  will   all  be 
buried  at  the  moll  luitable  depth 
in  the  loil.     But  in  the  common 
way  ot  fowing,  fome  ot  the  feeds 
are  buried  at  fiich  a  depiii,  that 
they    fcdiccly    come   up  at  all. 
Some  are  lo  near  tjiciur face,  that 
the  leaft  d.-vui''  of  the  foil  pre- 
ventstheir\  ;,oralternatc 

moifture  anv.    ... ..v^is  turn  them 

to  mait.  And  fome  will  be  un- 
covered, which  will  be  taken  a- 

way 


3824  NEW 

way  by  birds.  Many  ftinted 
plants  will  appear  ;  the  crop  will 
be  uneven,  foine  part  ot  it  being 
better,. and  ripening  fdoner,  than 
the  reft.  Another  advantage  of 
drilling  will  be,  that  vveedersmay 
pafs  through  afield  to  weed  it,  it 
there  fhouid  be  occafion  for  it, 
without  any  danger  of  hurting 
the  plants.  And  all  fields  oi 
wheat  that  produce  weeds,  ought 
to  be  carefully  weeded.  Sowed 
in  this  way  the  ground  might  aU 
fo  be  ftirred  in  he  narrow  inter- 
vals with  a  fmall  hoe,  which  would 
encourage  the  growth  of  the  plant, 
and  keep  it  cleaner  from  weeds. 

Inftead  of  the  drill  hufbandry, 
Dr.  Hunter  recommends  a  new 
Ichcme  oi  his  own,  which  par- 
takes partly  of  the  new,  and  part- 
ly of  the  old  hullbandry.  He 
calls  it  alternate  hufbandry.  The 
Icheme  is  as  follows  :  He  ploughs 
his  ground  in  flat  ridges,  or  in 
lands,  nine  feet  wide.  When 
feed  time  arrives,  he  fows  one 
land  in  the  broad  call  way,  and 
leaves  the  next,  fowing  the  third, 
and  fo  on  alternately  through  the 
field.  The  lands  which  are  not 
fown  he  fallows,  allowing  them 
three  or  four  ploughiiigs  in  the 
fallow  year  ;  fows  them  the  next 
year,  and  fallows  the  other. 

He  finds  this  to  be  a  good  mode 
of  culture  for  land  that  is  weak, 
and  wliich  lies  remote  from  ma- 
nure. A  mean  foil  will  thus  bear 
pretty  good  crops  without  dref- 
?ings,  or  with  very  fmnll  ones. 
The  grain  has  greater  advantage 
of  a  free  air  than  in  the  old  huf- 
bandry. No  new  iniplements 
are  needed,  nor  any  greater  ac- 
curacy in  the  culture  required, 
than  any  ploughman  is  capable 
of.  Perhaps  a  row  or  two  ot 
potatoes,  or  carrots,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  fallow  ridges,  might 
not  be  amifs  in  this  hufbandry  ; 
but  rather  an  improverucnt. 


NEW 

But,  ta  -retifrn  to  my  fubjeB  ' 
Every  one  mnft  be  eafily  con- 
vinced, that  plants  in  general  re- 
ceive a  greater  degree  of  nourifh- 
mcnt,  it  the  ground  about  their 
roots  be  frequently  ftirred  during 
their  growth.  We  find  the  ben- 
efit of  this  tn  our  gardens.  We 
fee  that  bare  wi^eding  does  not 
anfwer  fo  well  as  hoeing,  among 
the  plants  we  cultivate  in  them. 

The  great  advantage  of  horfe 
hoeing hufbandry  muft  appear,  if 
we  only  attend  to  our  ordinary 
method  of  cultivating  Indian 
corn,  which  differs  but  little 
from  that  hufhandry.  If  plough- 
ing and  hoeing  were  to  be  total- 
ly neglefted,  while  the  plants 
are  growing,  we  fhouid  have  no 
good  crops.  On  the  contrary, 
the  deeper  we  plough  the  inter 
vals,  and  the  oftencr  we  ftir  the 
mould  with  the  hand  hoe,  the  bet- 
ter is  our  crop.  And  why  thonld 
not  the  advantage  of  the  fame 
culture  be  equally  great,  when 
applied  to  moff  of  the  plants  which 
we  cultivate  ?  The  more  the 
ground  is  opened  by  frequent 
ftirringSj  the  more  vegetable 
nourilhment  it  will  receive  from 
the  atmofpherc  ;  and  the  roots 
will  find  a  freer  palfage  in  ex- 
tending themfelves  after  their 
food.  They  will,  therefore,  re- 
ceive a  greater  quantity  ;  and 
their  growth  and  perfetlion  will 
be  anfwerable. 

I  have  not  the  leaft  fufpicion 
that  barley  and  oats  will  fail  of 
receiving  great  advantage,  from 
this  culture  ;  in  both  of  which  I 
have  bad  fome  experience.  Sev- 
eral years  of  late  1  fiave  applied 
this  culture  to  barley,  in  fingle 
rows  or  ridges  three  feet  apart ; 
and  have  never  once  failed  of 
gaining  at  the  rate  of  40  bufhels 
per  acre.  The  grain  has  been 
perfectly  clear  from  feeds  of 
weeds,  and  more  full  and  large 

tha« 


N  U  R 

than  when  cultivated  In  the  com- 
mon way.  After  ploughing  the 
ground,  and  harrowing  it,  I  tomi 
the  ridges  with  the  cultivator. 
I  fow  the  feeds  with  a  mod  lim- 
nlc  drill  of  my  own  inventing. 
I'he  weeds  arc  killed,  and  li.e 
plants  earthed,  hy  pafling  the 
culii^^ator  between  the  rows,  with 
the  addition  of  but  lialc  hand 
hoeing.  That  it  does  w:!l  f-r 
hemp,  has  been  proved  by  trials 
in  this  country.  None  will  Houh' 
the  advantage  of  it  in  rai'ing  po- 
tatoes, our  common  culture  ot 
which  IS  fo  limiljr  to  that  of  In- 
dian c:irn.  iiut  if  they  were  fet 
in  drills,  inllead  of  hillocks,  the 
produce  w(nild  be  greater,  in 
both  corn  Aud  potatoes,  as  I  have 
found  by  feveral  triaK. 

The  new  liufbandty  may  as 
well  be  applied  to  all  filiquofc 
plants,  as  peafc,  beans,  &c.  and 
to  all  efculent  roots,  as  parfnips, 
carrots,  beets,  and  the  like.  The 
fame  may  be  faid  with  regard  to 
cabbages,  afj^aragus,  and  moft 
kinds  of  pot  herbs.  The  trials 
that  have  hitherto  been  made 
upon  fuch  plants,  in  this  country, 
have  been  fo  fuccef^ful.  that  I 
trufl  the  praftice  will  foon  bc- 
conif  general.  See  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Liirii's  Ej/jyt,  p.  lit. 

1  liefe Tinds  of  plants  require 
fo  much   lefs  labour  in  the  drill 
way,  than  is  ufually  bellowed  on  I 
them  in  gardens,  that  when  they 
are  cultivated  for  the  market,  or 
for  feeding  of  cattle,  they  fhould  i 
by  all  means  be    lown  in  drills, 
and    horfe    hoed.      The     above 
writer  from  his  own  experience 
concluded,    that   five    bulhtds  of  ( 
carrots  iniglu  bf  as  ralily  railed,  i 
as  one   hulhel    in    the    common  i 
method.     My  own  experiments ' 
have  fullv  judiHed  this  opinion.  ■ 

NURSLRY.  a  garden,  or 
plantation  of  young  trees,  to  be 
tranfplanted.    In  a  nurfery  for ' 

Dd 


N  U  R 


22; 


fruit  trees,  the  land  fhould  not 
be  quite  fo  rich  as  that  into  which 
they  are  to  be  tranfplanted  ;  be- 
caufc  it  will  be  better  for  them 
to  have  their  nounlhment  in- 
crcalcfl  than  diminilhcd,  as  they 
increafe  in  age.  Therefore,  a 
niirfrry  will  need  hut  a  little  ma- 
nurr,  unlefs  the  foil  be  uncom- 
monly poor. 

A  nurf<ry  fhould  not  be  on  a 
fpot  where  truii  trees  have  lately 
grown,  or  indeed  any  other  deep 
rooted  plants.  It  (hould  be  on  a 
med  inm  bet  ween  the  too  extremes 
of  wet  and  dry. 

To   prepare   the    ground   for 
fowing,  it  fhould  either  be  trench 
ploughed,  or  dug  with  a  fpade  to 
a  confiderable  depth.     From   a 
toot  to  fifteen  inches  is  not.  too 
deep.     This   fhould  be   done  in 
the  latter  part  of  fummer,  andthe 
ground  well  cleared  of  the  roots 
ofall  perennial  weeds  and  gralles. 
The   feafon  for  planting  either 
feeds  or  Hones,  is  about  the  month 
ot  Otiober.     If  it  were  done  in 
the  fpring,   none   ot   the  plants 
would  be  up  in  lefs  than  a  year  : 
And  a  confiderable    proportioa 
of  the  feeds  would  perilh.    The 
feeds  may  be  fown  promifcuouf- 
ly  ;    and  they   ihould  be  pretty 
thick,  becaulc   they  will  not   all 
come  up.     Some  think  it  necef- 
fary  to  low  the  pomace  with  the 
feeds   of  apples.     I  have    fown 
them  with  and   without   it,  and 
do  not    fee    that    fowing    feeds 
with  the  pomace  is  to  be  prefer- 
red. 

When  you  tranfplant  trees  of 
one  or  two  years  growth  in  the 
nurfery,  mark  the  ground  in  lines 
three  feet  apart.  Then  open  a 
trench  a  foot  wide  on  the  firfl 
line,  and  of  a  depth  proportiona- 
hle  to  the  lengtii  of  the  roots  : 
Take  the  flock*  out  of  the  feed 
bed,  with  a  fpade,  preferving  the 
roots  as  cnrirc  as  pofTiblc  :  Cur 

■  >«■ 


S26 


N  U  R 


i&ff  all  the  very  frnall  fibrous 
roots  ;  and  if  a  root  tends  dirctl- 
ly  downward,  it  muft  be  Ihort- 
ened  :  Plant  them  in  the  trench 
twelve  inches  afunder.  Then 
dig  a  trench  and  plant  it  in  the 
next  line,  and  fo  on, till  the  buii- 
nefs  is  completed. 

The  main  branch  for  the  top 
Ihould  not  be  cut  ofF,  but  care- 
fully preferved.  Several  of  the 
.lateral  branches  fhould  be  taken 
olt,  more  or  fewer  in  proportion 
as  the  root  is  more  or  lefs  dimin- 
ifhed.  In  this  lituation  they  are 
to  grow  till  they  are  traniplant- 
ed  into  orchards,  ccc.  And  they 
^luft  be  carefully  tended,  or  they 
will  not.  become  good  trees.  Ev- 
ery fpring  and  fall  the  ground 
between  the  rows  muft  be  well 
digged,  and  fo  carefully  as  not  to 
i^njurc  or  diftarb  the  roots  ;  or 
elfe  the  intervals  muft  be  horfe 
hoed.  If  the  latter  be  intended, 
the  rows  fhould  be  planted  at 
lead  three  feet  and  a  halt  apart. 
But  the  plough  muft  not  go  fo 
near  the  rows  as  not  to  leave 
fome  ground  to  be  dug  with 
the  fpade,  or  ftirred  with  a  dung- 
fork;  and  in  ufing  the  plough, 
great  care  (hould  be  taken  to 
avoid  g-alling  and  injuring  the 
trees. 

A  nurfery  fhould  always  be 
kept  clear  of  weeds  by  frequent 
hoeing.  No  fuckers  that  fpring 
up  from  the  roots  fhould  be  fuf- 
fered  to  remain .  They  wi ! !  need 
a  little  pruning  each  year,  to 
prevent  their  becoming  mislhap- 
en  ;  and  all  buds  Ihould  be 
fpeedily  rubbed  off,  which 
y/ould  make  branches  too  low 
©n  the  ftems.  A  nurfery  re- 
quires fo  much  attention,  that  it 
Miouiil  be  in  a  fituation  where 
the  owner  cannot  avoid  feeing  it 
often  ;  otherwife  it  will  be  in 
danger  of  fuflfering  through  neg- 

fea. 


N  Ut 

The  fruit  trees  fhould  be  al- 
lowed to  grow  to  the  height  of 
five  or  fix  feet,  before  they  are 
budded  or  grafted.  See  thoj'c  ar- 
ticles,   MiocHlatioji,    and  Graft- 

1  rees,  to  be  tranfplanted  mto 
forefts,  may  be  cultivated  in  a 
nurfery  in  the  fame  manner  as 
fruit  trees.  But,  as  Mr.  Miller 
advifes,  it  would  be  beft  to  have- 
a  nurfery  of  thefe  in  the  place 
where  the  iorell  is  defigned  to 
be  planted  ;  where  a  fuflicient 
number  of  the  trees  may  be  left 
Ifanding,  after  the  reft  have  been 
removed. 

li  a  nurfery  be  in  fuch  a  fitu- 
ation that  the  young  trees  are  in 
danger  of  being  brol^en  down  by 
deep  fnows  ;  either  the  fence  on 
the  windward  fide  fhould  be 
made  fo  open,  that  the  wind  may 
have  a  free  paflage  through  it, 
and  drive  away  the  fnow  :  Or 
elfe  the  trees  may  be  defended 
by  ftaking.  A  ftake  a  little  tall- 
er than  the  tree,  made  of  a  flip 
of  board,  fhould  be  fet  clofe  on 
the  ■windward  fide,  and  the 
top  of  the  tree  fattened  clofe  to 
it  with  a  foft  ftring*  Or  two  fuch 
ftakes  may  be  fo  fet,  that  the  up- 
per ends  may  meet  over  the  top 
of  the  tree. 

WJT  TREE,  or  WALNUT 
TREE,  Juglans,  a  well  known 
tree,  valuable  for  its  fruit  and  tim- 
ber. There  are  fix  forts,  accord- 
ing to  Mr.  Ivliller,  who  makes 
the  hickory,  or  white  walnut  of 
Virginia,  to  be  diflin6l  from  our 
white  walnut. 

There  are  but  two  forts  that 
grow  fpontaneoufly  in  this"  coun- 
try ;  the  white  walnut,  and  the 
fiiagbark,  fo  called.  The  firft  of 
theie  is  a  very  hard  and  tough 
wood,  which  our  farmers  find 
ufeful  for  many  purpofes.  It  will 
bend  into  almolf  any  form  with- 
out breaking,  efpecially  the  low- 
er 


NUT 

cr  part  of  the  body  of  a  yourg 
tree.  It  is  white  and  fmooth  ; 
it  is  therefore  much  ufcd  fur  ox 
bows,  goads,  and  axe  h^'lves.  But 
it  foon  decays  when  it  i5cxporcd 
to^hc  wcatiicr.  Tije  fmit  of  this 
tree  has  a  thin  fmooth  (hell,  and 
is  of  very  little  value.  The  inner 
hark  is  ufcful  lor  making  a  yel- 
Jo.v  die. 

The  iha(;bark  tree  is  Co  called, 
on  account  of  the  roaglinefsof  its 
lialy  bark,  which  hangs  in  flips  on 
:'.  •  S  I  cs  of  old  trees.  This  has 
^  h  nut,enclofedinavcry 

:h:. ..  .  .jji  ;  but  it  is  not  fo  much 
<:ilc'cnicd  for  its  limber  as  the  of  ii- 
cr  iort,  1  he  nuts  naturally  ad- 
here Rrongiy  to  the  trees,  but  the  ; 
firfl  hard  iroft  caufes  them  to 
drop.  I 

The  black  walnut  tree    is  faid  ', 
to  grow  naturally  inViignia,  and 
piiticularly  on  the  batiks  of  the  | 
i.)iii  ».     Though  it  be  rather  brit-  ( 
tie,  it  receives  a  good  poiilh  ;  is 
hard  and  ncavy,  and  is  much  priz- 
ed for  its  beautilid  brown  colour, 
and  ufed   iu  all  forts  of  cabinet 
work. 

We  have  another  Iort,  not  in- 
digenous, but  the  only  one  that 
is  much  cuiiivaied  in  this  coun- 
try. It  goes  by  the  name  of  the 
Kaglilh  walnut.  The  fruit  is 
iiiiic'i  larger  and  better  than  that 
of  Cither  wf  the  other  forts.  In 
its  tender  ilate,  it  is  ufed  in 
pickles  for  f»uce.  But  the  nuts 
are  too  folid  for  this  ufe  when 
they  are  conie  to  their  full 
growth. 


A 

theb 
hut  t 


n*  foil  fccms  to  be 


N  Y  M  217 

'  they  naturally  nm  deep.  Though 
the  tranfplanted  trees  arc  bcft 
for  fruit,  they  grow  (hort  and 
hufhy.  and  ate  not  fit  lor  timber. 
Tlicrcfore,  he  who  wiihes  tocul« 
lis  ate  a  grove  of  thi-m  for  tim- 
,  ber,  Ihould  plant  the  nurs  in  the 
places  wl-.crc  he  wifhes  the  trees 
I  to  ren^ain. 

As  there  is  a  confiderable  pitfe 
.  in  the  limbs  of  walnut  trees,  they 
'  do  not  admit  of  much  pruning. 
j  The  water  is  apt  to  enter  at  a. 
I  wounded  limb  and  caufc  it  to 
;  roL 

I  NYMPHA.  "  the  fiatc  of 
winged  infctfs,  between  their  liv- 
ing m  the  form  of  a  worm,  aa^ 
their  appearing  in  the  ^vinged  6r 
nioft  perfect  Itate.  The  eggs  of 
thefe  mlecfs  are  firft  hatched  in- 
to worms,  or  mag<;ots  ;  which.' 
afterwards  pafs  into  the  nynipha' 
ftate,  furro^nded  with  fhells,  or 
cafes,  of  their  own  fkins  :  So 
that,  in  reality,  thcfc  nymphs  are 
only  the  einbryo  infecfs,  wrap- 
ped up  in  this  co\  criiig  ;  from 
whence  t'jey  at  laft  ^et  loofe, 
though  not  without  great  diffi- 
culty. 

"During  the  nympha  flatc, 
the  creature  lofes  its  motion. 
Swammcrdam  calls  it  nympha  au- 
rf/ia,  or  fimply  aurclia  ;  and  oth- 
ers give  it  the  nauic  of  chryfalis, 
a  term  of  the  like  import."  Dzff, 
of  Art  i. 

It  is  in  their  winged  ilnte  on- 
ly, that  lliey  copulate,  l^he  fe- 
male lays  c:T.,s  ;  and  their  off- 
fpnng  go  t!i!ough  the  fame 
changes.    The  flatc  of  thefe  an- 


ij  for  walnut  trcx-<;  j  ini^ls  may  feivc  to  remind  man- 


uplan  1 
dapted 
cries. 


y  •••.  ,it  grow  on  aimoR  any 
I  iicy  are  not  well  a 
to  be  cultivated  in  iiurf 
They  bear  tranfpUntin^ 
but  poorly,  unlcfs  when  they  aiv 
very  young.  'The  roots  fh  jul  I 
not  be  wouude  1,  but  it  is  not  eaiy 
ij  avoui  it  in  taLing  them  up,  a. 


kind  of  the  manner  of  their  ex- 
Iftence,  fir.1  in  mortal  bodies, 
tl'.en  in  a  Hue  of  (ie.uh,  after- 
wards poflfffid  ol  glorif'us  bod- 
u"i.  In  then  aurclian  (fate,  tlicfc 
animals  have  no  \  :ul  iirtinn, 
I'ui  are  to  all  a  I. 

oj  tliJt  in    I'.L  "i  .  jx- 

iifencc. 


228 


OAK 


jftence,  infers  have  as  it  were 
refurreftion  bodies. 

O. 

OAK,  Qmrcus,  a  well  known 
tree,  the  timber  of  which  is 
of  great  ufe  and  importance  in 
Ihip  building,  and  architefture, 
and  is  valuable  for  fewel  and 
many  other  purpofes.  The  tim- 
ber is  both  ftrong  and  disable. 

Mr.  Miller  reckons  eighteen 
fpecies  of  the  quercus,  or  oak.  I 
know  of  but  five  that  grow  in  this 
country,  unlefs  the  fwamp  white 
oak,  fo  called  on  account  of  its 
growing  in  wet  fwamps,  may  be 
a  diftintl  fpecies  from  that  which 
grows  on  the  upland. 
^  The  firft  and  bed  is  the  white 
oak,  Quercus  alba,  which  bears  a 
long  ihaped,  fmall  and  pleafant 
tailed  acorn.  The  bark  is  of  a 
very  light  afh  colour.  The  tim- 
ber is  more  ftrong,  and  far  more 
durable  than  the  other  kinds. 
Staves  for  calks,  made  of  this  tree, 
bear  a  higher  price  than  any  oth- 
er. As  it  does  not  foon  decay, 
the  farmers  find  it  convenient  to 
have  their  wheels,  carts,  ploughs, 
and  fe\'eral  other  implements  of 
hufbandry,  made  ot  this  timber. 
The  but  ends  of  the  trees  which 
have  grown  in  paftures,  are  com- 
monly found  to  be  extremely 
tough,  and  are  moft  fit  for  the 
naves  and  fpokes  of  cart  wheels. 

The  black  oak,  Ouercus  nigra, 
has  a  very  dark  coloured,  hard  and 
rough  outer  bark.  T!ie  inner 
bark  is  of  a  bright  yellow  col- 
our, and  may  be  ufed  to  advan- 
tage in  dies.  Little  or  none  of 
this  oak  is  found  in  the  Dirtrift 
of  Maine.  Of  all  the  kinds  of 
oak  produced  in  our  country, 
this  is  efteemed  the  beft  for  few- 
el, as  it  will  burn  freely  in  its 
green  ftate  :  But  it  is  not  fo 
much  prized  for  timber  as  fome 
other  forts. 


©  A  K 

The  grey  oak  is  next  in  quali- 
ty to  the  white  forbuilding.  The 
red,  Qiurcus  rubra,  which  is  fo 
called  from  the  colour  of  its 
wood,  anfwers  well  for  ftaves, 
efpecially  for  molalTes  hoglheads. 
But  as  it  is  not  a  lafting  timber, 
it  is  more  proper  for  fewel  ;  and 
for  the  laft  purpofe,  it  does  not 
anfwer  well  in  its  green  ftate. 
The  acorns  of  the  grey  and  red 
oak,  are  much  larger  than  thofe 
of  the  white.  The  leaves  are  al- 
fo  larger,  and  very  deeply  finu- 
ated.  They  are  probably  not 
different  fpecies  of  the  oak,  but 
only  varieties. 

The  laft  kind,  and  the  meanefl 
of  all,  is  the  dwarf,  or  Ihrub  oak, 
it  being  fit  for  neither  fewel  nor 
timber.  It  is  always  crooked 
and  fraal],  and  feldom  rifes  to  the 
height  (A  ten  feet.  It  delights  in 
a  prrjr  Pni,  m*A  overruns  many 
of  ourfandy  and  gravelly  plains.^ 
It  has  a  [Ironic  root,  which  will 
continue  to  fend  up  new  Ihoots, 
thougli  they  are  cut  off  yearly  ; 
fo  that  tlier :  is  no  effectual  way 
to  fubdue  them,  but  by  grubbing 
them,  or  pailuring  goats  upon 
them. 

As  all  the  kinds  of  oak  bear 
fruit,  the  fhrub  oak  as  plentifully 
as  any,  thefe  trees  are  of  fome 
advantage  in  feeding  fwine  and 
poultry.  They  are  fondeft  of 
the  acorns  that  grow  on  the  white 
oak,  as  the  other  kinds  have  a 
bitter  tafte.  Some  perfons  gath- 
er them,  and  lay  them  up  for 
winter  feeding  ot  fwine.  It  '\% 
faid  that  acorns  were  anciently 
ufed  as  the  food  ct  man  :  I  fup- 
pofe  it  muft  have  L>een  only  thofe 
of  the  white  oak.  But  even 
thefe,  as  well  as  the  other  kinds, 
are  of  a  very  altringent  quality, 
too  much  fo  to  be  a  very  whole- 
fome  food,  unlels  in  compofition 
with  fomething  that  has  a  contra- 
ry quality. 

The 


OAK 

The  bark  of  oak  is  flill  more 
aftringent,  forae  lay  equally  fo 
with  the  coriex  peruvianus,  and 
may  anfwcr  the  lame  mcilical 
jnirpofes.  This  bark  is  ol  gre^t 
life  in  tanning  hides,  and  a  good 
ingredient  in  dies. 

The  oak  produces  a  fungous 
ball,  or  apple,  of  a  loofe,  fott  con- 
texture, which  foon  dries  and 
falls  off.  and  is  of  no  ufe. 

But  befides,  it  has  little  round 
hard  kind  of  excrcfcenccs,  called 

Sails,  which  are  of  great  ufe  in 
ying  and  making  the  beft  writ- 
ing ink.  Though  they  grow  as 
large  as  nutmegs  in  otfier  coun- 
tries, thofe  which  1  have  found 
in  this,  have  been  much  fmallcr. 
Perhaps  trees  mull  fUnd  fingle 
many  years,  before  they  will  be 
apt  to  produce  galls  of  a  large 
fize.  I  have  not  found  them  but 
upon  the  white  oak,  and  thofc 
not  larger  than  peas. 

I  beg  leave  here  to  give  the 
reader  the  hiftory  of  galls,  from 
the  Diiltonary  of  Arts.  *'  An 
infcft  of  the  fly  kind  is  inffruH- 
ed  by  nature  to  take  care  of  the 
lafcty  of  her  young,  by  lodging 
her  eggs  in  a  woody  fuhilance, 
where  they  willbcddencicd  from 
all  injuries.  She,  for  this  pnr- 
pofe,  wounds  the  branches  of  a 
tree  ;  and  the  lacerated  velfols, 
difcharging  theW  contents,  foon 
form  tumours  about  the  holes 
thus  made.  'Dk:  hole  in  each  of 
the  tumours,  ttuoU)?ii  which  the 
fly  has  made  its  way,  may  [or  the 
mod  pan  be  found  ;  and  when 
it  is  not,  the  maggot  inhabitant, 
or  its  remains,  are  fure  to  be 
found  within,  on    breaking  the 

!|all.  However,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
erved,  that  in  thofe  galls  which 
contain  ievcral  cells,  there  may 
be  infetts  found  in  fome  of  them, 
though  there  be  a  hole  by  which 
the  mhabiiant  oi  another  cell  has 
cfcapcd," 


OAK  229 

It  IS  to  be  wilhed,  thatperfons 
in  the  oldell  parts  of  the  country, 
when  an  oak  is  felled,  would 
feanii  for  galls.  If  they  are pro- 
ducrd  here  in  plenty,  it  will  not 
be  right  to  perlift  in  fending  our 
money  for  them  to  foreign  coun- 
tries. 

As  trees,  both  for  timber  and 
fcwel,  are  become  fcarce  in  fomc 
parts  of  the  country,  it  is  high 
time  to  begin  to  make  planta- 
tions of  trees  for  thcfe  purpofes. 
And  I  know  of  no  kind  tliat  will 
anfwer,  all  things  confidered, 
better  than  the  oak.  The  trees 
are  fo  hardy  as  never  to  be  dam- 
aged by  the  fevere  coldnefs  of 
our  winters  :  Neither  have  they 
been  known  to  fuffer  much  by 
any  kind  of  infe61s.  The  red 
and  grey  kinds  are  very  rapid  in 
their  growth,  and  will  foon  re- 
pay the  coll  and  trouble  of  rear- 
ing them  :  And  the  white  is  of 
fo  cfTential  importance  for  tim- 
ber, that  a  fcarcity  of  it  is  to  be 
dreaded. 

Someofourpafture  lands, which 
are  high  and  quite  bare,  would  be 
much  i::iprovcd,  if  every  hundred 
feet  fqiiare  were  fhaded  by  a 
lotty  oak  :  Befides  gaining  a 
beautiful  appearance,  efpecially 
if  ihcy  were  placed  in  regular  or- 
der. Barren  heights,  in  fomc 
paflures,  are  in  great  want  of  trees 
to  fhadc  thfm.  Copfes,  or 
clumps,  in  fuch  places,  woul>f 
have  excellent  elfeHs.  There 
would  be  more  gra(s,  the  appear- 
ance would  he  beautilul,  and  the 
profit  confiderablc.  But  the 
queftion  is,  in  what  manner  fhall 
oaks  be  propagated  ?  They  may 
undoubtedly  be  raifed  m  nurferies, 
and  tranfplanicd,  as  well  as  other 
trees.  But  this  method  is  not 
univcrfdlly  approved. 

Mr.  Miller  fays,  oaks  arc  beft 
produced  from  the  acorns  in  the 
plac«s  waeiv  l]ic  trees  are  to  re- 
niaiQ 


230 


OAK 


main  ;  becaufe  thofe  which  are 
tranfplantecl,  will  not  grow  to  fo 
large  a  (ize,  nor  remain  found  fo 
long.  He  advifes  to  planting  the 
acorns  as  foon  as  they  are  ripe 
in  Ocloher,  which  will  come  up 
in  the  following  April  ;  becaufe 
if  they  are  attempted  to  be  kept, 
they  will  fprout,  although  fp read 
thin.  He  directs  that  the  ground 
■defigned  for  a  plantation,  Ihould 
have  a  good  and  durable  fence  ; 
that  it  be  prepared  by  three  or 
lour  ploughings  and  harrowings ; 
that  the  acorns  be  taken  from  the 
largeft  and  moft  thrifty  trees  5 
that  they  may  be  fowed  in  drills 
about  four  feet  afunder,  two 
inches  deep,  and  two  inches  a- 
part  ;  that  the  ground  fhould  be 
ploughed  and  hoed  among  them, 
during  the  firft  eight  or  ten 
years  ;  that  after  two  years  fome 
oi  them  fhould  be  drawn  out 
where  they  are  too  clofe  ;  and 
fo  from  time  to  time  as  they 
grow  larger,  till  they  come  to  be 
eight  feet  diflance,  each  way, 
when  they  will  want  no  further 
thinning  for  a  long  time.  But 
after  the  trees  come  to  be  large, 
bethinks  25  or  30  feet  apart  will 
be  the  right  diflarrce. 

Another  writer  direfts that  the 
acorns  be  gathered  as  foon  as 
they  fall  in  autumn,  and  kept  in 
a  box  or  boxes  of  fand  till  the 
following  fpring.  Then  open 
them,  and  carefully  plant  thofe 
of  them  which  are  fprouted, 
which  he  fays  will  not  fail  to 
come  up.  But  no  time  fhould 
be  allowed- for  the  fprouts  to  dry. 
I  incline  to  prefer  this  method, 
~efpeclaily  fmce  I  have  tried  that 
which  is  recommended  by  Mr. 
Miller  without  fucccfs.  Not  one 
in  a  hundred  ever  came  up. 

A  rich  deep  foil  fuits  the  oak 
beft,  and  in  fuch  land  they  will 
grow  to  a  large  fize.  The  tim- 
ber is  apt  to  be  tough  andpliable : 


OAK 

But  in  a  gravelly  foil,  or  one  that 
is  dry  and  fandy,  the  wood  is 
more  hard  and  brittle.  The  oak, 
however,  will  grow  in  almoft  any 
foil  that  is  not  too  wet. 

Many  are  apt  to  object  againfl 
attempting  to  raife  timber  trees, 
that  they  Thall  notlive  to  receive 
any  advantage  from  them.  But 
do  they  think  they  were  born  for 
themfelvcs  only  ?  Have  they  no 
great  regard  tor  the  welfare  of 
their  own  children  ?  Do  they 
not  care  how  future  generations 
fare  after  they  are  gone  ?  The 
more  grov/ing  trees  they  leave 
upon  their  farms,  the  better  will 
their  children  be  endowed  ;  and 
does  this  appear  as  a  matter  of 
indifference  ?  Or  if  they  fhould 
providentially  be  under  the  ne- 
cefTity  of  felling  tlieir  farms 
while  they  live,  will  they  not  be 
prized  higher,  by  any  rational 
purchafer,  for  having  a  few  hun- 
dreds of  thrifty  young  trees 
growing  upon  them  ?  But  it  is 
pofTiblethat  while  they  hold  their 
farms,  they  may  receive  actual 
advantage  from  their  trees  them- 
felves.  PofTibly  trees  may  grow 
fafler  than  they  apprehend.  The 
Marquis  of  Lanfdown  planted 
with  trees  a  fwampy  meadow, 
with  a  gravelly  bottom,  in  the 
year  1765,  and  in  the  year  17S6, 
the  dimenfions  of  the  trees  were 
as  reprelented  in  the  following 
table. 

Height  ia      Circumf. 
Feet.  Tt.   In. 

LombardypOplar  6otoyo  4     8 

Arbeal     '-       -     50  70  4    6 

Elm      -       -          40  60  3    6 

Cheftnut  -       -      30  50  2     9 

Weymouth  pines  30  50  2     5 

Scotch  fir     -      -  30  .50  2  10 

Spruce      -       -      30  50  2     2 

Larch    -      -      -    50  60  3  10 

The  meafures  were  taken  five 
feet  above  the  ground.  It  appears 
that  if  trees  can  be  waited  for  21 

years 


OAT 

yean  they  will  repay  the  coft,  by 
bccomijjg  fit  for  many  imporunt 
lilts.  And  I  am  porfuadfci  that 
lonie  of  the  fp'.»cics  of  oak  will 
grow  as  faft  as  nioft  of  the  trees, 
in  tlic  loregoiiig  table. 

One  acre  will  bear  160  oaks, 
at  the  diflanco  of  15  feet  troni 
each  othtr  :  If  each  tree  will 
grow  in  30  years  to  half  a  cord  ot 
wood,  worth  12s.  per  cord,  the 
vhole  produce  will  be  90  cords 
of  wood,  worth  160  dollars, which 
is  four  dollars  and  a  third  per 
acre  per  annum,*  for  the  ufe  ot 
the  land,  a  greater  profit  than  wc 
expeit  from  other  acres  in  gen- 
eral. It  ought  to  be  confidered 
that  intermediate  trees  taken  out 
jwung  may  nay  the  coft  ot  plant- 
ing and  culture  ;  and  that  the 
land  may  ferve  mofl  of  the  time 
lor  tillage  or  pafture  ;  tor  tillage 
wliile  the  trees  are  fmall,  which 
will  haften  their  growth.  The 
imrcafing  dearnefs  of  fcwel  and 
of  timber  Ihould  put  the  holder 
ot  land.jn  old  fcttlements,  upon 
thinking  ot  the  cultivation  of  all 
trees  that  arc  ufetul  for  either  of 
thefe  purpofcs.  The  day  is  at 
hand,  if  not  already  arrived, 
when  this  will  he  one  ot  the 
mod  profitable,  as  well  as  im- 
portant, branches  of  hufbandry. 
O.A.TS,  AvriiJ,  a  well  known 
train,  very  pleafant  and  nourifh- 
ing  to  horfcs,  and  conducive  to 
keep  them  in  healtii.  Though  oth- 
er (o\\s  of  grain  are  too  binding. 
oats  have  a  contrary  efTeH  ;  and 
even  too  much  fo,  unlefs  they  be 
/wcated  in  a  mow  before  they  be 
thralhed.  The  flour  of  this  grain 
is  110  bad  ingrctlient  in  table  pro- 
vifions.  It  is  highly  approved  for 
gruels  and  puddings  :  Aiul 
would  be  more  ufed,  were  it  not 
for  the  difhculty  of  divefling  the 
^rain  of  its  hulk. 

There  are  varieties  of  this  grain, 
(Uflinguilhcd  by   ihcir  diffcrcni 


OAT  231 

colours,  the  white,  the  black,  the 
grey,  and  the  brown  oats  ;  but  a» 
thefe  difTcr  only  in  colour,  they 
are  not  confidered  as  jliilititk  fpe- 
cies. 

The  white  oats  which  are  moft 
commonly  cultivated  in  this 
country,  are  generally  preferred 
in  other  countries,  as  producini^ 
the  belt  crops.  But  I  fufpetl 
that  fufficient  trials  have  not  yet 
been  made  here,  in  the  culture 
of  the  black  oats.  The  produce 
of  them  from  a  few  corns  fowed 
in  a  garden,  hasbeen  aftoniUiing. 
But  this  might  be  owing  to  the 
ncwnels  of  the  feed  in  our  cli- 
mate, or  to  fome  circumllance 
lets  confiderable,  orlefs  obvious. 

There  is  alfo  a  Ipecics  of  the 
naked  oats.  This,  one  would 
think,  mult  have  the  advantage 
of  other  oats,  as  it  \^  thrafhed 
clean  out  of  tiie  hufk,  fit  for  grind- 
ing. But  wiih  this  grain  we  are 
yet  unacquainted. 

I  have  lately  met  with  theTar- 
tary  oats,  which  refemble  our 
white  oats, butdifTer  in  their  man- 
ner of  growing.  I'hc^  bear  very 
picntitully  :  But  are  rather  apt 
to  lodge. 

Oats  cannot  be  fowed  too  early 
in  the  fpring,  after  the  grotmd  is 
thawed,  and  become  dry  enough 
for  lowing.  The  Englilh  farm- 
ers fow  them  fome  time  in  Feb- 
ruary. But  in  a  wet  foiT  they 
fometimcs  anfwer  very  well, 
though  fowed  in  June. 

1  hree  bulhels  of  feed  is  the 
ufual  quantity  fown  on  an  acre. 
This  quantity  fay  fome  will  be 
rather  more  than  enough  on  a 
rich  foil.  If  the  foil  be  poor, 
the  quantify  ot  feed  Ihonldbethe 
greater,  fay  they,  as  the  plants 
will  be  fmallcr,  will  not  tiller  ; 
and  Jo  may  ftand  the  nearereach 
other  without  crowding.  But 
this  is  a  matter  of  rpinion  only, 
and  may  be  a  miflake. 

Oats 


232  OAT 

Oats  have  ftrong  piercing 
roots,  and  are  called  hearty  feed- 
ers, fo  that  they  can  find  their 
nouridiment  in  flifF  foils  ;  and 
lor  the  fame  reafon  they  fome- 
times  produce  great  crops  when 
fown  after  one  ploughing.  But 
two  ploughings  are  generally 
better  for  them  than  one. 

When  they  are  cultivated  ac- 
cording to  the  new  hufbandry, 
they  fhould  be  fowed  in  double 
rows,  fifteen  inches  apart,  on 
beds  fix  feet  wide.  For  they 
will  grow  taller  than  wheat,  and 
therefore  require  more  room. 
One  bufliel  of  feed  will  be  fuffi- 
cient  for  an  acre  in  this  way. 
Some  advife  to  brining  and 
liming  the  feed  ;  but  this  may  as 
well  be  omitted,  unlefs  when 
they  are  fowed  late.  It  may 
ferve  in  this  cafe  to  quicker^  their 
growth. 

Oats  (hould  be  harvefled  in  a 
greener  ftate  than  other  grain, 
j'he  ftraw  (hould  not  be  wholly 
turned  yellow.  It  will  be  the 
better  fodder,  if  it  do  not  Hand 
till  it  be  quite  ripe  and  faplefs. 
Mr.  Cook,  an  Englifli  writer,  re- 
commends cutting  them  about 
four  or  five  days  before  the  ftate 
of  ripenefs  ;  and  fays  they  will 
improve  by  lying  on  the  ground. 
But  if  they  be  quite  ripe  when 
they  are  cut,  they  will  be  apt  to 
(bed  out  by  lying. 

Though  they  fhould  be  well 
•dried  on  the  groujid  alter  cutting, 
they  fhould  not  be  raked,  nor 
handled  at  all,  when  they  are  in 
the  driefl  ftate.  It  fhould  rather 
be  done  in  mornings  and  even- 
ings, when  the  ftraw  is  made 
limber  and  pliable  by  the  moill- 
ure  of  the  air.  If  they  fhould 
be  got  in  when  they  are  fome- 
what  damp,  there  will  be  no  dan- 
ger, having  been  before  thor- 
oughly dried  ;  for  the  ftraw  and 
ckaiF  are  of  a  very  dry  nature. 


O  L  I 

Some  choofe  to  reap  them : 
But  the  ftrav/  is  fo  valuable  a 
fodder,  that  it  is  better  to  cradle 
or  mow  them.  And  that  the 
ground  may  be  well  prepared 
tor  mowing  and  raking,  a  roller 
fliould  be  paffed  over  it  after 
fowing  and  harrowing  :  But 
fome  prefer  rolling  the  ground 
after  the  grain  is  fome  inches 
high  ;  it  is  faid  to  clofe  the  foil 
to  the  roots,  and  make  the  grain 
grow  with  frefh  vigour- 
Oats  are  fo  apt  to  rob  land  of 
its  richnefs  that  they  fhould  not 
be  fowed  on  the  fame  fpot  twice 
in  fucceffion,  unlefs  the  foil  be 
very  plentifully  manured.  In  a 
fucceftion  of  crops,  oats  may 
fometimes  be  fown  to  advantage 
the  firft  year  after  the  breaking 
up,  before  the  land  can  be  made 
mellow  enough  for  other  grain  : 
Or  they  may  follow  wheat  or 
barley.  In  the  latter  cafe,  the 
wheat  or  barley  ftubble  fhould 
be  ploughed  in  as  foon  as  the 
crop  is  off. 

OLIVE,  oka,  the  famous  tree 
which  produces  oil.  A  fpecies 
ot  thefe  trees  grow  wild  in  the 
woods  and  forefts  of  France. 
But  thofe  which  they  cultivate 
profper  well,  and  are  fo  fruit- 
ful and  profitable,  that  the  oil 
is  an  article  of  their  exportation, 
particularly  in  Provence  and 
Languedoc. 

Even  in  England  the  trees 
have  produced  fruit  in  the  open 
air  fit  for  pickling,  though  their 
fummers  be  not  warm  enough  to 
bring  the  fruit  to  maturity. 

I  am  perfuaded  our  fummers  are 
hot  enough  for  this  tree,  fo  that 
we  might  ctiltivate  it  to  advan- 
tage, if  our  winters  do  not  prove 
to  be  too  cold.  It  is  faid  to  grow 
on  any  kind  of  foil,  though 
largeft  in  a  rich  one  :  But  to 
produce  the  beft  oil  in  a  poor 
lean  foil.  As  Bofton  and  the 
fouthcrly 


ONI  O  \M  233 

them  after  fowing,   efpccially  li 

the  foil  be  not  fandy.     And  it  1$ 

may  be  made  tocul-  j  not  amifs  to  roll  the  ground  at 

ler  fowing 


fouthcrly  part  of  France  are  in 
the  fa'ne  hfitude,  it  is  lobc  wilh- 
edr 

ti\..  ircesin  this  country. 

\\'huc\ci  atui::pfs  it.  ihould  lit 
them  be  h  'c.-mcJ.  either  by  build- 
ings, or  hit;li  fenres,  irom  ihecoM 
north\var<lly  winds. 

But  it  thi"i  climate  fhouhl  not 
fuit  them.doubtlefs  (hey  may  be 
cultivated  to  advanta<^e  in  ibmc 
of  the  fouthcrn  ftaies.  And  1 
think  every  portible  attempt 
iliould  be  nude,  that  may  enable 
us  to  live  lefs  dcpendently  oh 
Europe.  The  oil  and  pickled 
olives  brought  from  thence,  a- 
mouni  to  more  than  a  trifle, 
which  cnighl  to  be  faved  if  pratti- 
cable. 

ONION'S.     A//ium,    a    well 
known  efculent  root.  The  com- 
mon   fort    have    purple    bulbs,  j 
The   white,   or    filver   fkinned, 
which  Hrc  fiippofed  to  have  come  ' 
from  Kqypt,  .ire  by  fome  prefer-  | 
red  to  the  other.    Theyhaveuot  ' 
fo  llroiig  a  talle. 

ihi^  pl.im  Hourifhc.s  (o  well 
in  the  foLrtlicrn  parts  of  Xewen- 
K-iand.tliat  it  Iuts  long  been  a  con- 
lider.^blc  article  ot  exportation  ; 
in  the  northern  oirrts,  it  requires 
the  vt*ry  beft  cultirre  ;  bu*.  even 
tkfi;"  onions  may  be  railed  in 
t  plenty   tor  liomc  con- 


.A  tpot  of  thrown d  fhould  be 
chofen  tor  them,  which  is  nif)ift 
and  fandy  ;  hecaufe  they  require 
Tr.iich  heat,  and   a  confiderablc 


or  harden  the  fur- 
face  with  the  back  ot  a  fliovcl. 

I  have  many  years  cuhivated 
them  on  the  fame  fpot  ;  and 
have  never  tound  the  land  at  all 
impoveriihed  by  them.  But  ori 
the  contrary,  my  crops  are  bet- 
ter than  tormerly.  But  the  ma- 
nuring is  yearly  repeated  ;  and 
[  muft  not  be  laid  far  below   the 

lurface. 
'      The  gronnd  Ihould  be  dug  or 
!  ploughed  in  autumn,   not  very 
j  deep  ;  and  then  made  very  fine 
'  in  the  Ipring,  and  all  the  graff 
j  roots,  and  roots  ot  weeds,  taken 
I  out  ;  then  laid  in  beds  lour  feet 
J  wide.     Four  rows  of  holes  are 
,  inade  in   a   bed.    the   rows   ten 
i  inches  apart,  and  the  holes  in  the 
,  rows  ten.     About  half  a  dozen 
;  feeds  are  put  in  a  hole,  or  more 
I  it  there  be  any   danger  of  their 
I  not  corfiing  up  well,  and  buried 
I  an  inch  undo*  the  lurtacc.    Fhis 
]  is  allowed  b^  the    experienced 
'  cnliivators  in  Connecticut,  tobe 
thet»eft  way  of  fetiing  the  feeds. 
!  For  they  will  grow  very  well  in 
:  bunches.     I    have  lately  found 
I  tint  they  grow   lull  as   well    in 
drill  rows  a  fooialunder.    They 
crowd  each  other  up  out  ot  the 
foil,   and    lie  ifl    heaps  as   they 
grow  upon  the  furface.  Though 
the  lareeft  onions  arc  thofe  that 
grow  (mgly,   tome  inches  apart, 
thofe    that    arc    mf)re  crowded 


-;;recot  moillure.     A  low  lit'i-  j  pro<luce  larj^er  crops.     And  the 

middle  fiircd  onions  are  belter 
for  eating  than  the  largefL 

The  lall  week  in  April  is  the 
light  fcalon  tor  fowing  the  fced.s, 
it  the  ground  he  capable  ot  being 
got  into  proper  order  (m  caily. 


;.a..ii.  where  tlie  faiid  has  been 
waflied  down  trom  a  neighbour- 
ing lull,  is  very  proper  lor  thfin. 
And  if  n  he  the  w,ilh  ot  a  far-  iy 
ro«d,  fo  much  the  better.  The 
moft  fuitable  manures  are  old 
iung  mix- 
1  foot.   A 

er  both,  Ihouid  be  fprcad  over 
E  c 


la  wet 

laiv  to 


1   iu'.vi 
vf.-ivc 


)!tcn  nccet- 

r. 
•J  ray  onions 
incfaet    apart, 
acrols 


234         ONI 

acrofs  the  beds  :  And  I  iound 
my  crop  was  near  double  to 
vliat  it  ufcd  to  be,  when  they 
were  fowed  in  bunches.  Perhaps 
this  will  prove  to  be  the  better 
method.  But  I  gave  them  alfo  a 
flight  top  dreffing  of  loot,  juft 
betore  they  began  to  form  bulbs, 
which  might  be  the  true  reafon 
of  the  great  increafe  :  So  that  I 
dare  not  yet  abfolutely  prefer 
the  drill  method  to  the  oiher  ; 
though  I  am  much  inclined  to 
give  It  a  decided  preference. 

Onions  fhould  be  hoed  three 
or  four  tim^s,  and  kept  quite 
clear  of  weeds,  before  the  tops 
arrive  to  their  full  height.  At 
this  time  the  bulbs  will  begin  to 
fwell  ;  hoeing  fliould  therefore 
be  laid  afide,  and  the  weeds  pul- 
led up  by  hand  as  often  as  they 
appear.  Weeds  not  only  rob 
the  plants  of  their  food,  but  in- 
jure tbera  much  with  their  fliade ; 
for  they  have  occafion  for  all 
the  warmth  of  the  fun  that  they 
can  get. 

To  promote  the  growth  of  the 
bulbous  roots,  I  have  found  it 
advantageous  to  trample  the 
ground  iiard  between  the  rows 
or  bunches,  and  to  draw  the  foil 
away  from  the  bulbous  roots, 
laying  them  bare  to  the  fun. 
They  are  the  more  warmed,  and 
grow  taller. 

Some  think  it  proper,  and 
even  necefTary,  to  pafs  a  roller 
over  beds  of  onions,  or  cripple 
down  their  tops  by  hand.  But 
1  have  never  been  able  to  find 
the  leaft  advantage  from  either 
yi  thefe  methods  :  Nor  do  I 
think  they  ought  to  be  pra6iifed  ; 
for  1  cannot  eafily  conceive  how 
the  cruihmg  and  wounding  any 
plant,  while  it  is  growing,  Ihould 
conduce  to  its  improvement. 
Though  forae  may  have  good 
cropi,  who  treat  them  in  this 
manner,  I  am  perfuadcd  that  it 


ON  1 

they  neglefted  it,  they  would 
have  much  better  crops.  For, 
befides  the  mifchief  already  men- 
tioned, the  fun  is  fhut  out  from 
the  bulbs  by  crufhing  the  tops 
down  upon  them  ;  but  the  more 
upright  the  tops  are,  the  more 
the  (tin  will  fhineupon  the  roots. 
I  would  fooner  cut  ofF  part  of 
the  tops  than  go  to  crufhing 
them. 

Others  fbake  and  twift  the 
tops,  to  loofen  the  bulbs  in  the 
foil,  which  I  cannot  approve  of : 
For  if  it  do  not  fnap  off  fome  of 
the  fibrous  roots,  it  gives  too  free 
a  pafTage  of  the  air  to  them,  by 
which,  if  dry  Aveather  follow, 
they  will  be  injured,  rather  than 
afiiifed  in  their  growth. 

When  onions  are  thick  neck- 
ed, do  not  incline  to  bottom,  but 
rather  to  be  what  are  vulgarly 
called  fcallions,  the  more  care 
fhould  be  takes  to  harden  the 
ground  about  them,  and  to  lay 
the  bulbs  bare  to  the  fun.  And 
it  may  be  proper  to  let  them 
touch  the  foil  only  in  that  part 
which  fends  out  the  fibrous  roots. 

At  the  worfl,  if  they  fail  to 
have  good  bottom.s  the  firfl  year, 
and  chance  to  efcape  rotting  till 
fpring  ;  they  may  perhaps  get 
them  by  being  tranfplanted. 
Even  an  onion  which  is  partly 
rotten  will  produce  two,  three, 
or  four  good  ones,  if  the  feed 
ftems  be  taken  offasfoon  as  they 
appear.  They  ripen  earlier  than 
young  ones,  have  the  nam.e  rare- 
ripes, and  will  fell  at  a  higher 
price. 

When  onions  are  fo  ripened 
that  the  greennefs  is  entirely 
gone  out  of  their  tops,  it  is  time 
to  take  them  up  :  For  from  this 
time  the  fibrous  roots  dqf:ay,and 
no  longer  convey  any  nourifh- 
ment  to  the  bulbs,  as  appears  by 
their  becoming  quite  loofe  in  the 
foil,  and  eaf?  tQ  (|k&  up. 

After 


O  flf  I 

After  they  are  pnlleJ  up  they 
fhouM  lie  on  tlic  ground  tor  ten 
days  or  a  fortnight,  to  dry  and 
harden  in  the  fun,  il  tin*  woatlier 
be  fair.  Then,  in  fail  tlry  weath- 
er, be  moved  in*.»  a  fjarrct,  and 
laid  thin.  The  loalHons  Ihould 
not  be  mixed  with  the  good 
onions,  led  riiey  (hould  caide 
them  to  rot  ;  but  We  hung  up  in 
fome  dry  place  in  linall  bunches, 
where  they  will  ivot  be  toonmch 
expofed  to  fro  ft. 

Tint  onions  may  keep  well 
through  the  winter,  tlvcy  (houKl 
not  be  irulled  in  a  warm  and 
moiftcellaf  ;  but  have  afituntion 
that  is  dry  and  cool.  Moillnie 
foon  rots  them,  and  warmth  caufcs 
them  to  vegetate.  A  degree  ot 
cold  which  woidd  ruin  moft 
other  efcu lent  roots,  will  not  in- 
jure them  at  all.  I  he  fpirit 
that  is  in  them  isfufficieutto  en- 
able them  to  rcfift  a  cotilidcrabic 
degree  of  froll.  Accordingly,  in 
the  fouthern  parts  ot  tliis  coun- 
try, as  I  am  intorined,  tbey  are 
ulually  kept  through  the  winter 
in  dry  cafks  placed  in  chamhrers, 
or  garrets.  But  they  lliould  not 
be  removed,  or  touche<l,  while 
the  weather  is  very  trolly. 

Thofe  which  are  Ihipped  for 
market,  are  ufually  made  into 
k)ng  bunches,  by  tying  them  to 
wilns  of  ftraw. 

When  onions  aie  kept  long, 
they  are  apt  to  fprout,  which 
hurts  them  for  eating.  T«j  pre- 
vent this,  nothing  more  is  ne- 
ceffary  than  to  fear  the  fibrous 
roots  with  a  hot  iron.  The  pores 
ot  the  roots  will  tlui*.  be  Hopped, 
through  which  the  air  enters  and 
caufcs  thetn  to  \egetate. 

To  obi  u;)  feed  Irom  onions 
they  Iho'.ild  be  planted  early  in 
betJs,  abo'it  nme  ijiches  apart. 
The  largelt  and  foundell  are  heft. 
Tn  a  month  the  tops  will  appcMi  , 
*nJ  each  one  w:!!  fcvH  '.ip  '.•\;-i- 


O  R  C  a35 

[  al  flems  for  feed.     They  fliou!  . 
I  f)c  kept   free    from  weeds  ;  ar  1 
j  when  the  heads  ot  t'le  ilowers  be- 
j  gin toappear,e;iclipKHitmult have 
a  ftikc  about  four  feet  long,  and 
(  its  Items  be  loofely  tied  to  the 
ftake  by  a  foft  ftring  of  fufficient 
ftrcngth.     If  this   be  neglctted, 
the    heavy    tops    will     lay    tht 
ftalks   on  the    ground,    or    the 
winds  will  break  them.  Ineithcr 
cafe,  the  k'i.-x\^  will  fail   of  com- 
ing toperteftion. 

ORCHARD,  an  enclofcd 
plantation  of  fruit  trees,  not  again 
to  be  removed. 

An  orchard  may  confift  wholly 
of  pear  trees  ;  or  of  quince, 
peach,  plum,  &c.  or  it  may  be  a 
mixture  of  various  kinds  of  trees. 
But  orchards  of  apple  trees  are 
the  moft  important,  and  are  al- 
n\oU  the  only  ones  in  this  coun- 
try. Other  fruit  trees  are  com- 
monly planted  in  the  borders  of 
1  fields,  or  gardens  ;  becaufe  only 
a  fmall  number  of  them  isdcfired, 
or  confidered  as  advantageous, 
by  farmers. 

The  foil  for  an  orchard  fhouKl 
be  fuited  to  the  nature  of  the 
trees  planted  in  it.  Though  a 
clay  lod  will  do  well  tor  pear 
trees,  it  is  not  at  all  fuitable  tot 
apple  trees.  Dry  land  and  grav- 
el are  not  good  ;  but  a  deep  \vj- 
zel  loam  is  preferred  to  any  .nii- 
er  foil  ;  and  it  is  the  better  if 
it  be  fomcwhat  rocky  aud  nioifl. 

Plains,  hollows,  or  high  finn- 
mits,  are  not  fo  g')od  fuuanon.s^ 
for  orchards,  as  land  gcn;ly  Uop- 
hf»g  :  An<l  a  foiuhcaftcrn  expo- 
ftire  is  generally  tiie  l>til.  Bit 
when  th;s  cxpuf-s  the  trees  to 
fea  winds,  a  f;v."''weftcrn  expo- 
lure  mav  be  .'  '  better, 

Ittlielancll.-  .  it  fhould 

be   broken    up    aaci    tilled    on 
yearhct'>re  thr*  trees  are  planted  , 
and  it  it  be  dunged    it  will   hr 
better  ty:   t^e  Tecs.     The  r<Kk-, 
lhuul<i 


236  ORG 

fhould  alfo  be  taken  out  ;  becaofe 
it  cannot  be  done  fo  convenient- 
ly afterwards.  And  it  there  be 
any  large  flumps  of  trees,  which 
M'ould  laft  long  in  the  ground, 
they  fiiould  betaken  out.  Other- 
wife  they  will  render  the  opera- 
tions of  tillage  in  the  young 
orchard  very  difficult. 

Trees  which  are  ungraitcd  are 
fuppofed  to  bear  as  good  fruit  as 
any  for  cyder.  They  commonly 
bear  more  fruit, andwill  laft  longer. 

But  when  grafted  trees  are  to 
be  tranlplanted,  thofe  Ihould  be 
chofen  that  have  not  been  graft- 
ed more  than  two  years.  Old 
ilinted  trees,  the  rehifc  of  a  nurfe- 
ry,  are  to  be  avoided,  which  will 
grow  very  flowly,  if  at  all.  For 
direftions  concerning  the  time 
and  manner  ot  planting  an  orch- 
ard, fee  Fruit  trtcs  and  Tuinf- 
pianting. 

Concerning  the  right  diflance 
of  the  trees  in  an  orc^iard,  there 
are  a  variety  of  opinions.  But 
the  coldnefs  and  wetnefs  of  the 
climate,  an  argument  ufed  in 
England  for  placing  them  far  a- 
funder,  does  riot  fo  v/ell  apply  in 
this  country.  Trees  in  that  cold 
and  cloudy  region  ncexi  every 
poffible  advantage  of  cxpofureto 
the  fun  and  air.  It  ihould  be 
confidered  at  the  time  of  plant- 
ing, towhatfize  the  trees  are  like- 
ly to  grow  :  And  they  fl^or.ld  be 
fet  fo  tarafunder,  that  their  limbs 
will  not  be  likely  to  interfere 
V'ith  each  other,  when  they  ar- 
rive to  their  full  grov/th.  In  a 
foil  tliat  fuits  them  belt,  they  will 
become  largeft.  Twenty  fi/e 
icet  may  be  the  right  diuance  in 
Ibme  foils  ;  but  thirty  five  feet 
will  not  be  too  much  in  thebcft, 
or  even  forty.  If,  contrary  to 
expectation,  they  fiiould  be  too 
cloie  when  they  are  grown  up, 
they  may  be  eafily  thinned  :  And 
:t  will  be  better  to  take  away  here 


O  R  C 

and  there  a  wliole  tree,  than  to 
lop  and  maim  them  all,  that  they 
may  have  room. 

The  planting  of  fmall  trees  in 
the  niidfl  ot  tull  grown  ones  does 
not  anfwer  fo  well  for  the  fmall 
ones,  as  when  the  trees  are   all 
j  nearly  of  one  fize.     A  fmall  tree 
among   large    ones   has  not  an 
equal  chance  of  expofure  to  the 
I  fun  and  air  :  Both  of  which  are 
I  of  great  importance.     So  that  it 
is  ot  the  lefs  importance  to  re- 
place a  tree  that  dies  in  an  orch- 
ard.    And  it  is  of  no  advantage 
to  do  it,  when  the  nearefl  neigh- 
bouring trees  appear  to  t>c  rather 
too  much  crpvy'dcd. 

An  orchard  muft  be  conftant- 
ly  well  fenced,  to  keep  out  cattle. 
It  Ihould  be  enclofed  by  itfelf. 
Hungry  Ihcep  would  peel  the 
trees  while  they  are  young  ;  and 
cattle  will  l^ite  off  all  the  limbs 
ot  young  and  old  trees  that  are 
\v'itliin  their  reach.  But  there  is 
no  danger  in  turning  in  a  horfe 
occaficnally,  when  there  is  grafs 
and  no  apples  ;  and  fwine  may 
be  confined  in  an  orchard  that  is 
grown  up,  fo  that  the  trees  can- 
not be  hurt  by  them,  and  when 
the  truitis  not  in  their  way. 

Sheep  fometiracs  get  into  an 
;  orchard  that  is  well  fenced,  by 
I  means  of  high  banks  of  fnow, 
;  when  they  are  flitF  or  crufted.  I 
j  can  think  of  no  better  way  to 
I  prevent  this,  than  to  make  the 
!  tencc  fo  open,w:ith  rov.nd  poles, 
j  or.  pickets,  that  the  fnow  will  pafs- 
j  freely  through  it,  and  not  rife  in 
j  high  banks.  The  latter  hind  ot 
I  fence  niigiit  be  fo  conllruLted  as 
!  to  keep  out  fuch  creatures  as  arc 
I  apt  to  lake  fruit  from  the  trees, 
1  without  leave  of  the  proprietor. 
j  After  an  orchard  is  planted,  it 
!  is  bcft  to  keep  the  land  continn- 
t  ally  in  tillage,  till  the  trees  have 
,  nearly  got  their  full  growth  ;  at 
'  lead  till  they  have  begun  to  bear 
plentifully. 


O  R  C 

f !  •niifuUy.  Ibc  trees  \v\\\  prnw  | 
l:ilcr,  and  be  more  trimtiil.  ; 
Hut  great  can*  limit  he  taken 
tliat  the  roots  be  not  Jillurbcd  by 
ploughing,  nor  tlic  bark  on  tluc 
Hems  <>t  the  trees  wounded. 
The  ground  near  the  trees, 
wliich  the  plough  leaves,  Jhould 
bebrokeuand  made  mellow  with 
a  Ipade,  tor  tw«>  or  three  years, 
before  the  roots  haye  lar  extend- 
ed.^ 

Severe  prunings  fliould  gener- 
ally be  avoided.  Tiic  limbs  that 
interlere,  and  rub  each  other, 
mull  be  cut  out ;  but  never  Ihort- 
en  the  Ihoots,  nor  cut  oflFany  ot 
the  bearing  Ipurs.  lake  oli  al) 
decayed  and  broken  branches, 
clofc  to  the  ftems  tram  whence 
they  are  produced  ;  and  cutaway 
all  tuckers,  as  loon  as  they  ap- 
pear, whether  Irom  the  roots, 
trunks,  or  any  other  partf.  Piun- 
ing  thould  be  done  in  Nov«'in- 
bcr,  or  in  the  beginning  ot  De- 
cember. In  the  depth  ot  winter 
it  will  br  apt  to  be  neglected,  and 
towards  tpring  the  lap  will  \>c  in 
motion,  and  the  buds  (welled. 
But  luckCTTilhould  be  taken  away 
whenever  they  appear.  This  re- 
quires dole  attention. 

In  foine  ot  our  new  towns  and 
plantations,  woodpeckers  attack 
apple  trees.  1  hey  girdle  the 
trunks  ot  the  trees  with  a  row  ot 
deep  holes,  and  fometi.'nes  with 
fcveral  rows  ;  which  renders  the 
trees  (ickly  and  untniittiil.  1  am 
intormed  that  tnicaring  the  part 
\\  ith  cow  dung  where  tliey  have 
b'gun,  caule*  them  to  delill.  A 
piece  ol  birch  l)a:k.  put  round 
the  part  wlieie  they  vdually  peck, 
might  guard  a  tn-e  againll  thetn. 
It  will  liold  itfclt  on  for  a  long 
time,  wherever  it  is  put,  and  not 
need  renewin^^.  Iliebiids  fecni 
to  be  molf  toiid  ot  pecking  on 
the  upper  part  ot  tli-  Hems,  jiear 
to  the  loweil  bianJit;*. 


O  R  K  237 

ORE  WKED.  /e-a  -werd,  fca 
xoarr,  ox  fca  zmak.  Thefc  names 
aie  applied  to  all  the  vegetables 
which  grow  plciuilully  in  the  tea, 
a;id  on  the  muddy  and  rocky  pai  ts 
ot  the  fliore below  high  water  mark. 

The  torts  are  cliietly  three  ; 
the  kali,  or  rock  weed,  which 
ftrongly  adheres  to  rocks,  and 
which  is  allowed  to  be  of  the 
greatcft  value  for  manure.  The 
alga,  called  eel  grals,  or  grafs 
wreck,  is  of  the  next  rank  as  to 
its  richnefs.  But  there  is  anoth- 
er toit,  conlj fling  of  a  broad  leaf 
with  a  long  thank  or  ftem,  of  an 
inch  diameter,  by  tome  ignorant- 
ly  called  kelp  ;  this  is  faidbyJSir 
A.  Purvcs  to  be  of  the  Icall  val- 
Me  ol  any  ol  the  fea  weoils. 
However,  none  ot  them  are  un- 
important tor  lertili/ing  thecarth. 

All  vegetables  when  putrefied 
arc  a  gi>o»l  pabulum  tor  plants  ; 
for  they  conlill  wholly  of  it.  But 
the  value  «if  maiine  vegetables  is 
greater  than  that  of  any  other  ; 
tor,  betides  the  virtutjp  ot  the 
otlier,  they  contain  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fait,  w  hich  is  a  great  tcr- 
tiluer.  Mr.  Dixon  thinks  th(rfc 
weeds  which  grow  in  the  deepdl 
water  are  the  bell.  Perhaps  they 
ct)ntain  a  greater  proportion  of 
fait  than  thofe  which  giow  near 
the  Ihoie,  as  they  are  (eldoni  or 
never  wetted  with  frelh  water. 

A  great  advantage  that   thefe 
plants  have  above  any  other,  is 
their   fpcedy   termemation    and 
putrefaction.     The  tarmcrlias  no 
need  to  wait   loiig  alter   he   has 
got  them,  bctore  he  .1;. plies  them 
I  to  the  foil.     The  rock  weed  may 
I  be  ploughctl  into  the  toil,  as  loon 
I  as  it  is  taken  tioin  the  lea.     Th;s 
is  prahifed  in  iliofe  parts  of  Scot- 
land   which    lie    nearcll    to    the 
Ihore  ;  by  which  they  obtain  ex- 
cellent crops  ot  barley,  witliMit 
impoverilhiii;^  the  lt>il.     N«-itluT 
have  they  any  uccafion  lor  taU 
lowing 


238  ORE 

lowing  to  recruit  it.  In  hills  of 
potatoes,  it  anfwers  nearly  as 
well  as  barn  dung.  I  have 
Icnown  feme  fpread  it  upon 
young  flax  ne^viy  come  up,  who 
lay  it  increafes  their  crops  fur- 
prifingly.  The  flax  may  grow 
{o  fall,  and  get  above  this  ma- 
nure and  (hade  it,  fo  foon,  as  to 
prevent  evaporation  by  the  fun 
and  wind;  fo  that  but  a  fmall 
part  of  it  is  lofl  ;  and  flax  is  fo 
liardy  a  plant  that  it  does  not  fut- 
fer  Dy  the  violence  of  fait,  like 
maiy  other  young  plants. 

JBut  I  rather  think  it  is  befl  to 
putrefy  fea  \yreeds  before  they 
are  applied  to  the  foil.  This 
ma/  fpeedily  beaccomplilhedby 
lay.ng  them  in  heaps.  But  the 
heaos  fhould  not  lie  naked.  Let 
then  be  covered  with  loofe  earth 
or  turf  ;  or  elfe  mixed  in  com- 
pofl  dunghills,  or  laid  in  barn 
yaris  with  divers  other  fub- 
jlaaces.  This  fubftancewill  foon 
diftolve  itfelf,  and  what  is  mixed 
with  it,  changing  to  a  fait  oily 
flime,  very  proper  to  fertilize 
light  foils,  and  not  improper  for 
aliiofl  any  other. 

As  to  the  eel  grafs.  See.  tJie 
bcft  way  is  to  cart  it  in  autumn 
iLtobarn  yards,  filling  the  whole 
a'cas  with  it,  two  or  three  feet 
ceep.  It  may  be  either  alone,  or 
Kave  a  layer  of  flraw  under,  and 
another  above  it.  When  it  has 
been  trampled  to  pieces  by  the 
cattle,  and  mixed  with  their  ftale 
and  dung,  it  will  be  fitteft  to  be 
applied  to  the  foil.  It  being  a 
light  and  bibulous  fubftance,  it 
will  abforb  the  urine,  which  is 
totally  lofl  by  foaking  into  the 
earth,  unlefs  fome  fuch  trafli  be 
laid  under  cattle  to  take  it  up, 
and  retain  it. 

Farmers  who  are  fituated  near 
to  the  fea  fiiore  have  a  vafl  ad- 
vantage for  manuring  their  lands. 
If  they  were  once  perfuaded  to 


ORE 

make  a  fpirited  improvement, 
they  might  enrich  their  farms  to 
almofl  any  degree  that  they  pleafe. 
They  fhould  vifit  the  fhores  af- 
ter fpringtidesanS  violent  ftornis, 
>fnd  with  pitchforks  take  up  the 
weeds,  and  lay  them  in  heaps  a 
little  higher  up  upon  the  fnore  ; 
which  will  at  once  prevent  their 
growing  weaker,  and  fecure  them 
from  being  carried  away  by  the 
next  fpring  tide. 

Many  are  fo  fituated  that  they 
can  drive  their  carts  on  a  fandy, 
hard  beach,  at  low  water,  to  the 
rocks  ;  and  fill  then!  with  weeds. 
Can  they  be  fo  flupid  as  to  ne- 
gle6l;  doing  it  ?  It  is  even  worth 
while  to  go  miles  after  this  ma- 
nure with  boats,  when  it  cannot 
be  obtained  more  eafily. 

It  has  often  been  obferved  that 
manuring  with  fea  weeds  is  an 
excellent  antidote  to  infecls.  It 
is  fo,  not  only  in  the  ground,  but 
alfo  upon  trees.  I  have  an  orch- 
ard which  has  been  for  many 
years  much  annoyed  by  caterpil- 
lars. Lafl  fpring,  about  the  laft 
of  May,  I  put  a  handful  of  rock 
weed  into  each  tree,  jufl  where 
the  limbs  part  from  the  trunk  ; 
after  which  I  think  there  was  not 
another  nefl  formed  in  the  v.-hole 
orchard.  April  is  a  better  time 
to  furnifh  the  trees  with  this  an- 
tidote to  infecls.  And  the  month 
of  March  is  perhaps  better  flill. 

Putrefied  fea  weeds  fhould,  I 
think,  be  ufed  for  crops  of  cabba- 
ges, and  turnips,  and  for  any  oth- 
er crops  which  are  muck  expofed 
to  be  injured  by  infecrs. 
.  Onediiadvantageattendingtlie 
bufinefs  of  farming  in  this  coun- 
try, is,  that  our  cold  vvinters  put 
an  entire  flop  to  the  fermentation, 
and  putrefaction  of  manures. 
This  may  be  in  fome  mcafure  ob- 
viated ijy  the  ufe  of  rock  weed, 
which  is  fo  full  of  fait  that  it  is  not 
eafily  frozen  :  Or  if  frozen,  it  is 

foos 


o  s  r 

{i,an  thavred.     I  have  hctn  im 

formed  that  fome  have  laid  iiun. 

'    "i   diinghills  by  the   hdcs 

:  in  which  fituativn  it 

n  ;  but  by  it>  fcr- 

liifTolved  itfcif,  and 

inuv,h  oi  Ll::  liunq  that  lay  upon 

it.     There  iN'mdoubtedly  agreat 

advamajjc  in  lucha  practice. 

Ap' t!"^r  J'^  jntagc  ot  this  kind 
■1  muft  not  be 
I  it  iloes  noten- 

i;rowth  o\  weeds  fo 
1  1  dung.     It  is  cer- 

tain It  has  none  ol  the  feeds  of 
weeds  to  propagatc.as  bam  dung 
almoH  always  ha<.  But  fome 
fuppofe  that  its  fait  is  deftruftive 
ID  many  ot  ilie  feeds  ot  the  moft 
tender  kmds  of  plants  ;  it  it  be 
k),  it  is  only  when  it  is  applied 
frefh  trom  the  fea,  at  the  time  of 
fowing.  But  even  this  is  doubtful. 

Tliis  manure  is  rcprefenied  in 
the  Complete  Farmer  to  be  twice 
as  valiuble  as  dung,  if  cut  from 
the  rocks  at  low  water  mark  ; 
that  a  drefTmg  of  it  will  laft  three 
years  ;  and  that  fruit  trees  which 
nave  been  barren  are  rendered 
fruitful  by  laying  this  manure  a- 
bout  their  roots. 

OSIER,    Sa.'ix,    Sallow,    or 

ftces.  According  to  Mr. 

ere  are  fourteen  fpccies ; 

the  i%»igs  of   fome  of  which  are 

much  uted  by  bafkct  makers  in 

Europe. 

A  fortof  greyorbrown  willow 
grows  naturally  in  this  country. 
in  low  moifl  places.  But  it  is 
only  a  bufliy  llirub,  of  flow 
growth  J  and  has  not  tliat  tough - 
nefs  m  its  (hoots  for  which  fome 
of  the  foreign  willows  are  valued. 

Two  fi>rt$  arc  propagated  in 
this  country,  whicfi  were  brought 
from  Europe.  The  young  flux  ns 
pf  the  yellow  fort  have  a  golden 
colour  ;  but  the  trunks  of  the 
trees  arealmoff  black.  The  green 
ijix  bids  fau"  to  be   i^oie  uJcful 


O  V  E 


«3§ 


than  the  other.  They  will  grow- 
in  almofl  any  foil,  and  come  to 
be  large  trees  ;  but  a  moift  foil 
fuiis  them  bcfl.  I  have  known 
the  green  fon  to  grow  where  the 
ground  is  fome  part  of  the  vear 
flowed  with  water,  as  in  the  bor- 
ders of  rivers  and  ponds.   - 

It  might  be  advifable  for  the 
people  in  fome  parts  oi  the 
cotintry  to  propagate  them  for 
the  fake  of  the  wood.  I  know 
of  no  other  trees  that  increafc 
nearly  fo  fall  as  botii  thefe  kinds 
do.  A  prodigious  quantity  of 
wood  might  be  obtained  from- an 
acre  planted  with  them.  In  leff 
than  twenty  years  they  would 
be  large  trees.  I  have  known 
fets,  or  cuttings  of  the  fmalleft 
fize,  in  ten  yean,  grow  to  the 
fize  of  thirty  inches  round,  or 
ten  inches  diamater. 

The  trees  are  cafily  propagat- 
ed by  cuttings,  or  fets,  either  in 
fpring  or  fall.  If  in  fpnng,  they 
(hould  be  planted  early,  as  foon 
as  the  ground  is  thawed.  Young 
fets  fliould  be  three  feet  long, 
and  two  thirds  of  their  length  in 
the  ground. 

Live  hedges  may  be  more 
cheaply  and  expeditioufly  made 
of  ofiers  than  of  any  other  plants. 
Stakes  or  truncheons  of  feven  or 
eight  feet  long  may  be  fet  in  a 
fpungy  or  miry  foil  ;  they  will 
take  root  and  grow,  and  form  a 
hedge  at  once.  This  faves  the 
cofl  of  fecuring  a  young  hedge. 
It  is  with  gicat  pleafurc  that  I  ob- 
fer^•e  fome  fences  ot  this  kind 
arc  begun  in  the  country.  It  i» 
a  very  cheap  and  eafy  method  of 
fencing,  which  cannot  be  too 
much  encouraged.  The  trim- 
mings of  the  hetiges  will  be  of 
great  value  in  towns  where  wood 
is  become  fcarcc.  and  may  be 
had  yearlv.     See  H'iUotl'. 

OVERFLOWING  of  the 
0:%lA.,  a  thfcafc  in  hgraed  cat- 


24© 


O  X 


tie,  known  by  a  copious  dif- 
charge  cf  water  at  ihcir  eyes. 
To  cure  it,  take  a  hen's  egg,  open 
the  end,  and  pour  oS  the  white, 
reserving  the  yoik  ;  then  fill  up 
the  cavity  with  equal  q  amtuies  of 
foot,  fait  and  black  pepper  ; 
draw  out  the  tongue  of  the  ani- 
ma!.  and  \vith  a  (lender  flick 
pufh  the  egg  do%vn  his  throat.  It 
Ihould  be  repeated  two  or  three 
roomings.  It  feldom  fails  to  cure. 

OUT  HOUSES,  flight  build- 
ings that  belong  to  a  raanfion 
houfe,  but  fland  at  a  little  dif- 
tance  from  it.  When  it  can  con- 
veniently be  fo  ordered,  the 
out  houfes  of  a  farmer  oi?ght  to 
be  fo  placed  as  to  be  all  contig- 
uous to  the  farna  yard.  Then  all 
the  dung,  filth  and  rubbifh  they 
afford  at  any  time,  may  be  flung 
into  the  yard,  without  the  trou- 
ble of  carrying  ;  where  they  will 
be  raixed  and  mellowed  by  the 
trampling  of  beafts,  and  contrib- 
ute to  the  increafe   of  manure. 

OX,  a  caflrated  bull.  Till 
tliey  are  four  years  old,  they  are 
ufually  called  ftecrs,  afterwards 
rxen.  Oxen  that  are  white, 
black  and  white,  or  a  very  pale 
red,  are  felJom  hardy,  or  good 
in  the  draught.  Red  and  white 
oxen  are  often  good  ;  but  the 
darkeil  coloured  oxen  are  gener- 
ally beft.  Brown,  dark  red  and 
brindled  are  good  colours. 

The  figns  of  a  good  ox  arethefe  : 
Thick,  foft,  fmooth  and  ftiort 
hair  ;  a  fhort  and  thick  head  ; 
glofTy,  fmooth  horns  ;  large  and 
Ihaggy  ears  ;  wide  forehead  ; 
full,  black  eyes;  wide  noflrils  ; 
black  lips  ;  a  thick  flefliy  neck, 
and  large  fhoulders ;  broad  reins  ; 
a  large  belly  ;  thick  rump  and 
thighs  ;  a  flraight  back  ;  a  long 
tail,  well  covered  with  hair  ; 
fhort  and  broad  hoofs. 

Steers  at  the  age  of  two  years 
asd  a  half^  or  earlier,  may  be 


O  Y  S 

5'okedand  trained  for  the  draught. 
If  it  be  longer  delayed,  they  are 
apt  to  be  reitiff  and  ungoverna- 
ble. T'ley  (hould  not  be  work- 
ed by  tiiemfclves,  but  in  a  team 
with  other  cattle  which  have  been 
nfed  to  labour.  Their  work 
fhould  be  very  eafy  at  firft,  and 
only  at  fhort  intervals,  as  they 
are  apt  to  fret  and  v.'orry  thera- 
felves  excefTively.  A  gentle  u- 
fage  of  them  is  befi,  and  beating 
them  fhould  be  avoided. 

If  oxen  are  worked  in  the 
yoke  in  wet  and  rainy  weather, 
which  fometimes  unavoidably 
happens,  their  necks  are  aot  to 
become  fore.  To  prevent  this, 
a  little  tallow  fhould  be  rubbed 
on  the  parts  of  the  yoke  which 
lie  upon  tl;eir  necks,  and  alfo 
upon  the  bows. 

When  fleers  come  to  be  four 
year.'!  old,  they  have  one  circu- 
lar ring  at  the  root  of  their  horns,- 
at  five  two  rings,  and  one  ring  is 
added  each  year  ;  fo  that  if  you 
would  know  the  age  of  an  ox, 
count  the  rings  on  one  of  his 
horns,  and  add  three,  v.'hich  a- 
mounts  to  the  true  number  of 
his  years.  It  is  the  fame  in  a 
bull,  and  a  cow.  In  ver}'  old 
cattle,  thefe  rings  are  fometimes 
rather  indiflin^h 

When  an  ox  has  completed  his 
eighth  year  he  fhould  be  worked 
no  longer,  but  be  turned  off  to 
fatten.  His  flefh  will  not  be  fo 
good,  if  he  be  kept  linger.  A 
little  blood  mufl  be  taken  from 
him.  that  hemav  fatten  thefafler. 

OYSTER,  or  OISTER,  a  bi- 
valve  teflaceous  fifh.  The  low- 
er valve  is  hollowed  on  the  in- 
fide,  and  protuberant  without  : 
The  upper  fhell  is  flat  or  hol- 
low on  the  outfide.  The  fliells 
of  ihefe  fifli  are  an  excellent 
manure,  but  being  large  they 
fhould  be  burnt  to  lime  be- 
fore thev  are  applied  to  the  foil. 


P  A  N 

P. 

PALE,  a  pointed  ftakf,  ufcd 
in  makinj?  cncK^iurc;,  partition*. 
Sec.  Gardeners  oitciuiines  have 
nccafion  to  make  pale  fences,  to 
iecurc  choice  apartments  from 
the  entrance  of  tame  fowls, 
vhich  will  not  often  fly  ever  a 
palcil  or  picketed  fence  :  As 
Well  as  to  prevent  the  intnifion 
ofidli^and   mifchicvous  people. 

PAN,  a  ftratuni  of  compact 
earth  under  the  foil.  In  fomc 
places  it  is  fo  hard  that  it  cannot 
DC  dug  through  without  pickaxes 


PAN         241 

elly  fod,  there  is  a  large  propor- 
tion of  gravel  in  the  pan  ;  under 
a  Tandy  one  it  ufually  is  found  tn 
conlift  chiefly  of  fand  ;  and  under 
a  Ififf  loam  it  iscomnionly  clay  : 
I  think  it  is  always  found  to  be  fo. 
But  I  fuppofe  the  operation  oi' 
troll  Ihouid  f>e  confidered^  as  af- 
fifting  in  forming  the  pan.  All 
the  foil  above  it  is  ufually  hovea 
by  the  froft  in  winter.  At  Icafl 
it  is  fo  in  this  latitude.  We  fee 
rocks  and  ftones  below  the  fur- 
face  when  the  ground  is  frozen, 
which  before  were  on  a  level 
with  it  :  and  in  a  folt  foil   they 


or  crows.    It  the  pan  be  low,  the  |  do  not  rife  quite  up  to  their  form- 


foil  is  faid  to  be  deep  and  good  ; 
but  if  near  the  furtace,  the  foil 
is  thin  and  poor.  The  common 
depth  in  good  land  is  from  eigh- 
teen to  twenty  four  inches. 

Ihc  deeper  ftrata,  or  layers  in 
the  bowels  of  the  earth,  are 
fuppofed  to  have  been  formed, 
by  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the 
earth,    before     it    had    become 


er  fituation,  when  the  ground  is 
thawed.  The  froft  docs  more 
than  tillage,  and  perhaps  more 
than  rains,  or  fermentation,  to- 
wards cauling  the  more  ponder- 
ous parts  of  the  foil  (or  ponder- 
ous bodies  in  the  foil)  to  fubfide, 
or  fink. 

The  froft  may  have  another  in- 
fluence in    increafing  the  com- 


compart    and   folid.      But   this  I  paffnefs   of  the   under  ftratum. 


Ifratum  being  moreconffant  and 
rc;^ular,  the  forniition  of  it,  if  I 
milfake  not,  (hould  be  afcribed 
to  other  caufes.  If  we  fuppofe 
that  this  and  the  foil  above  were 
intermixed,  and  of  one  confift- 
cnce  after  the  creation,  the  pan 
muft  have  been  formed  long  be- 


As  the  froft  expands  the  foil^  the 
prelfure  of  it  downward  is  in- 
creafed  ;  by  which  preflurc,  the 
matter  of  which  the  pan  confifts, 
is  made  mcft  clofe  and  hard,  like 
earth  that  has  been  violently  ram- 
med. But  this  perhaps  can  take 
place,  only  when  the  frozen  ftra- 


forc  this  time,  by  the  fubfidiiig  •  tuni  is  held  down  by  ftrong  ob- 


of  the  more  ponderous  parts  of 
the  foil.  For  it  has  been  often  ob- 
fer\"cd,  that  clay,  chalk,  and  lime, 
which  have  been  laid  on  as  ma- 
nures, after  fome  years,  difap- 
pcar  from  the  furtace,  and  are 
found  a  foot  or  more  bencaili  it. 
Rains,  and  fermentations  in  the 
foil,  make  way  for  the  defccntof 
the  heavicil  particles  contained 
in  the  foil. 

It  ts  in  f.ivourof  thishypotbe- 
fis,  that  the  pin  under  the  foil 
moll  commonly  bears  an  affinity 
to  the  foil  it  felt.     Under  a  grav- 

*    Ft 


jetts,  which  reach  far  below  the 
froft  and  pan  ;  as  the  ftumps  of 
large  trees  deeply  rooted,  large 
rocks,  8cc. 

But  it  will  be  objected,  that 
fome  foils  appear  to  have  no  pan 
under  them.  Fo  anfwer  this,  it 
may  be  faid,  that  perhaps  fome 
foils  were  originally  roadc  up  oi 
|)articlcs  equally  ponderous  ;  fo 
that  one  had  iio  more  tendency 
to  fuhfide  than  another.  Or  el(c 
the  loofenels  and  openncf*  of  the 
under  earth  r.\  fuch  places,  w..-s 
fo  great  that  it  could  not  ftop  the 
ponderous 


242  PAN 

ponderous  pj^rts  of  the  foil  in  their 
defccnt  ;  fo  that  they  have  been 
difpcrfed  among  the  locic  earth, 
and  part  ot  them  gone  to  a  very 
great  depth. 

If  I  have  given  a  jtift-account 
of  the  formation  of  the  pan,  will 
it  not  follow,  that  this  under  Itra- 
tum  is  lefs  penetrable  in  cold 
than  in  ^^-arm  latitudes,,  when 
made  of  like  materials  ?  So  tar 
2s  my  obfervation  has  extended, 
this  appears  to  be  the  cafe.  It 
ought  alfo  to  be  lower  in  the 
earth,  and  the  foil  deeper  ;  and 
future  obfervdtians  may  convince 
us  that  this  alfo  is  iati. 

Another  corollary  may  be. 
That  deeper  plci-.ghing  than  ih 
iifually  practii'ed  in  this  country 
would  be  proper.  For  it  feems 
that  nature  defigncd  all  the  flra- 
ta  above  the  pan  to  ferve  forpaf- 
tiue  of  plants.  And  it  is  well 
known  that  the  more  it  is  llirnd 
and  mixed,  the  fitter  it  is  for  this 
purpofe  ;  not  only  becaufe  it  lies 
the  more  Icofc  and  open,  but  be- 
caufe the  more  of  the  food  of 
plants  will  be  contained  in  it^ 

Such  a  ftratura,  at  a  riglit  dif- 
tance  from  tlie  furface,  is  a  great 
benefit  to  the  foil.  For,  as  no 
manures  can  eafily. penetrate  it, 
they  muft  remain  in  a  good  fitu- 
ation  to  be  taken  up  by  the  roots 
of  vegetables.  But  where  there 
is  no  compact  under  llratum.,un- 
lefs  at  a  great  depth,  manures  laid 
upon  the  foil  are  partly  lolt. 
Hence  appears  the  great  propri- 
ety of  claying  and  marling  fuch 
foils.  In  a  long  courfe  of  til- 
fage,  thefc  drcllnigs  will  fubilde, 
and  do  fomething  towards  form- 
ing the  llratum  that  is  wanted. 

But  to  form  a  good  under  ftra- 
tum  at  once,  where.it  is  wanted, 
let  one  hundred  or  more  loads  ot 
clay  be  fpread  on  an  acre  of 
fandy  grafs  land.  After  it  has 
iain,  fpread  upon  the  furface  one 


PAN 

;  winter,  let  it  be  made  perfectff 
:  fine  and  even  by  a  bufh  harrow, 
I  and  rolled.  Afterwards  turn  if 
,  under  with  a  very  deep  plough- 
I  ing.  This  will  'greatly  afhfl  a 
'.  weak  dry  foil  to  retain  moilture, 
and  to  hold  tlie  manures  that  fhall 
i  be  given  it.  It  will  be  a  lading 
I  benefit.  But  this  ploughing 
j  fhould  be  done  at  a  time,  when 
I  the  clay  is  fo  damp  that  it  will 
[  turn  over  in  whole  flakes. 
I  When  a  plot  of  ground  intend- 
I  ed  for  a  garden  wants  an  under 
i  ftratum,  it  may  be  advi fable  to 
I  dig  trenches  four  feet  wide,  and 
j  place  a  regular  bed  of  clay  in  the 
j  bottom.  The  fecond  trench  may 
i  be  contiguous  to  the  firll,  and  the 
]  fjrft  be  filled  up  with  the  earth 
I  that  is  tsken  but  ot  the  fecond  ; 
;  and  fo  on  till  the  whole  work  is 
•completed. 

Some  have  put  themfelves  to 
I  the  expcnfcof  this  operation,  on- 
j  fy  with  a  view  to  get  rid  of  all 
I  the  ix;sd  of  weeds  in  a  garden 
I  which  had  long  lain  neglefted, 
placing  the  upper  part  of  the  foil 
at  the  bottom. 

!  PANAX,  GINSENG,  or 
NINSENG.  As  this  plant  is  a 
native  of  our  country,  and  is  be- 
come a  confiderable  article  of 
commerce,  I  think  it  isneceffary 
that  every  one  fhould  know  how 
to  diff  inguilh  it  from  all  other 
plants  when  he  meets  with  it.  I 
defire  therefore  to  entertain  the 
reader  with  Mr.  Miller's  account 
of  it. 

"  It  hath  male  and  hermaphro- 
dite flowers  on  diflinct  plants. 
The  male  have  fimple  globular 
umbels,  compofed  of  feveral 
coloured  rays,  which  are  equal. 
The  flower  hath  five  narrow,  ob- 
long, blunt  petals,  which  are  re- 
flexed,  fitting  on  the  empalement, 
and  five  oblong  flender  ftamina 
inferted  in  the  empalement,  ter- 
minated by  fiagle  fummits.  The 
hermaphrodite 


PAN  PAR  243 

efllve  U- 
r  inind  ; 
.   ot   the 


hermaphroditeiimbelsarefiinplc,     nefs  occafioi^ed  by  exdtfllve  ta- 

..  .1.1     in. I   .-iiid  I.  *  •  f'-..^  ■  1  ■>.     f  »iif»v   «-!ihi-r  .\f  li.iK    <■![•  n)in(i  * 


which  tali  V  1   in  ihc 


J!)-     a»a,  uuu  II  prui^n^iN  lilc  m  old 
■4   art     age." 


iiiuj  .aiu  IccJ.  ,  CJliicj     jailcU     ill    t:iglj:id,     cr 

*■  ire,   1.    Pannx  '  brought  from   America.     None 

feeds  V  >w.     He 

esthehr;  :;tcpljnts 

ctiu,  :nc    oi     the  nialit 

'^.   1  3   near   lijein,   to 

;  or    panax     with    tuicc      ictuicr   tiic  Iced  prolifick.  ;    for 

leave;.  ;  II    the    plants    he    laved    feed 

'  iioti  had   only    heramphrodite 

.illy  in  N  ,  rs. 

.^eneraiiy  ntiicvcd  to  be  the  PA.NIC,  «;r  PAN'NIC,  a  kind 
la:nc  as  ti:i'  J.i;:.;iMM  Gnit,  rjc-  rf  srraiii  tl;  ,t  rtfernh!es'  millet, 
it  has  a  :  ;;ie   lame   ciihure. 


:njli 

•y 

a  li 
are 

1:1: 

1    u::. 

Ih? 

ot 

»n  !; 

k.         i. 

r  an 

-.;.  f;,.ij_ 

"  r.» 

.   wl  .    »     .                X     . 

ail  ii '      r*i  11 

■i    ii 

'  be  large 

d  beiicr  t 

icf- 
md 

:>-rd 

in 

depends  rauck  upcm  tiieir 

m  that  It   IS  a  ii  ihcv   br 

;    lor  all  wealv-     ti:cv    will   ;   ■ 


244  PAR 

fize..  I  fow  them  in  rows  acrofs 
the  beds,  15  inches  apart,  and  al- 
low about  fix  inches  trom  plant 
to  plant  at  the  lall  thinning, 
which  may  be  early,  as  they  are 
not  often  hurt  by  infefb.  I  have 
feldom  known  any  tpbedeftroy- 
cd  by  them. 

The  feeds  fhould  be  fowed  as 
early  as  in  March,  it  the  ground 
be  thawed,  and  not  too  wet. 
Some  fow  them  in  the  fall  ;  but 
that  is  not  a  good  practice,  be- 
caufe  the  ground  will  grow  too 
clofe  and  ftiff,  for  want  of  llir- 
ring  in  the  fpring  ;  which  can- 
not well  be  performed  in  gar- 
dens, without  danger  of  in- 
5uring  the  roots.  And  weeds 
vill  be  more  apt  to  abound  a- 
mong  them,  it  they  be  fown  in 
autumn. 

The  manure  that  is  ufed  for 
parineps  fhould  be  very  fine  and 
rotten,  and  quite  free  from  flraws 
and  lumps  ;  otherwife  it  will 
caufe  the  roots  to  be  forked, 
■which  is  a  great  dainage  to  them. 
They  require  but  little  manure, 
as  they  draw  much  of  their  nour- 
ifhment  from  a  great  depth. 
What  manure  is  given  ihcm, 
ihould  be  fpread  before  digging 
the  ground,  thattlome  of  it  at  leaft 
may  go  deep.  They  do  not  iin- 
poverifh  the  foil.  I  have  raifed 
them  near  thirty  years  in  the  fame 
fpot,  on  a  foil  not  naturally  rich, 
and  with  a  very  flight  yearly 
drefhng.  The  crops  are  better 
than  they  were  at  firll  :  And  the 
earth  is  become  very  black  to  a 
great  depth. 

Parfheps  will  continue  grow- 
ing fo  late  as  till  the  tops  are  kill- 
ed by  the  froft,  if  not  longer. 
Some  let  them  remais  in  the 
ground  through  the  winter,  ex- 
posing that  they  will  grow  larger 
in  that  feafon.  But  it  is  not  pof- 
fible  they  fhould  grow  at  all,  fo 
•long  as  they  art  enclofcd  with 


PAR 

the  frozen  foil.  Tbcy  may  pof- 
fibly  grow  a  little  in  tLc  fpring, 
before  there  is  oppojtuiiiiy  to 
take  them  up,  if  they  efcape  rot- 
ting. But  their  growing  will  be 
chiefly  fprouting  at  the  top,  which 
hurts  them  for  eating.  As  foon 
as  they  begin  to  fprout,  which 
will  be  as  foon  as  the  ground  is 
thawed,  they  will  begin  to  grow 
tough,  and  to  have  a  bitterifh  tafte. 
The  befl  way  is  to  dig  them  up 
about  the  lafl  of  November,  or  in 
the  beginning  ot  December.  Let 
them  not  be  wounded,  or  fo  much 
as  touched  with  the  fpade  in  do- 
ing it,  it  it  can  be  avoided  ;  nei- 
ther fhould  the  tops  be  cut  off  very 
clofe  to  the  roots,  nor  any  of  the 
lateral  roots  cut  off.  In  either 
cafe  the  roots  will  rot,  or  become 
bitter. 

Many  lofe  their  parfneps,  or 
make  them  fprout,  by  putting 
them  into  a  warm  cellar.  It  is 
better  to  keep  them  in  lome  out 
houfe,  or  in  a  cellar  that  freezes  ; 
for  no  degree  of  froft  ever  hurts 
them.  But  to  prevent  their  dry- 
ing too  much,  it  is  befl -to  cover 
them  with  dry  fods,  or  clfe  biuy 
them  in  fandthai  has  no  nioifture 
in  it,  Beach  fand  is  improper, 
becaufe  the  fait  in  it  will  make 
them  vegetate. 

It  is  fdid  by  European  writers, 
that  parfneps  are  an  excellent 
food  for  fuine,  and  ufeful  tor 
feeding  and  fattening  all  forts  ot 
cattle. 

If  we  would  cultivate  them  tor 
thcfe  purpofes,  the  horfc  hoeing 
liufbandry  mult  be  applied.  Tiie 
ground  mufl  be  trcncii  ploughed 
in  October,  and  all  the  ftones 
carefully  ta'tv  11  out.  Tbetiench 
ploughing  mufl  be  repeated  be- 
fore the  end  of  No\  ember,  the 
foil  made  fine  by  harrowing,  laid 
in  beds  of  trom  three  to  four  feet 
wide,  and  fown  by  a  line  in  drills 
on  the  middle  of  the  bedi.   There 


PAS 

way  be  cither  one  or  two  rows 
on  a  bed.    If  there  hr  {wo,  Vivy 
liiouldbetii!!  twcl\c . 
aiui  the  intervals  prt., 
wider. 

Autumnal  fowing  in  t})e  field 
culture  is  not  amiis,  as  the  ground 
is  to  be  k"rt  ^^^t  'v  horif  hoe- 
ing. In  ;!X»UTul 

ihould '  ruc 

plough  Ihouid  go  twice  m  a  fur- 
row. At  the  lall  ploughing,  the 
furrows  ihould  be  turned  towards 
the  rows. 

PASTURE, according  to  the 
langtuge  oi  tarnicrs  in  this  coun- 
try, means  land  m  grals,  tor  the 
iummcr  feeding  of  cattle. 

To  manage  palhire  land  ad\-an- 
tageoufly,  it  Ihould  b«  well  fenc- 
od  in  imail  lots,  of  four,  eight  or 
twelve    acres,  according   to  the 
largencfs  ol  one's  farm  and  flock. 
And  thelc  lots  (hould  be  border-  ' 
«-d  at  leafl  with  rows  of  trees.     It  ' 
is  befl  that  trees  of  fon:c  kind  or  ' 
other  Ihould  be  growing  fcatter-  j 
cd  in  every  point  of  a  palf  are,  fo  j 
that  the  cattle  may   never   have  j 
iar  to  go  in  a  hot  hour  to   obtain  | 
a  c;^mtortable  Ihade.     The  grals 
wili  ;:  licr  in  lots  that  are  ' 

thu«.  .  ..  and  they  will  bear  I 

drcugii;     ii,c     better.     But     too  I 
^rejt  a  proportion  of  Ihade  Ihould  | 
us  II  will  give  a  four-  I 


be  avoided, 
nefs  to  the  grafi. 

Smill  lot*,  thus  fhelterrd,  are 
not  left  bare  ut  inow  lo  early  in 
the  fpnng  as  larger  ones  lying 
bare,  as  fences  and  trees  cauie 
r'.<)re  of  rt  to  remain  upon  the 
Kroiind.  The  cold  wir^ds  in 
N!  -ch  and  April  l.'.iii  ttu?  gr^fs 
I  ;.  !i  when  the  ground  i^  bare. 
A     .  the  winds  in  winter  will  not 

'  r  fnow  to  lie  deep   on    laua 
IS  too  open   to  the  rake  of 
V.    .Jsand  ffcnns. 

It  is  hurtful  to  pafturrs  to  turn 
in  cattle  too  early  :•■       •  '    'i^g  :  i 
And moft hurtful  tf  .  .;rc» 


P  A  S  f^ 

I  in  which  the  grafs  Ipringi  earli- 

rik   as  in   very  low  .md  wet  pal- 

'  lT  Inch  land  in  the 

>  s    the    fu  ard,    fi» 

that    It    Will    produce    the   lefs 

auantity      of    grals.        Neither 

mould    cattle   be    let    into   anv 

paflure,  until  the  grafs  is  (o  much 

grown  as  to  afford  them  a  good 

bite,  fo  that  they  may  fill  them- 

fclves  without  rambling  over  the 

whole  lot.      I  he  aoth  of  May  is 

early   enough  to  turn  cattle  into 

I  almoft  any  of  our  palfures.    Out 

;  of  fome  they  fhoufd  be  keut  lai- 

;  er.     The  dried  pallures   mould 

I  be  ufcd  firft,  though  in  them  the 

;  grafs  is  Ihortcft,  that  the  potch- 

'  ing  of  the  ground  in  the  wettell 

may  be  prevented. 

j       The   biifhcs   and    fhrubs   that 

rife  in  pallures,  ihould  be  cut  in 

•  the  moll  likely  times  to  deflroy 

■  them.     Thiftles,  and  other   bail 

'  weeds,  Ihould  Ik;  cut  down  be- 

'  fore  their  feeds   have    ripened  ; 

j  and  ant  hills  Ihould  be  deflroy- 

j  ed.      Much    may    be  done    to- 

j  wards  fubduing  a  bufhy  paffurc, 

I  by  keeping  cattle  hungry   in  it. 

A    continual     biowling     keeps 

'  down    the    young    Ihoots,    and 

I  totally    kills   many  of  the  bulh- 

I  es.  Srcprs  and  lieifers  may  mend 

fuch     a^  pallurc,   and    continue 

growing. 

But  as  to  ciear^'d  pallures,  it  is 
not  right  to  turn  in  all  forts  of  cat- 
tle promilcuouUy.  Milch  kine, 
working  oxen,  and  fjttingbeafis, 
fhould  have  the  hrft  feeding  of 
an  cncloluie.  .afterwards,  Iheep 
and  horlcs.  When  the  firft  lot 
IS  thus  fed  ofi,  it  Ihould  be  liiut 
up,  and  the  dung  that  has  been 
<lropped  Ihould  be  beat  to  pieces, 
and  well  flattered.  Afterwards, 
the  lecond  p^fturc  lhi»uld  be 
treated  in  the  iame  manner,  and 
the  rcH  in  courfe,  feeding  the 
wctteft  paflure  after  the  tiriefl, 
tliJU  the  loll  may  be  lefs  p<it>  bed. 
b«nic  clung 


246 


PAS 


Sometliing  confidera^le  is  fav- 
ed  by  letting  all  forts  of  grazing 
animals  take-their  turn  in  a  paf- 
turc.  By  means  of  this,  nearly 
all  the  herbage  produced  will  be- 
eaten  ;  niuch  of  which  would 
otherwife  be  loft.  Korfes  will 
eat  the  leavings  of  horned  cattle; 
and  Iheep  will  eat  fome  things 
that  both  the  one  and  the  other 
leave. 

.  But  if  in  acourfeof  pafturing, 
by  means  of  a  fruittul  year,  or  a 
fcanty  i\ock.  of  cattle,  fome  grafs 
of  a  good  kind  fhould  run  up  to 
feed,  and  not  be  eaten,  it  need 
not  be  regretted  ;  for  a  new  fup- 
ply  of  feed  wilTfiU  the  ground 
•with  new-  roots,  which  are  better 
than  old  ones.  And  I  know  oi 
no  grafs  that  never  needs  renew- 
ing from  tlie  iecd. 

A  farnT^r  needs  not  to  be  told, 
that  if  he  turn  fwine  into  a  paf- 
tnre",  th'ey  Ihould  have  rings  in 
their  riofes,  unlefs  brakes  and 
oiher  weeds  need  to  be  rooted 
out.  Swine  may  do  feryice  in 
this  way.  They  fhould  never 
have  the  firft  of  the  feed  ;  for 
they  will  foul  the  grafs,  and 
make  it  diilafteful  to  horfes  and 
cattle. 

Let  the  flock  of  a  farmer  be 
greater  or  lefs,  he,  fhould  haveat 
leafl  four  enclofures  of  palture 
land.  One  enclofure  may  be 
fed  two  weeks,  and  then  ihut  up 
to  grow.  Then  another.  Each 
one  willrecruitwell  infix  weeks ; 
and  each  will  have  tiiis  fpace  of. 
time  to  recruit.  But  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  Odober,  the  cattle 
may  range  through  all  the  lots, 
unlefs  fome  one  may  have  be- 
come too  wet  andfoft.  In  this 
cafe,  it  ought  to  be  ffiut  up,  and 
keptfo  till  feedingtime  the  next 
year. 

But  that  farmers  may  notte 
troubled  with  low  miry  paflures, 
they  fhould  drain  them,  it  it  be 


PAS 

prafticable,or  can  be  done  confift- 
ently  with  their  other  bufmefs. 
If  they  fhould  produce  a  fmalier 
quantity  of  grafs  afterwards,  it 
will  be  fwecter,  and  of  more 
value.  It  is  well  known,  that 
cattle  fatted  in  a  dry  paflure, 
have  better  tafled  flefh  than  thofe 
which  are  fatted  in  a  wet  one.  Iii 
the  old  countries  it  will  fetch  a 
higher  price.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  cafe  as  to  mutton. 

Feeding  paftures  in  rotation,  is 
of  greater  advantage  than  fome 
are  apt  to  imagine.  One  acre, 
managed  according  to  the  above 
directions,  will  turn  to  better  ac- 
count, as  fome  fay  who  have  prac- 
tifed  it,  than  three  acres  in  the 
common  way.  By  the  com»- 
mon  way  I  would  be  underflood 
to  mcfsn,  having  weak  and  tot- 
tering fences,  that  will  drop  ot 
themfelves  in  a  few  months,  and 
never  can  refift  the  violence  of 
diforderly  cattle ;  fuffering  weeds. , 
and  bufhes  to  overrun  the  laud  j 
keeping  all  the  pafture  land  in 
one  -enclofure  ;  turning  in  all 
forts  of  ft ock  together  ;  lulTering 
the  fence  to  drop  down  in  au- 
tumn, fo  as  to  lay  the  pafture 
common  to  all  the  fwlne  and 
cattle  that  pleafe  to  enter  ;  and 
not  putting  up  the  fence  again 
till  the  firft  of  May,  or  later. 
Such  management  is  too  com- 
mon iriall  the  parts  of  this  country 
with  which  I  am  moft  acquainted. 
I  would  fiopc  it  is  not  univerfal. 

Land  which  is  conflantly  ufed. 
as  pafture,  will  be  enriched. 
Therefore  it  is  advi fable  to  mow  a 
pafture  'oi  once  in  three  or  four 
years,  if  the  fuvface  be  fo  level 
as  to  admit  of  it.  In  the  mean 
time,  to  make  amends  for  the 
lofs  of  pafture,  a  mowing  lot 
may  be  paftured.  It  will  thus  be 
improved  :  And  if  the  grafs  do 
not  grow  fo  rank  afterwards  in 
the  pafture  lot,  it .  V'iU  be  more 

clear 


PAS 

*"lcar  of  weeds,  and  bear  better 
^rafx.  Alternate  pallurinc;  and 
mowing  has  the  advAiiiageof 
fjving  a  good  deil  of  expenfc 
and  trouble,  in  rjiiuiring  the 
moivini^  gr(nitid<i. 

Tho'ig!i  pafltires  need  manur- 
ing leis  th  in  other  lands,  yet, 
when  bu!h;'s,  bid  weeds,  Sec.  are 
burnt  upon  them.theafhcs  (hould 
be  fpread  thinly  over  the  furface. 
The  prafs  will  thus  be  improv- 
ed :  And  grafs  feeds  (hould  be 
fown  upon  tlie  burnt  fpots,  that 
no  -.  he  varant  of  »rafs. 

I  K  r/- PLAN  rS.  or 

l\ij}ti>y,    that  part   of 
x  in  which  the  roots  of 
pla:l:^  extend  and  receive  their 
nourifhmcnt.     This  is  pr«)pcrly 
their  natural  paflurc.     liut  more 
commonly  thcfe  exprcilions  in- 
tend that  depth  of  foil  which  is 
f*?rred,  and  rcndcrvd  fo  loofe  by 
liat   tlie  roots  of  tender 
iosealily  penetrate  it,  as 
ttie>'  extend  themfelves  in  qucft 
of  nourifhrnetit. 

Within  certain  limits,  the 
greater  qtiantity  of  paflurc  a 
plant  has,  the  greater  advantage 
It  has  to  get  nourilhment.  But 
fome  require  a  greater,  and  fome 
a  lei's  qiun'iv  nf  njfture,  ac- 
cording t^ :  •  to  which 
their  roots  a:  !  to  extend. 
Therefore,  I  fhould  be 
placed  at  grca..  .  ^  .uices  than 
others.  The  farmer  (hould  be 
able  todeierminethcfediftances, 
with  refpcrt  to  every  plant  that 
he  cultivates  ;  becaufe  the  large- 
nefs  of  his  crops  in  fjrne  in-jaf- 
urc  '  's  on  it.  He  (ho.il  1 
the.  '  nd  to  the  conftrur- 
ture   ot     iiie    roots   of  diffcrcr'.l 

{►lants  ;  and  ohfervc  to  what 
engthtliclr      '•      •<;  extend. 

But  ns  «!'.  ■  )■  fibres  of 

■10 if  lie  lo   i.uall,  and  fo 

im;  ,   with-  the  colour  ()t 

the  lull,  ai  to  becomo^Qvidblc 


PAS  147 

near  their  extremities;  the  fol- 
lowing experiment  is  adapted 
to  throw  much  more  light  on 
this  lubject,  than  any  examina- 
tion ot  the  roots  by  the  eye. 

In  a  foil  that  is  become  hard 
and  bound  by  lying,  let  a  triangle 
be  marked  on  the  grouiui,  forty 
yards  ilie  length  of  the  f:  ■  -  1 
tour  yards  the  Icttgthol 
Let  the  foil  it  includes  uc  wcil 
dug  and  pulvcrifed.  Then 
draw  a  Ime  fo  as  to  bifc6l  the 
bafc  and  the  acute  angle.  Oa 
this  line,  at  equal  diftanccs,  plant 
the  (<cds,  give  them  the  ufual 
culture,  obicrve  their  growth, 
and  fee  at  what  breadth  the  plants 
arrive  to  their  grcateft  growtli. 
It  they  do  fo  m  that  part  of 
the  triangle  which  is  four  lect 
wide,  it  will  follow  that  the 
plant  has  fent  its  roots  tw>j  feet 
on  each  (ifle,  and  from  that  dil"- 
tance  drawn  part  of  its  nounfli- 
ment.  Mr.  Tull,  in  his  experi- 
ment, made  ufe  of  the  feeds  of 
turnip  :  But  other  feeds  may 
ferve  as  well  ;  and  it  miglit  be 
advantageous  to  make  trial  with 
many  kinds  of  feed. 

I  do  not  recommend  that  all 
plants,  which  extend  their  roots 
as  much  as  two  feet,  lliould  be 
placed  four  feet  apart.  Doubt- 
lefs  the  capillary  roots  may  in- 
termix, to  a  certain  length,  with- 
out robbing  eacii  other  to  fuch  a 
degree  as  to  injure  the  crop  ef- 
fentially  :  But  the  comparati^'C 
di  {fanccs  at  which  lifferent  plants 
ought  to  grow,  may  in  tliis  way 
be  afgertaine*!  with  exa^fncfs. 

Another  thing  which  ought  to 
he  determined,  is,  what  depth  ot 
paflurc  different  plants  require. 
For  this  purpofe,  let  one  bed  be 
dug  nine  inches  tleep,  another 
of  equal  dimenfions.  and  foil, 
twelve,  and  another  fifteen.  Let 
t!ic  three  haU  be  ftt  with  equal 
uumb«rs  of  the  fame  kinds  oi 
feeds  ; 


fi48  PAS 

feeds  ;  and  let  tlie  pro  luce  be 
compared.  If  it  be  found  that 
the  excefs  in  the  crop  \v\\l  not 
pay  for  extra  tillage,  the  extra 
tillage  fhould  be  avoided  for  the 
future.  But  the  cxperinnent 
iliould  be  made  t\v-ovearsin  fuc- 
celDon,wiihout  Ihifting  the  beds  ; 
becaufe  the  dcepefl  part  of  the 
foil  will  be  in  better  order  the 
lecond  year  than  the  firft,  in  larid 
which  has  not  before  been  dug 
to  that  depth.  The  refult  might 
be  with  the  more  fafeiy  depend- 
ed on,  if  the  trials  were  made 
three  years  in  fuccefTion. 

And  there  will  flil!  he   fome 
danger  of  drawing   too   haffy  a 
conclufion,  if  another   thing  be 
not   confidereil,    which    is,   that 
pl'ants,  which  ffand   fo   near  to- 
gether as  to  be  (oiiiewhat  crowd- 
ed, will   alter    the  natural    form 
of    their  roots,    and  point  more  i 
downward,  when  there  is  a  plen-  I 
ty  of  artificial  paifure  below  theni.  '■ 
So  that  deep  tillage  will  render  j 
it  proper  to  fet  plants  proportion-  j 
ably  nearer  together.     The  beds  i 
Ihould  therefore  be  dug  the  fourth 
year  as    before.     If  the  firll  in-  I 
elude  one  hundred  plants,  let  the  j 
fecond  include  one  hundred  and  | 
fifty,  and  the  third  two  hundred,  j 
I  fuppofeail  the  beds  to  be  equally  j 
mamired,  and  equal    in    dinien-  i 
fions.as  well  as  equally  pulverif-  } 
ed,  and  to  the  faiiie  depth  as  be-  i 
lore,   and    equally  tended    after  I 
fowing.     Thenby  comparingthe  , 
produce,  it  may  be    determined  i 


PAS 

fame  depth.     If  the  tillage  difTer, 
the  crops  will  differ  in  proportion. 
But  I  will  next  obferve,  that 
there  are  three  ways   of  increaf- 
ing  theartificijl  paifure  of  plants : 
One  is  tilling  the  land  to  a  great- 
er depth,  by  means  of  which   a 
greater  quantity  of  foil,  under  a 
given  furface,  is  employed  in  the 
bufinefsof  vegetation  :  Another 
is  A  more  perfect  tillage,  by  which 
the  number  of  little  cavities  in 
the  foil  are  increaled,  fo  that  the 
roots    may    come    into    contact 
with  a  greater  quantity  of  vegeta- 
able  food,  more  or  lefs  of  which 
is  contained  in  the  lliffeft  parts 
i  of  the  foil  :  The  third  is  apply- 
'  ing  fuch  manures  as  raife  a  fer- 
!  mentation  in  the  foil,  by  which 
j  its  parts  are  well  broken  and  di- 
'  vided,  and  kept  in  that  flate  till 
I  the   fermentation  ends,  and    for 
^  fome  time  after,  till  the  foil  has 
had  time  to  fubfide. 

Tillage  and  manure  are  both 
requifite  to  pulverife  the  foil. 
^Vithout  the  former,  the  manure 
cannot  be  properly  mixed  with 
the  loil  ;  and  tillage  alone  will 
not  anfwer,  not  even  in  land  con- 
fiderably  ftored  with  the  food  of 
plants,  unlefs  it  be  often  repeat- 
ed while  the  crop  is  growing  : 
Becaufe  the  foil  that  is  only  till- 
ed, loon  fettles,  and  becomes  too 
compaibt  ;  unlefs  manure  be  ap- 
plied, which  will  keep  up  a  fer- 
mentation, fometimes  for  feveral 
months,  l;efides  increafing  the 
vegetable  food.     Anv  one  mav 


whether  making  a  deep  paifure  !  obferve,  that  dunged  land  feel;? 
for  the  roots  be  really  advi<nta- j  fofter  to  the  foot,  than  land  which 
geous.  and  to  what  deprh  the  I  has  not  been  dunged,  when  both 
ground  ought  to  be  Icofened,  as  i  have  had  equal  tillage.  The  form- 
well  as  at  what  diltancc  the  plants  j  er  therefore  will  afford  more  nour- 
ought  to  be  fet.        '  4  j  ilhment    for   the  plants  growing 

I    have  here  gone   upon    the  |  in    it,   behdes   the   nounlhment 
fuppofitioii     that    the     beds   be  I  contained  in  the  dung, 
equally   pulverifed  :  For,  if  not.         Indeed   there  is    one  kind  of 
thequantity  ofpafture  inane,may     foil,  which,  inftead  of  being  too 
bedoublciotlminanother.in  thcj  clolc,  is  too  pufTy  and  porous  to 

be. 


?  E  A 

\)c  a  fuiuble  pallure  for  pbnts. 
The  iuierftices  arc  lo  largo,  that 
the  roots  will  iu)t  pals  through 
them.  We  fuinetimes  meet 
with  fuch  a  foil  ia  drained 
fwamps.  This  foil  mull  be 
'  '        '     ■  d  to  make 

,.aa.  Til- 
kug  u  ii^lp.  lo  '.:'A  up  the  vacui- 
ties ;  and  in  the  |>bcr  ofone  large 
one.maiiyfn:  arc  form- 

ed, of  a  fize  m  .  Ic  to  facil- 

V.-  -•  :  !.c"  (Arc  :i;.^i:i  ol  i  oots. 

a  w  I  kindot  truii  trees, 

of\.  •  is  yet  no  great  va- 

riety ui  this  country.  Mr.  Miller 
reckons  no  lefs  than  31  forts,  bc- 
fidcs  a  number  oi  lefs  valae. 
We  have  room  for  making  very 
great  improvements,  it  feems,  in 
the  culture  of  this  fruit.  What 
yfc  call  the  rareripe,  is  almoil 
the  only  fort  1  have  feen,  that 
is  worth  cultivating  :  And  this 
kind,  within  thirty  years  pafl, 
feoms  to  have  greatly  degenerat- 
ed. I  apprehend  it  is  time  that 
tliefe  were  renewed,  by  bringing 
the  trees  or  iloiies  from  fonie 
other  coimtry. 

Peach  trees  (houMbc  cultivat- 
ed near  to  fir  \n  tlie  borders   o* 


ijuu  inai 
cd  on  the 
tree,  anu  <i  in  October, 

three  in^  .r  the  furfacc. 

The  trees  may  alio  be  propagat- 
v(l\>\  irujculaiinguj>onpluinsand 
Tins  will  undoubicd- 


t^,...,-,    l,w 


\ 

roou    (l 
diort,  ai. 
at  a  goo^: 
drawmui.. 

irom  a  great  U(.  ;.'.h.  the  fap  will 
be  crudr,  ' 

^-xkI.   a       .  .     .  . 


igcr  lived, 
aretranfpljnt- 
t  Ihoot  ot  the 
pruned    very 

' be  left 

trees 
::   r.')ur;iiimeiii 


PEA  24^ 

of  a  warmer  climate  they  ough** 
to  have  a  fouthern  expofure. 
They  Ihould  a  Ho  be  fcreened 
fromthcdirett  influence  of  north, 
and  nortbcafteriy  winds. 

llic  foil  that  (uitsihem  befl  is 
a  dry  liglit  loam  ;  and  the  fur- 
face  Ibould  be  conftaniiy  tilled; 
and  moderately  manured  with 
old  rotten  dung. 

It  too  great  a  quantity  of 
peaches  appear  on  the  trees,  [o 
as  to  crowd  each  other,  they 
fliould  be  fpeedily  thinned,  by- 
taking  off  the  poorell  :  For  if 
they  be  fufFercd  all  to  remain  on 
the  tree,  much  ot  the  fruit  will 
drop  off  unripe  :  What  remains 
will  not  be  fo  perfect,  and  per- 
haps fewer  in  number. 

As  the  fruit  grows  not  on  fpursv 
but  on  the  Ihoots  made  in  the 
laft  preceding  year.  Mr.  Milbr 
dirc6b,that  the  new  Ihoots  Ihould 
be  fliortencd,  by  cutting  ilierai 
yearly  in  October,  leaving  them 
f  rom  five  to  eight  inches  in  lencjtlj, 
according  as  they  are  weaker  or 
lironger.  I  have  prattifed  this 
method  of  cutting  in  October 
tor  fcveral  years  ;  wliich  lias 
caufed  trees,  ^v!lich  were  before 
barren,  to  bear  feme  tViiit.  And 
'  ixcthatt'  :  [he 


lenot  fo 


-.  th 


lioilin  winter.  But  the  trees  hav« 
now  become  fickly  and  barren. 

PEARTRLKS.P>77/j.  Pcarg 
have  a  nearer  aHiniiy  to  quinces 
than  to  apples  :  For  a  pear  cion 
will  grow  and  profper  upon  a 
quince  flock,  but  not  fo  well  upon 
an  apple  :  And  a  quince  cion  will 
grow  upon  a  pear  flock. 

The  vail  variety  of  pears, 
which  are  cuhivated  in  the 
world,  have  been  o!  '  iuim 

the   feeds,  which,  i  of 

the   apple.    \\    '  c    truit 

tices  din<-i<iii  •   parent 

;e- 
♦  .        -    .  n-- 


^50  PEA 

ed  fruit  trees.  So  that  all  the 
beft  grafted  fruits  have  been, 
forae  time  or  other,  produced  by 
nature  itfelf :  And  though  the 
fruits  vary,  there  is  not  a  fpecifi- 
cal  difference. 

Though  the  pear  will  grow 
upon  the  quince,  or  even  upon 
the  white  thorn,  it  fiiould  not  be 
grafted  on  the  former,  unlefs  it 
be  for  dwarf  trees,  and  in  no 
cafe  upon  the  latter.  The  ftock 
©f  the  thorn  will  not  grow  to  fo 
large  a  fize  as  the  cion  %vill  : 
The  trees  will  therefore  be  top 
heavy,  and  fliort  lived,  as  I  have 
found  by  experience.  There- 
fore it  is  beft  in  general,  that  pears 
fhould  be    grafted    upon  pears. 

The  propagation  of  pear  trees 
from  the  feeds,  and  the  culture 
of  them  in  nurferies,  do  not  dif- 
fer from  the  propagation  and 
culture  of  apple  trees.  See  Nnr^ 
Jiry. 

Pear  trees  bear  fruit  to  the  ends 
oi  the  laft  year's  fhoots,  as  v,'ell 
as  upon  the  fpurs.  Therefore, 
the  new  flioots  fhould  not  be 
Ihortened,  left  the  fruit  be  di- 
minifhed  :  And,  for  the  fame 
r«afon,  thefe  trees  fhould  never 
ftand  fo  near  together  as  to 
crowd  each  other.  But  the  dif- 
tance  at  which  the  trees  are  to 
be  fet  in  an  orchard,  or  in  a  grove, 
depends  partly  upon  the  nature 
of  the  trees,  as  fome  gro^/  larger 
than  others  ;.  and  partly  upon 
the  fruitfulnefs  of  the  foil.  In 
general  they  may  be  allowed  to 
Hand  nearer  together  than  apple 
trees.  Thefe,  as  well  as  other 
fruit  trees,  fnould  have  the 
ground  tilled  about  them,  to  pro- 
mote their  growth  and  fruitful- 
_jiefs,  at  leaft  until  they  are  be- 
come fo^  large  as  to  bear  plentiful- 
ly, and  occafionally  from  time  to 
time  afterwards. 

PEASE,  Pifum.z  fort  of  plants 
which  bears  a  papillionaceoku  or 


PEA 

butterfly  flower,  facceeded  By 
unocular  pods  full  of  globole 
feeds. 

The  varieties  are  fo  numerous, 
that  I  fhall  not  undertake  ro  dif- 
tinguifh  them.  They  are  culti- 
vated in  gardens  and  in.  fields. 
The  garden  culture  is  thus  ;  Af- 
ter the  ground  has  been  well 
dug,  raked  and  levelled,  mark  it 
out  in  double  rows  one  foot  apart, 
and  leave  intervals  of  three  feet 
between  the  double  rows,  fo  that 
when  they  are  bruihed,  there  may 
be  a  free  paffage  through  the  in- 
tervals. Open  the  trenches- 
three  inches  deep  with  the  head 
of  a  rake,  or  with  a  hoe  ;  fcatter 
in  the  peafe  at  the  rat€  of  about 
one  to  an  inch,  or  nearer  sto- 
gether  if  you  have  plenty  of 
feed  ;  and  then  cover  them  with 
a  rake.  Or  fmall  marks  may  be 
made  for  the  rows,  and  the- 
peafe  pricked  in  with  a  finger  to 
the  fame  depth,  and  the  holes 
filled  with  a  rake.  The  former 
method  is  beft,  as  the  mould  a- 
bout  the  peafe  is  left  lighter ;. 
and  it  is  more  expeditioufly  per- 
ionned. 

The  ground  fhould  be  hoed, 
and  kept  clear  of  weeds  ;  and 
when  the  young-  plants  are  fix 
inches  iiigh,  the  ftems  fhould  be 
earthed  up  a  little,  and  each 
double  row  filled  w-ith  brufh 
wood,  fothat  each  plant  may 
climb,  and  none  of  them  trail 
upon  the  ground.  The  brufh 
fhould  be  fet  ftrongly  in  the 
earth,  or  they  will  not  bear  the 
weight  of  the  plants  in  windy 
weather.  I  fet  the  larger  bufhes 
ftrongly  between  the  rows,  mak- 
ing the  holes  with  a  crow  bar  ; 
aud  then  the  fmaller  bufhes  in 
the  rows  as  leaders.  The  latter 
may  be  fharpened  a  little  at  the 
points,  and  pufhed  in  by  hand. 
They  w'xW  be  the  more  fruitful 
for  brufiiing  or  flicking,  as  well 


PEA 

ts  more  Tightly,  and  more  con- 
veniently gathered.  Biutlic  low 
dwarl  kinds  feldom  need  any  fup- 
porting. 

Whatever  be  the  fort,  no  weeds 
fhould  be  (uMoiotl  to  incrcafe 
among  thcni  ;  and  tlic  alleys 
flioula  be  hoed  deep  once  or 
twice  alter  brulhing.  l^utthc  foil 
ihould  not  be  very  rich,  lell  the 
|)lants  run  too  much  to  haulm. 
The  mofl  hungry  part  ot  a  gar- 
den anfwcrs  well  for  peafe. 

The  earliefl  forts  of  pcafe  will 
fometimes  be  ripe  in  June  :  So 
that  a  crop  of  potatoes,  turnips, 
•orcabbages.may  DchadattcrtheiT). 

For  held  peafe,  land  that  is 
newly  ploughed  out  of  fward   is 

f generally  accounted  bell  ;  and 
and  which  is  h.igh  and  dry,  and 
has  not  been  much  dunged.  A 
light  loamy  foil  is  moll  fuitablc 
tor  them  ;  and  if  it  abound  with 
llaty  flones  it  is  the  better.  But 
they  will  do  in  any  dry  foil.  The 
forts  that  grow  large  Ihould  have 
a  weaker  foil  ;  in  a  Itrcngcr  foil 
the  fmallcr  forts  aruVer  bell. 
The  manures  that  full  peafe  bell 
arc  marie  and  lime. 

Horfe  hoeing  hufbandry  appli- 
ed, it  it  were  pradicable,  would 
greatly  allifl  thegrowthot  i)cale. 
'i'hcy  io  foon  begin  to  trail  upon 
the  ground,  that  the  feafon  in 
which  this  cuhurc  can  be  appli- 
ed, is  extremely  Ihort.  But  fonic 
have  obtained  very  good  crops  in 
this  way.  Much  of  the  Iced  at 
leaft  might  be  faved. 

Our  tarmcrs  do  not  common- 
ly allow  a  fufticicnt  quantity  of 
feed  for  peafe,  in  broad  oall  (ow- 
ing.   When  peafe  are  fowed  thin, 
the    plants    will    lie    upon     the 
ground,  and  perhaps  rot  :  When 
they  arc  thick,  the   plants   will  j 
hold  each  other  up,  with   their  ' 
tendrils,   hirnung    a    continue  1  ' 
web  ;  and  will  have  more  benefit 
*\  the  air. 


PEA 


«5» 


At  Frybuiph  and  Conway,  as 
I  am  informed,  the  farmers  low 
three  bulhels  on  an  acre,  accord- 
ing to  the  piahice  in  England  ; 
and  their  crop,  one  time  with  an- 
other, is  upwards  ol  twenty  bulh- 
cls.  This  is  certainly  better  for 
them,  than  to  fow  one  bulhel, 
and  reap  eighteen  :  But  he  that 
fows  <)i>o  bulhel  only  on  an  acre, 
muft  not  expett,  one  time  with 
another,  to  reap  twelve. 

The  only  infe6l  that  common- 
ly injures  our  peafe,  is  a  fmall 
brown  bug,  or  fly,  the  egg  o£ 
which  is  depofitcd  in  them  when 
they  are  young,  and  the  pods  eafi- 
ly  perforated.  The  inie6l  does 
not  come  out  of  his  nell,  till  he 
is  furnifhed  with  fhort  wing?. 
They  diminifh  the  peafe  in  which 
they  lodge  to  nearly  one  half, 
:!nd  their  leavings  are  fit  only  lor 
the  food  of  (wine.  The  bugs, 
however,  will  be  all  gone  out,  if 
you  keep  them  to  the  following 
autumn.  But  they  who  eat  bug- 
gy peafe,  the  winter  atier  tht-y  are 
raifod,  mud  run  the  venture  o£ 
eating  the  infefcls. 

If  fown  in  the  new  plantations, 
to  which  this  bug  has  never  been 
carried,  peafe  are  tree  trom  bugs  ; 
For  the  infcHs  do  not  travel  tar 
fr')m  their  native  place.    There- 
fore, care  fhould  be  taken  not  to 
carry  them,  as  fome  are  apt  to 
do,  in    feed,  from  older    lettle- 
ments.     Even  in  apartot  an  oIJ 
farm,  near  to  which   pcafe  have 
not  for  a  hmg  time,  if  ever,  been 
fown,  a  crop   ot    pc.ifc   are  not 
buggy,  if  clean    feed   be    fown. 
Therefore,  in   fuch    places,  one 
7nay  guard  againif  this  infett,  by 
fowing  peaie  which  are  certainly 
known  to  he  clear  ol  them.     But 
il  the  contrary  be  known,  or  even 
fufpe^ted,  let  the  pcafe  he  Icald- 
cd  a  quarter  of  a  minute,  in  boil- 
ing  water  ;    tlicn  fprcad   about, 
cooled,  and  fcwn  widioui  delay. 

u 


252  PEA 

If  any  of  the  bugs  fliould  be  in  | 
the  peafe,  this  fcalding  will    def-  i 
troy  them  :  And   the  peafe,   in-  1 
ilead  of  being  hurt,  will    come 
Up    the    fooner,   and   grow  the 
iailer.  j 

All  peafe  that  are  fown  late,  i 
fhould  be  fleeped,or  fcalded,be-  | 
lore  fowing.     Tiiey  will  be  ior- 
warder.    But  peafe  fhould  always 
be  fown  as  early  as   the  ground  ; 
can  be  got  into  a  good  tilth,  with- 
out anv  filly  regard  to  the  time 
of  the  moon  ;  by  which  I  have 
known  fome  mifs  the  right  time 
of  fowing,  and  fuffer  much   in 
their    crop.      The    real    caufes 
of  a  crop  not  ripening  equally, 
are  bad  feed,  poor  culture,  and 
fowing  too  thin.     If  the  ground 
be  ploughed  but  once,  it  fliould 
be  harrowed   abundantly.     But 
on  green    fward  ground,  I  think 
it  fhould  be  ploughed  early  in  au- 
tumn,  and  crofs    ploughed  and 
harrowed  in  the  fpring.     In  old 
ground,  as  it  is  called,  it  is  no  bad 
V4V  to  plough  in  the  feed  with 
-  ^-      '  furrow  :  It  will  be  more 
covered, and  beardrought 
i.'t:.;r  ;  and  I  Ihould  think  the 
«roo  would  ripen  more  equally, 
is  no  danger  ot  their  being 
.  too  deep,  in  our  common 
iiiern  .>d  of  ploughing.     The  Eu- 
ropean farmers  think  fix  inches 
is  not  too  great  a  depth  for  peafe 
to  be  covered  in  mo  ft  foils,  and 
four  inches  not  too  deep  in  clay. 
Changing  the  feed  is  a  matter 
of  v'^ry    great   importance  ;  for 
peafe  are  apt  to  degenerate  more 
rapidly  than    almoll   any   other 
plants.     Seeds  fliould  be  brought 
from  a  mere  northern  clime  ;  for 
thole  which  ripen  earliell  are  heft. 
I  Would  change  them  yearly,  if 
it  could  be  done  without  much 
trouble  or  coft.     Once  in  two  or 
three  years  is  neceiTary. 

If  weeds  come  up  among  field 
peafe,  while  they  are  young,  they 


PEA 

fliould  be  weeded.  But  whei| 
they  are  grown  up,  they  will 
hinder  the  growth  of  weeds  by 
their  fliade,  unlets  they  are  fow- 
ed  too  thin.  Peafe  fown  thick 
form  fo  clofe  a  cover  for  the  foil, 
that  they  caufe  it  to  putrefy  ; 
they  are  therefore  called  an  im- 
proving crop  :  But  they  alfo 
draw  a  greater  proportion  of  their 
nourifhment  trom  the  air,  than 
raoft  other  plants  ;  for  it  is  ob- 
fervable  that  they  continue  their 
greennefs  long  after  the  lower 
parts  of  the  fleins  are  dead  to  ap- 
pearance. 

Garden  peafe  are  harvefled  by- 
picking  them  off  as  they  ripen  ; 
but  field  peafe  muil  unavoidably 
be  harvelted  all  at  once.  They 
fliould  be  carefully  watched,  and 
harvefled,  belore  any  ok  them  are 
fo  ripe  as  to  begin  to  fhell  out. 
Thofe  among  them  which  are 
unripe,  will  ripen,  or  at  leaft  be- 
come dry,  alter  they  are  cut  or 
pulled  up  ;  and  fuch  peafe,  v;ell 
dried,  are  not  commonly  had  for 
eating,  though  ill  coloured.  To 
dry  them,  they  Ihould  be  laid  on 
the  ground  in  fnall  heaps,  as  light 
and  open  as  poflible,  the  greeneft 
ot  the  flraw  and  pods  uppermoft. 
The  heaps  fhould  never  be  turn- 
ed upfide  down,  though  rain 
{hould  fall,  but  they  may  be  gent- 
ly lightened  up,  if  they  fettle' 
clofe  to  the  ground.  This  will  be 
fufficient.  When  thoroughly 
dried,  they  fhould  be  carefully 
removed  to  the  barn,  at  a  time 
when  the  air  is  not  dry,  and 
thraihed  without  delay.  But  if 
the  thrafliing  muft  be  delayed,  it 
is  better  to  keep  them  in  a  flack 
than  in  a  barn. 

After  v/innowing,  peafe  fhould 
lie  on  a  floor,  three  or  four  inch- 
es thick,  and  air  fliould  be  let 
into  the  apartment,  that  they  may 
be  dried  ;  which  they  will  be  in 
two  er  tkrec  weeks,  the  weather. 

being 


PEA 

beincT  j»enerally  dry.  Ahcr  this 
they  may  be  put  into*  alks  to  keep. 

Our  conini.'ii  ;:  iliotl  of  pull- 
ing up  pcalc  '[•)  ;  !:i.!,  is  too  la- 
borious. Thiv  111  Jiii'l  be  cut  or 
pulled  up  with  .!  :,';.:  p  hnnk  in 
the  form  ot  a  (i.  to 

a  long  handle.  .  '  ;  it 

cxpcditioully  with  a  coriiniou 
fickle.  But  this  is  little,  it  m  all, 
lefs  laborious  than  doing  it  with 
the  hand. 

When  land  is  in  fuitablc  or- 
der, field  peale  may  be  cultivated 
according  to  the  new  hulbandry, 
with  advantage.  M.  Lyma 
found  his  crops  w  crc  half  as  large 
again  in  this  way,  as  in  the  old 
hulbandry,  befides  faving  half  tlie 
feed.  The  intervals  between  the 
double  rows  ihould  be  near  four 
feet  wide,  or  tiiere  will  not  be 
iufticient  room  tor  horlc  hoeing. 
And  this  iiiouid  be  none  with,  be- 
fore the  plants  begin  to  trail  on 
the  ground. 

PL.A.r,  a  kind  of  earth,  or  rath- 
er a  foflil,  tiled  in  fome  countries 
for  tewel. 

It  is  otten  found  in  low,  mi- 
ry, and  boggy  places,  that  lie 
between  hills.  1  hat  which  is  the 
moif  folid  IS  tl.e  molt  valuable. 
Jt  lies  at  diHercnt  depths  ;  forac- 
times,  very  near  the  furface ; 
iemetimes  eight  or  ten  feet  below 
it.  The  belt  way  to  find  it  is  by 
boring.  1  he  llratum  above  it  is 
moll  commonly  mud,  ©r  moi:rv 
earth. 

I  fuppofe  many  places  whrrr 
it  is  found  toIia\L- Iicen  originally 
ponds  ;        '  they  have  been, 

citlier  ,  at  the  time  .a 

Noah's  lijuJ,  oi  gradually  lince, 
filled  up  with  wood,  and    other 
Vfgetaii 
flow     }. 
changed  imo  i 
Call  peat.     VoT  . 

trunks  of  trees,  iiark,  ii.e.  are 
found  among  it. 


PEA  253 

It  is  fometimcs  found  in  inter- 
val lands,  and  near  to  the  banks 
ot  rivers.  In  thcfe  places,  the 
Ihittingot  thebelsof  rivers, caul- 
ed  by  the  choking  of  the  oM  cur- 
rents, will  aiFonl  a  probable  ac- 
count ot  Its  formation. 

Peat  is  diltinguilhablc  by  its 
cutting  very  fmooth,  like  butter 
or  lard,  by  its  being  tree  from 
grit,  and  its  burning  treely,  when 
tlioroughly  dried.  It  will  not 
dillolvc  when  expoCed  to  the  air 
tor  a  long  time,  but  become  hard 
like  cinder. 

A  dry  feafon  is  the  bed  oppor- 
tunity tor  digging  it,  as  the  la- 
bourers arc  but  little  incommoded 
by  water.  They  who  dig  peat  for 
iewel,  thould  have  long  angular 
fpades,  the  blades  of  which  Ihoiild 
be  Ihaped  like  a  carpenter's  bur, 
with  which  it  may  tie  eafiiy  cut 
out  of  the  pits,  in  pieces  four 
inches  fquarc,  and  twenty  inches 
in  length.  Thele  Ihould  be  laid 
fingly  on  the  furtacc  to  harden. 
When  they  are  partly  dry  they 
are  piled  cpen,  athwart  each 
other  :  And  in  a  few  days  of  dry- 
ing weather,  they  will  he  fit  to 
cart,  and  llore  tor  tewel.  This 
fewel  muftbeconllantly  kept  in 
a  dry  place. 

It  has  been  found  by  trials  that 
the  afhcs  ot  peat  is  a  very  impor- 
tant manure,  ot  three  times  tlic 
value  ot"  wood  alhcs.  Filtcen 
'"  Is  are  allowed  to  be  a  fuf- 
.11  top  drilling  tor  an  acre. 
1 .  is  an  excellent  manure  for  cold 
grafs  lands  ;  atul  tor  all  luch  crops 
in  any  toil  as  require  much 
heat.  1  h^y  (houhl  be  lowed  Ly 
hand,  as  tiu-y  can  i!ius  be  more 
evenly  fpread.  It  may  be  done 
in  winter  with  the  leaif  dan- 
^T  of  hurling  plants  by  its 
It    lown    in    lummer,   it 


.!  h 


It  w  . 
of  11: 


■*ore  rain,  wlien 
'tely  deprived 

i.tV. 

The 


S54  PEA 

The  method  of  burning  peat 
to  afhes,  I  will  give  from  the  Mu- 
Jeum  Rujlicum,  as  I  have  had  no 
experience  in  it  myfelf. 

"  As  foon  as  it  is  dug,  fome 
of  it  is  mixed  in  a  heap  regular- 
ly difpofed  v/ith  faggot  wood,  or 
other  ready  burning  fewel  :  Af- 
ter a  layer  or  two  of  it  is  mixed 
in  this  manner,  peat  alone  is  pil- 
ed up  to  complete  the  heap.  A 
heap  will  confifl  of  from  ene 
hundred  to  a  thoufand  loads. 

"  After  fctting  fire  to  it  at  a 
proper  place,  before  on  purpofe 
prepared,it  is  watched  in  the  burn- 
ing :  And  the  great  art  is  to  keep 
in  as  much  of  the  fm.oke  as  pol- 
fible,  provided  that  as  much  vent 
is  left  as  will  nourifli  and  feed 
the  fire. 

"  Whenever -a  crack  appears, 
out  of  which  the  fmoke  efcapes, 
the  labourer  in  that  place  lays  on 
more  peat  ;  and  if  the  fire  flack- 
€ns  too  much  within,  which  may 
be  known  by  the  heat  of  the  out- 
fide,  the  workman  muft  run  a 
flrong  pole  into  the  heap,  in  as 
many  places  as  is  needful,  to  fup- 
ply  it  with  a  quantity  of  trefli 
air.  When  managed  in  this  man- 
ner, the  work  goes  on  as  itihould 
do.  It  is  noticed,  that  when  once 
the  fire  is  well  kindled,  the  heav- 
ieft  rain  does  it  no  harm  whilftit 
is  burning."  To  preferve  the 
afhes  for  ufe,  this  writer  proceeds 
thus  : 

"  It  is  neceflary  to  defend  the 
afhes  from  the  too  powerful  in- 
fluence of  the  fun,  air,  dews,  rain, 
&c.  or  great  part  of  their  virtue 
would  be  exhaled  and  exhaufted. 
If  the  quantity  of  aflies  procured 
is  not  very  great,  they  may  be 
eafily  put  under  cover  in  a  barn, 
cart  lodge,  or  hovel  ;  but  large 
quantities  muft  neceffarily,  to 
avoid  expenfe,  be  kept  abroad  ; 
and  when  this  is  the  cafe,  they 
*iould  be  ordered  as  follows  : 


PEA 

"  A  dry  fpot  of  ground  muS 
be  chofen  ;  and  on  this  theaflie* 
are  to  be  laid  in  a  large  heap,  as 
near  as  poflible  in  the  iorm  of  a 
cone  ftandingon  its  bafe,  the  top 
as  (harp  pointed  as  poflible  : 
When  this  is  done,  let  the  whole 
be  covered  thinly  over  with  a 
coat  of  foil,  to  defend  the  heap 
from  the  weather  :  The  cir- 
cumjacent earth,  provided  it  ie 
not  too  light  and  crumbly, 

"  When  thus  guarded,  the 
heap  may  ver>'  fafely  be  left  till 
January  or  February,  when  it  is 
m  general  the  feafon  for  fpread- 
ing  it.  Butbeiore  itisufed,  itis 
always  befl  to  fift  the  afhes,  &c.'* 

Mr.  Eliot  fuppofedit  was  nec- 
efTary  to  dry  the  peat  before 
burning  :  But  perhaps  he  never 
tried  the  above  method.  He 
fays,  if  it  be  flifled  in  burning,  it 
will  be  coal  inftead  of  afhes ; 
and  that  the  red  fort  makes  bet- 
ter charcoal  than  that  made  of 
wood. 

It  is  happy  for  mankind,  that 
bountiful  Providence  has  prepar- 
ed and  preferved  this  precious 
ireafure, containing  the  efTence  of 
vegetables,  by  which  they  may 
be  fupplied  ^vith  fewel  in  their 
houfes,  manure  for  their  lands, 
and  coal  for  fmiths'  forges.  But 
in  vain  itis  provided,  unlefs  men 
will  fearch  for  it,  and  make  ufe 
of  it.  There  is  no  reafon  to 
doubt  of  its  being  as  plenty  in 
this  country,  as  in  any  other. 
When  Mr.  Eliot  fearched  for  it, 
he  tells  us  he  foon  found  it  ia 
{t\en  different  places. 

The  afhes  are  faid  to  have  a 
better  effe6l  upon  winter,than  up- 
on fummer  grain  ;  and  to  be  not 
good  for  leguminous  plants,  as  it 
makes  their  haulm  too  luxuriant. 
The  good  effefts  of  a  dreffing  are 
vifible  for  three  years  ;  and  they 
will  not  leave  land  in  an  impov- 
erilhed  flate. 

PEN, 


PER 

PEN,  a  fmall  cnclofurc,  to 
confine  animals  in. 

PERKIN,  or  PURRE,  a  liq- 
uor made  trom  the  murk,  or  grots 
matter,  remaining  alter  perrv  is 
prcfled  out.  It  has  the  fame  affini- 
ty to  perry  as  cyilt-rkin  has  to  cy- 
cer.  i'o make  this  liquor,iheniurk 
is  put  in  a  large  vat  with  a  proper 
ouantiiy  of  boiled  water.which  has 
Kood  till  it  is  cold  again.  It  may 
infufc  48  hours  it  the  weather  be 
cool,  and  then  be  prefTcd  out. 
The  liqour  may  be  put  into  cafks 
and  lightly  Hopped,  and  will  be 
fit  to  drink,  in  a  tew  days.  It  is 
•qiial  tt)  fmall  beer  :  But  if  well 
boiled  with  hops,  it  will  be  fit 
for  keeping  till  the  following 
fummer.  And  it  may  be  great- 
ly improved  by  bottling. 

PERRY,  a  liquor  made  from 
pears,  in  the  fame  manner  as  cy- 
der is  from  apples.  The  pears 
fliould,  in  general,  be  ripe  bctore 
they  are  ground.  They  will  not 
bear  fo  much  fweating  as  apples. 
The  mod  crabbed  and  woril  eat- 
ing fruit,  is  faid  to  make  the  bcft 
perry.  After  perry  is  made  it 
fhould  be  managed  in  all  refpefts 
like  cyder.  Boiling  has  a  good 
effcft  on  perry,  changing  it 
from  a  white  to  a  tlame  coloured 
and  fine  fla^'oured  liquor,  which 
grows  better  by  long  keeping 
and  bottling. 

PERSPIRATION    of 
PL.\NTS,  the  palling  off  of  the 
juices  that  are  fuperfluous, through  \ 
pores    prepared    by    nature    on  \ 
their  fupcrficics  for  that  purpolc. 

The  analogy  which  plants 
bear  to  animah,  is  in  no  inliancc 
more  remarkable  than  in  this  c- 
vacuation.  The  parts  of  a  plant 
which  contain  the  excretory 
clu61s,  are  chiefly  the  leaves.  For 
vefind,  that  if  a  tree  be  contin- 
ually deprived  of  its  leaves  for 
two  or  inrec  years, it  will  fickcn 
uid  die,  as  an  aiunul  docs  when 


PER 


^5S 


its  pcrfpiration  is  flopped.  \\u^ 
fmear  tlie  bark  on  the  ftcmswittk 
any  glutinous  fubflancc  (u(H. 
civnt  to  Hop  any  pores,  and  no 
great  alteration  will  be  obfervcd 
in  the  health  of  the  tree,  as  has 
bcenproved  by  experiment.  And 
as  M.  Bonnet  has  proved  that 
leaves  ccnerally  imbibe  the  moif- 
tureof  the  atmofphercon  their  un- 
der furtace,  is  it  notreafonablc  tf> 
fuppofe  that  the  pores  for  tranf- 
piration  are  placed  on  their  ly)- 
per  furlacc  ?  But  that  the  llchis 
ot  plants  contain  fome  bibulous 
pores,  feems  evident  from  this, 
that  when  placed  in  the  earth, 
they  will  fend  out  roots.  But 
thefe  pores  in  the  flcms  are  fo 
few,  that  the  flopping  of  them 
does  not  materially  injure  a 
plant. 

As  animals  have  other  ways  of 
throwing  off  thofe  parts  of  their 
food  which  are  not  fit  to  nourilh 
them,  it  is  no  wonder  that  plant* 
have  been  found  to  pcrfpire  in- 
fenlibly  a  far  greater  quantity 
than  animals.  Plants  cannot 
choofe  their  food  as  animals  do, 
but  mufl  take  in  that  which  is 
prefenicd  by  the  earth  and  atmof- 
phere,  which  tood  in  general  is 
more  watery,  and  lefs  noiuilh- 
ing,  than  that  ot  animals  ;  and 
for  ihefe  realons,  alfo,  it  might  be 
jtiflly  cxpecled,  that  the  matter 
perfpired  by  a  plant  fhould  be 
vaPily  more  thin  that  perfpired 
by  an  animal  ot  the  fame  bulk  ; 
and  this  has  been  found  to  be  the 
cafe.     See  the  article  Leaves. 

A  practical  inference  or  two 
from  the  copious  pcrfpiration  of 
plants  may  be.  that  the  plants 
we  cultivate  fhould  not  be  fet 
too  clofe,  that  they  may  not 
be  incommoded,  or  rendered 
fickly,  by  the  unwholefome 
fleams  of  each  other.  They  are 
as  liable  to  be  injured  this  way, 
for  ought  that  appears  to  the 
touirary, 


256         P  L  A 

contrary,  as  animals  are.  And 
the  water  that  drips  from  trees 
upon  finaller  vegetables  is  known 
to  be  not  healthy  for  thern  ;  the 
reafon  is,  becaufe  this  water  con- 
tains fonie  of  the  matter  which 
perfpired  from  the  trees.  But 
if  the  perfpirable  matter  oi  plants 
be  injurious  to  plants,  it  does 
not  follow  that  it  is  fo  to  animals. 
It  is  thought  to  be  not  fo  in  gen- 
eral, but  the  reverfe.  Theelilu- 
vium  of  poifonous  plants  is  an 
exception. 

PLANT,  an  organical  body, 
dellitute  of  fenfation  and  fponta- 
neous  motion,  adhering  to  an- 
other body  fo  as  to  draw  its 
nouriflinient  from  it,  and  propa- 
gating itfelf  ^y  feeds. 

This  name  comprehends  ev^ery 
thing  that  exifls  in  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  of  nature,  from  the 
lofty  cedar  of  Lebanon  to  the 
minuteft  mofs. 

Plants  by  their  want  of  fenfi- 
bility,  and  their  fixed  pofition, 
are  inferiour  to,  and  diflinguifh- 
ed  from  the  animal  part  oi  cre- 
ation ;  alfo,  by  their  organiza- 
tion, and  power  of  reproduc- 
tion, they  are  fuperiour  to  and 
dillinft  from  the  kingdom  oi 
foffils  and  minerals.  They  hold 
the  middle  rank  in  the  vifible 
works  of  the  Almighty  Creator  ; 
and  are  conftrutted  with  luch 
admirable  wifdom,  as  to  be  lit  to 
fliew  forth  his  praife. 

The  external  and  raofl;  obvi- 
ous parts  of  plants  are  the  root, 
ilem,  branches,  leaves  and  flow- 
ers. 

The  root,  by  which  a  plant  is 
connefted  with  the  earth,  con- 
tains a  vaft  multitude  of  abforb- 
ent  pores,  through  which  it  un- 
doubtedly receives  the  greater 
part  of  its  nouriihment. 

But  the  interna)  llruftme  ot 
plants,  though  perhaps  iar  more 
jmple  than  that  of  animals,  feezns 


FLA 

net  yet  to  have  been  thoroughly 
inveiligated 

Dr.  f-Iill's  fyflem  of  the  anat- 
omy of  plants,  as  reprefcnted 
by  Dr.  Hunter,  in  the  Georgi- 
cal  Elfays,  I  will  lay  before  the 
reader,  as  concifely  as  poffible. 

"  The  conftituent  parts  of  a 
plant  are,  iw  The  outer  rind.  2." 
The  inner  rind.  3.  The  blea. 
4.  A  vafcular  feries.  5.  A  flelhy 
lubliance,  or  the  wood  in  a  tree 
or  Ihrub,  6,  Pyramidical  velfels 
included  in  the  flclh.  And  7. 
The  pith. 

"  llie  fmallefl  fibre  of  the  root,- 
and  the  fmallelf  twig  in  the  top, 
have  all  thefe  parts  ;  and  no  part 
oi  the  tree  has  more.  Even  the 
flower  is  made  of  the  extremi- 
ties of  thefe  parts.  The  outer 
bark  ends  in  the  cup  of  the  flow- 
er ;  the  inner  rind  in  the  outer 
petals  ;  the  blea  in  the  inner  pe- 
tals. The  vafcular  feries  ends 
in  the  neftarium  ;  the  pyramid- 
ical veiTels  form  the  receptacle, 
and  tlie  pith  furniflies  the  feeds. 

"  The  outer  bark  is  made  up 
of  membranes  with  a  feries  of 
veffels  between  them,  which 
velfels  inofculate  with  thofe  of 
the  inner  bark,  to  which  they 
communicate  part  of  their  juices. 

"  The  inner  bark  is  made  of 
regular  iflakes,  each  ot  which 
confiils  of  two  membranes,  in- 
clofing  a  feries  of  veflels  which 
connnunicate  with  thofe  ot  the 
blea. 

"  The  blea  lies  next  to  the  in- 
ner bark,  and  is  made  up  of  hex- 
agonal cells  ;  and  in  angles  torm- 
ed  by  thefe  cells  are  the  velfels 
of  tlie  blea,  which  pour  their 
contents  into  the  cells.  Thefe 
cells  feem  to  be  refervoirs  for  the 
water  imbibed  by  the  plant." 
Out  of  the  contents  of  thefe  cells 
I  fuppoie  a  new  circle  of  flelh 
I  or  wood  in  perennial  plants  to 
I  be  annually  fgnned, 


P  L  A 

**Next  to  the  blea  lies  the  vaf- 
Bular  fcries,  .a  courle  of  vcflels 
lodged  between  two  membranes. 
Thefc  vcfFcls  have  a  tree  com- 
jnunication  with  the  blea,  mid  the 
wood. 

"  The  wood,  or  flefhv  part,  is 
made  up  oJ  llrong  fibres,  in 
which  may  be  fecn  the  tracheae, 
filled  will)  clallick  air. 

"  The  pyramidical  vefTels  are 
fpread  through  the  fubllance  of 
the  flcfh,  and  as  they  advance  up- 
wards their  ramifications  inofcu- 


FLA  157 

fpccies  of  gypfums,  dug  near 
Mount  Maitre,  a  village  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Paris;  whenco 
the  name. 

**  The  befl  fort  is  hard,  white, 
fhining  and  marbly  ;  known  by 
the  name  of  Plajitrjione^  or  Pur- 
get  of  Mount  Maitre.  It  ^will 
neither  give  fire  with  fteel,  nor 
ferment  with  aquafortis,  but  very 
freely  and  readily  calcines  in  the 
1  fire  into  a  very  fine  plafter  ;  the 
ufe   ol   which    in   building   and 


ol  which  in  building 
carting  flatues  is  well  known." 
Jate,  io  as  to  prevent  obftru6tions  !  Dicl.  of  Arts. 
of  the  fap  in  its  courfc.  The  I  When  this  fubflance  is  reduc- 
fides  of  thcfe  velTels  are  always  ed  to  powder,  without  burning,  a 
in  contacl  with  the  tracheae  ;  and  moderate  degree  of  heat  will 
they  alfo  communicate  with  the  .  make  it  boil  like  milk,  and  ap- 
pith  ;  \vhich  is  found  in  the  ccn-  j  pear  like  a  fluid.     But  it  cannot 


ire  of  all  plants,  but  not  always 
regularly  continued  ;  therefore 
it  IS  not  thought  to  be  abfoluiely 
necelFary  to  vegetation.  It  re- 
ceives a  fluid  from  the  pyramid- 
ical velFels,  and  is  thought  to  be 
a  refervoir  of  part  of  the  fap.  It 
is  found  in  the  ribsof  leaves,  and 
runs  to  the  ovarium." 

Diubtlefs  there  are  alfo  vari- 
ous llrainers,  by  which  di  fcrent 


Le  made  to  boil  more  than  fif- 
teenor  twenty  minutes.  Whence 
I  conclude  it  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  fixed  air,  which  is 
difcharged  in  boiling.  After 
Handing  a  few  days  the  fixed  air 
wilhbe  reftored,and  it  will  boil  in 
the  fame  manner  as  before. 

It  was  not  till  of  late  that  it 
has  been  known  as  a  manure. 
The   Pennfvl vanians    have   im- 


juices  are  allimilated  to  the  na-    ported  it   from  France,  as  I  am 
ture  of  the  plants  ;  and  by  wliiJi  j  informed,  and  find  it  a  great  ad- 


juices  in  the  fame  plant  are  p 
pared  for  feveral  purpofcs  ;  for 
the  leaves,  the  fruit  and  the  feeds 
contain  different  juices.  The 
ihorteft  cion  muft  be  fuppofed  to 
contain  fome  of  thefe  ftrainers  ; 


vantage  to  their  crops.  They  re- 
duce it  to  a  fine  powder  in  mills 
for  that  purpofe,  before  they  ap- 
ply it  to  the  foil.  Several  fhip 
loads  have  been  carried  from 
Sov^fcotia  to  Philaddpkia  ;  but 


other\vife  it  would  not  produce  ;  this  is  not  found  to  be  fo  good  a 
its  own  proper  fruit,  but  that  of  ;  manure  as  the  French  gypfum. 
the  (lock  on  which  it  is  grafted.        Five  or  fix  bulhels  are  faid  tt> 

Many  fons  of  plants  may  be  be  a  drefTing  tor  an  acre  ;  I  have 
made  to  vegetate  in  an  inverted  j  netfcr  heard  of  more  than  fix 
fiule  ;  3  proof  that  the  difTereni  bulliek  being  laid  on  an  acre^  It 
parti  of  a  plant  are  nearly  of  the  .  is  ufcd  as  a  topdrelllng  on  grafs 
lame  Ifrutiurc.  It  alfo  (hews  ;  land  ;  but  mixed  with  the  foil  ia 
that  the  leases  arc  adapted  to  take  tillage,  when  the  cropsarc  hoed, 
in  nourilhmentas  well asthe roots,    which  is  unavoidable. 

PLAS  ItR  of  PARIS,  Ol  j  When  it  is  fowed  upon  wheat 
GYPSU.NL  "  The  plafter  of  and  other  gr.iin,  while  it  is  grow- 
Paiu  IS  a  preparaliuu  of  leveral .  ing,  it  bu  as  good  an  effect  as  the 

Hk  larSiiJi 


S58 


V  L  O 


largeft  drefnng  of  the  befl;  dung. 
It  IhoUid  be  finely  pulverifed  af- 
ter being  burnt  in  a  moderate 
fire,  and  fowed  in  May,  as  evenly 
as  pofnbJe.  Cloudy  or  dull  wea- 
ther is  accounted  befl:  for  doing 
it.  The  good  effect  of  one  dref- 
iSag,  it  is  faid,  will  continue 
feven  years. 

It  is  doubtlefs  a  great  abforbent, 
and  a8s  like  quicklime,  or  like 
powder  of  marble,  in  mending  the 
foil.  But  in  Novafcotia,  where 
it  is  found,  I  am  told  it  does  not 
appear  to  have  any  great  effect 
as  a  manure.  This  may  be 
owing  to  the  want  of  being  fu9i- 
ciently  pulverifed.  Or  it  may 
do  better  in  a  hot  than  in  a  cold 
climate. 

PLAT,  a  fmall  piece  of  ground. 

PLOUGH,  a  machine  with 
which  the  ground  is  turned  up 
and  broken.  It  is  the  moft  im- 
portant of  sll  the  tools  ufed  in 
hufbandry  :  And  much  of  the 
comfort  of  the  'abourer,  as  well 
as  the  profit  of  the  farmer,  de- 
pends upon  the  good  flrufture  of 
it. 

-The  plough  was  fo  early  in- 
vented, that  mention  is  made  of 
it  in  fome  of  the  moft  ancient 
books,  both  facred  and  profane. 
Numbers  of  them,  however,  have 
been  fo  badly  coaftruct*d  as  to 
be  of  little  advantage. 

Omitting  what  has  been  faid 
of  the  various  kinds  of  ploughs,  I 
perfectly  agree  with  the  writer 
of  the  Nczi-  Syjkm  of  Agricul- 
ture, that  two  ploughs  are  all 
that  are  requifiie  in  the  com- 
mon culture  of  land,  a  firong 
one  and  a  light  one.  The  lirong 
plough  is  neceffary  in  foils  that 
are  ftrongly  fwarded,  or  verj* 
ftiff ;  or  filled  with  ftrong  roots, 
ftony,  or  rugged  ;  in  all  other 
foils  the  light  plough,  or  that 
which  is  commonly  called  the 
lu3ife  plough,  will  be  fufficient. 


p  L  a 

The  flrong  plough,  which 
Ihould  always  be  made  of  the 
flrongeft  of  while  oak,  fliould 
not  be  heavier  than  is  neceffary 
for  flrength.  One  of  the  han- 
dles ihould  be  framed  into  the 
chip,  and  the  beam  into  the  han- 
dle ;  the  other  handle  muft  be 
made  faft  to  the  ground w reft 
and  mouldboard  ;  and  the  handles 
fhould  be  fo  long,  that  the  plough 
may  be  guided  by  them  with- 
out much  exertion  of  ilrength. 
Othei^'ife  the  ploughman  will 
find  his  labour  to  be  verj'  fatiguing. 

The  fhare  fhould  be  made  of 
rough  iron,  well  fleeled  and 
fharpened  on  the  point  and  wing, 
and  rightly  tempered. 

The  coulter  fhould  alfo  be 
fleeled  on  the  edge,  and  be  fre- 
quently made  Iharp  by  grinding, 
when  ufed  in  fwarded  groimd 
that  is  not  ftony.  This  will  render 
the  draught  the  more  eafy,  efpe- 
cially  where  there  are  flrong 
roots  in  the  foil,  which  muft  be 
cut  off  by  the  coulter.  The 
plough  will  not  only  be  the 
more  eaiily  drawn  and  lefs  apt 
to  ch^ke  with  roots  and  rubbilh  ; 
but  ^■■::]  cut  the  furrow  more 
e^c-  .  Ti.e  coulter  fhould  be 
iwe:  he  fhare  fix  inches, 

at.lec...  :.  _.:.  the  point,  for  land 
that  has  no  impenetrable  roots  ; 
but  where  fuch  roots  abound,  the 
point  of  the  fhare  fhould  be  in- 
ferted  into  the  back  of  the  coul- 
ter, very  near  to  the  bottom. 

The  coulter  fhould  ah.  ays  lean 
backwards  between  the  fhare 
and  the  beam  ;  and  be  bent  im- 
der  the  beam,  fo  as  to  paf« 
through  it  at  right  angles. 

Every  one  knows  that  the 
chip  and  the  groundwreft  Ihould 
be  plated  with  iron,  on  two  of 
their  fides.  Otherwife they  will 
foon  wear  a^s^ay. 

In  fome  parts  of  this  country, 
ploughs  are  tolerably  well  con-. 
ilruaed  ; 


P  L  O 

flruclctl  ;  in  other  parts,  fobaJly, 
as  to  occafion  the  lofs  ol  much 
lime  and  labour.  But  for  ihofc 
flrong  ploughs,  %.luch  are  ac- 
co^^ntcd  the  bell,  1  would  fug- 
ged two  or  three  improveincr.is. 

One  is,  that  the  fock,  or  fock- 
ct  of  the  Iharc,  Ihould  be  fo  made 
as  to  receive  a  chip  five  inches 
thick,  or  deep,  and  that  the  chij) 
be  anfwerably  thick  at  the  fore 
end,  where  it  enters  the  fock, 
and  the  fock  Ihould  be  large  e- 
nough  to  receive  it.  By  means 
of  this  conftru^tion  the  lurrow 
begins  to  cant  as  foon  as  it  is  cut 
through  by  the  coulter.  There- 
fore the  niouldboard  takes  it  al- 
ready turning,  fo  that  it  meets 
with  but  little  refiftancc  ;  conle- 
quently  it  requires  lefs  ilrcnsth 
ot  team,  by  half,  as  fome  lay, 
to  draw  the  plough.  'I,  he  la- 
bour ot  the  ploughman  is  alio 
dirainilhed,  as  the  plough  is 
more  eafy  in  its  going.  The  late 
Robert  Pierbonit,  Efq.of  R-'xbu- 
rv,  was  poffcfled  ot  a  plough  of 
this  make,  the  original  ol  which 
came  not  long  hnco  from  Kn- 
gland.  His  tamily  will  doubt- 
lefs  be  ready  to  obligeiny  perfon 
with  a  view  of  it.         r,|    *  "*. 

That  gentleman  once  told  ice, 
that  with  his  plough  he  had  brok- 
en up  the  hardelt  green  fward 
ground,  with  only  a  yoke  of 
Iteers  tour  years  old  to  draw  it. 

Another  improvement  that  I 
would  luggeft,  IS,  to  have  an  iron 
plate  rightly  fhapcd,  iullcad  ot 
a  mouldboard ;  either  riveted  to 
the  fhare,  or  a  continuation  of  it. 

Every  p!r.i:!T!unan  knows,  that 
the  gr  r  i)t  the  trouble  ot 

his  W'  irom  the  turring 

up  and  t.  *   the  p'ough 

by  the  ear  •>  ing  to  it,  and 

particularly  to  the  mouldboard. 
And  it  is  plain  that  tiiis  not  only 
hurts  the  regular  going  of  a 
plough,  but  makes  u  hardtr  to 


f  L  O 


«5> 


draw,  and  caufcs  it  to  have  tlie 
lefs  effect  in  turning  and  pulver- 
ifmg  the  foil. 

But  a  plate  of  iron,  in  place  ot 
the  mouldboard,  \s'ould  always 
be  (nlt)otl:  and  bright,  and  glide 
cafily  through  the  foil  in  fward- 
ed  ground  ;  and  the  plough 
would  be  tar  morceaiily  manag- 
ed. It  is  the  opinion  of  the  above 
mentioned  writer,  that  with  a 
plough  of  this  kind,  rightly  con- 
itrutted,  ttiere  can  never  be  need 
of  more  than  one  yoke  of  o.Kcn 
to  plough  in  the  hardclf  foil.  If 
two  yoke  would  be  lufficient  tor 
our  hardcfl  land  in  this  country, 
much  ^vould  be  faved  by  fuch  a 
plough.  And  of  this  I  think 
♦Jicre  is  little  reafon  to  doubt. 

I  will  julf  mention  one  thing 
more,  which  forae  will  allow  to 
be  a  confiderable  improvement. 
Inflead  of  wheels  to  a  plough, 
which  are  now  generally  repro- 
bated, let  a  little  roller  be  hxed 
to  the  fore  end  of  the  beam,  in 
fuch  a  manner  as  to  move  upon 
the  furface.  It  Ihould  be  four 
or  five  inches  in  diameter,  andajt 
much  in  length,  and  be  conneH- 
ed  with  the  beam,  by  an  iron 
rightly  thaped  for  the  purpofe, 
which  can  be  eafily  put  on 
and  off  at  pleafure.  It  is  to  be 
ufed  only  in  ploughing  grecit 
fward  ground,  and  fuch  as  is 
pretty  level,  and  clear  of  obfta- 
cles.  It  gauges  the  plough,  fd 
as  to  prevent  its  going  too 
deep  ;  and  it  compreires  the 
furtace,  fo  that  the  coulter  ciuc 
it  more  evenly.  Befides,  it  i* 
manifeft  that  this  will  cafe  the 
ploughman  of  part  of  his  labour. 

But  whether  this  be  thought 
of  importance  enough  to  be  at- 
tended to  or  not,  the  iron  plate 
tor  a  mouldboard,  I  think,  can 
admit  ol  no  dot;bt  coiiccrni. :>• 
its  utility.  The  coft  ot  it  v 
be  the  oul/  objv'tfion  ;  but  ti..- 

11 


26o 


P  L  O 


is  of  no  weight.  The  extra 
coft  will  certainly  be  faved  in 
the  work  of  a  few  days  ;  as  the 
plough  may  be  drawn  with  a 
weaker  team  ;  turn  over  the  foil 
more  completely  ;  and  perhaps 
{dve  the  hiring  of  a  man  to  tend 
the  plough  and  turn  turfs.  It 
fhould  be  remembered  that  a 
wooden  mouldboard  ought  to  be 
plated  ;  which,  if  well  done,  may 
coft  half  as  much  as  an  iron 
mouldboard  ;  and  will  much 
fooner  come  to  need  repairing, 
'  The  bloomers  who  make  what 
are  called  fhare  moulds,  fhould 
draw  the  plate  about  four  feet 
Jong  ;  the  hinder  part,  whicli  is 
^to  be  for  the  mouldboard,  not 
more  than  one  fourth  or  fifth  of 
an  inch  thick  ;  the  part  that  is 
for  the  ftigre,  of  the  ufual  thick- 
nefs.  \Vith  fuch  a  piece  of  iron 
any  ingenious  fmith  can  make 
the  fhare  and  mouldboard  in  one 
piece.    • 

The  light  plough  may  be  made 
every  way  like  the  former,  but 
fmaller  ;  but  a  roller  to  this 
plough  is  not  requifite  ;  and  a 
■wooden  mouldboard  M-ill  anfwer, 
if  properly  plated  with  iron. 

As  the  handles  of  ploughs 
Ihould  be  crooked,  efpecialiy  at 
the  outer  ends,  a  fmall  fladle 
quartered,  together  with  a  part 
of  the  root,  is  the  beft  timber 
that  I  know  of  for  this  purpofe. 
While  they  are  green  they  may 
be  foaked  in  hot  water  and  bent 
into  the  right  fhape.  If  dried  in 
this  (hape,  they  will  always  re- 
tain it,  though  ever  fo  much  af- 
terivards  expofed  to  the  weather. 

PLOUGHING,  the  operation 
of  turning,  breaking  and  loofen- 
ing  the  earth  with  a  plough. 

Lands  in -general  that  are  ufed 
in  tillage  muft  be  ploughed,  if 
there  be  not  infuperable  obftacles, 
or  great  difficulties  in  the  way  to 
grevent  it.    Breaking  up  ground 


P  L  O 

with  the  fpade,  or  the  hoe,  in 
tedious  and  expenfive,  in  com- 
parifon  with  ploughing  ;  fo  that 
but  fmall  quantities  of  land  could 
be  employed  in  tillage,  were  it 
not  for  the  important  art  o^ 
ploughing. 

One  rule  to  be  regarded  in 
ploughing  is,  that  no  land,  except- 
ing green  fward,  fhould  be 
ploughed  v/hen  it  is  fo  wet  that 
it  will  not  eafily  crumble.  For 
the  principal  defign  of  ploughing 
is  to  break  the  cohefion  of  the 
foil,  and  fet  the  particles  of  it  at 
fuch  a  diftance  from  each  other, 
that  even  the  fmallell  and  tender- 
eft  roots  of  plants  may  find  their 
way  between  them  in  queft  of 
their  nourifhment. 

When,  in  ploHghing,of  landin 
tillage,  the  furrow  turns  o\*er 
hke  a  dead  mafs  of  mortar, 
ploughing  can  be  of  no  advan- 
tage at  all.  The  foil  becomes  rio 
lighter  or  loofer  by  it,  but  rat'ner 
heavier,  and  more  compaft.  On 
the  contrary,  land  fhould  not  be 
ploughed  when  it  is  too  dry  ;  be- 
caufe  it  requires  the  more  ftrengih 
of  team  to  perform  it,  nor  cart 
the  furrows  be  fo  well  turned 
over. 

The  plough  fhould  be  ufed 
much  more  than  it  is  in  this  coun- 
try. When  a  crop  of  barley  or 
wheat  is  defigned,  the  ground 
fhould,  at  leaft,  be  thrice  plough- 
ed ;  for  a  crop  of  Indian  corn, 
twice  is  not  too  much.  The  ex- 
tra expenfe  will  be  repaid  by  the 
increafed  crops.  The  advantages 
of  frequent  ploughing  have  not 
been  duly  confidered.  By  often 
repeated  ploughings,  land  may 
be  brought  to  any  degree  of  rich- 
nefs  almoft  that  is  defired.  Fre- 
quent ploughings  are  deffruftivc 
to  weeds,' and  fave  much  labour 
in  hand  hoeing  and  weeding  ; 
bcfides  making  a  greater  quanti- 
ty of  pafture  for  plants, preparing 


P  L  O 

ihf  vr|»ctable  food  t!ic  better  fo 
enter  tlic  roots  of  plants',  and  fiil- 
pofing  the  foil  toiiiidibc  tlic  rich 
and  fertilizing  particles  of  the  at- 
inofphere. 

As  it  is  known  that  repeated 
pioughings  iupply  the  place  of 
nriniirc  ;  where  manure  is  fcarcc, 
farmers  liave  need  to  plough  the 
more  frequently.  Mr.  lul!  was 
ot  opinion  that  it  was  a  clie»per 
method  toenrich  land  by  plough- 
ing than  by  manuring.  In  fome 
fituations  it  undoubtedly  is  Co.  But 
it  is  heft  that  land  Ihould  have 
enough  ot  both,  when  it  is  prac- 
ticable. 

And-the  more  to  promote  the 
fertilization  ol  the  foil  by  plough- 
ing, let  the  farmer  plongli  as  much 
of  his  ground  as  poflible  while 
the  dew  is  on  it,  bccaufc  dew 
contains  much  nourilhrncnt  for 
plants.  The  early  rifer  has  the 
advantage  of  his  lluggifh  neisch- 
bntif.;  not  only  in  pbitighing, 
but  alio  in  harrowing  and  hoeing, 
to  greater  advantigc. 

When  land  is  to  be  ploughed 
that  is  full  ol  flumps  of  trees  and 
other  obftaclcs,  as  land  that  is 
newly  cleared  of  wood,  or  that 
is  rocky,  tl>€  flrong  plough  Ihould 
be  ufed  ;  and  the  llrength  of  the 
team  mufl  be  proporti(mcd  to  the 
/Irength  of  the  plough  ;  and  tlic 
plough  to  the  condition  of  the 
foil. 

It  is  fometimes  advifable,  to 
cut  off  dole  to  the  bodies  of 
ilumps.betore'plonghing.the  hor- 
j/ontal  roots  which  lie  near  the 
furlace  ;  efpecially  it  there  l>c  no 
{lones,  nor  gra^•el  in  tljc  way,  to 
hurt  the  edge  of  an  axe.  When 
this  is  done,  the  flrong  plough 
will  be  apt  to  take  out  the  mr)fl 
of  the  roots  fo  parted.  And  the 
frofts  of  a  few  winters  will  be  i!io 
more  likely  to  heave  out  t'le 
flumps,  or  lo  to  loofen  them  that 
tkey  maj  kc  eafiiy  renoved.    I 


P  I.  o 


«*51 


have  conquered  the  flumps  of 
white  pine  in  this  manner  ;  but 
flumps  which  rot  very  foon  it  it 
not  ot  fnch  importance  to  man- 
age in  this  way. 

The  plough  mufl  go  deeper  in 
breaking  up  new  ground,  than 
old.  Otherwife  the  little  hollows 
will  go  amploughed  ;  and  there 
will  not  be  mould  enough  raifcd 
in  the  iiillocks  to  level  the  fur- 
face,  and  leave  fuflicient  depth 
for  the  roots  of  plants  to  extend 
tliemfclveR. 

The  laft  of  fummer.or  the  be- 
ginning ot  autumn,  is  the  right 
leafon  for  ploughing  new  ground. 
For  it  will  be  heft  to  harrow,  and 
crofs  plough  it,  before  it  is  feed- 
ed,  that  the  foil  may  be  thorough- 
ly mixed  and  pulverifed.  There- 
fore, the  firft  ploughing  IhouldTjc 
performed  fo  long  beforehand, 
tiiat  before  the  focond,  the  turfs 
may  ferment  anrl  become  partly 
rotten.  But  this  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pcftcd,  it  the  ground  be  plough- 
ed late  in  the  fall  ;  becaufc  the 
fun,  at  that  late  fcafon,  will  not 
warm  the  ground  enough  to  bring 
on  any  fermentation  before  the 
following  fpring,  when  the 
ground  is  to  be  fowed.  For  falJ 
fowin^;,  the  ground  fliould  be 
broken  up  flill  earlier  ;  either  in 
fpring  or  fummer  will  do  very 
well,  if  time  can  be  fparcci  for  it. 

But  it  is  beft  that  the  mofl  or 
all  of  our  tillage  land  flionid  be 
ploughed  in  aiuntnn,  both  in  new 
and  old  grounrl.  It  faves  time 
and  laboiM- in  the  following  (pring, 
the  hurrying  fcafon,  when  more 
work  is  to  be  done  than  we  can  well 
get  time  tor ;  and  when  our  teams 
are  ufually  much  weaker  than 
they  are  in  the  fall.  But  land 
ploughed  in  the  fill  mufl  be  a- 
gain  ploughed  in  the  fpring  ;  and 
a  weaker  team  will  perform  it  for 
its  having  been  ploughed  in  aii- 
turmn.     la  very  light  old  ground 


s6a 


?  L  O 


a  fingle  liorfe  may  perforin  it ;  \ 
and  two  ploughings   are  better 
than  one  in  mojl  cafes. 

Green  fward  land  may  be 
ploughed  at  any  feafon  ot  the 
year,  if  it  be  not  too  dry,  nor  too 
much  frozen.  In  the  former 
cafe  the  plough  will  go  very 
hard  ;  in  the  Jatter  ploughing  is 
imprafticable,  which  is  the  cafe 
for  four  months  together,  com- 
monly, from  the  firft  of  Decem- 
ber to  the  laft  of  March. 

Farmers  generally  choofe  to 
plough  green  fward  ground 
when  it  is  pretty  wet,  if  it  be  not 
miry  ;  becaufe  the  labom-  is 
more  eafy  ior  man  and  beaft. 

The  Englifh  farmers  praftife 
ploughmg  green  fward  in  Janu- 
ary, not  only  becaufe  they  have 
leifure,  but  becaufe  it  is  h  wet 
as  to  plough  eafily.  They  call 
it  ploughing  in  lays  ;  and  it  is 
laid  to  be  well  performed,  when 
the  fward  is  all  completely  turn- 
ed over,  without  lapping  one  fur- 
row on  another.  I'he  depth 
that  the  plough  fhould  go  is  a 
matter  that  ought  to  be  attended 
to.  The  depth  fhould  be  gov- 
erned in  fome  meafure  by  the 
Haple  of  the  foil.  Where  the 
foil  is  deep, deep  ploughing  is  bell. 
See  Pafture  of  Plants. 

But  where  the  foil  is  very  thin, 
fhoal  ploughing  is  necellary  ;  for 
if  the  plough  turn  up  much  of 
the  under  flratum,  and  mix  it 
xvith  the  foi  1,  it  wi  11  be  rather  hurt- 
ful, at  leafl  for  fome  years  after. 
Land  fhould  always  be  plough- 
ed out  of  fward  with  a  deeper 
furrow  than  will  be  necefTary  af- 
terwards, through  the  whole 
courfe  of  tillage.  All  the  after 
ploughings  will  be  the  more  eafi- 
ly performed. 

Mr.  Young,  by  attending  par- 
ticularly to  the  depth  of  plough- 
ing in  various  towns  in  England, 
ibund  that  the  average  depth  in 


PLC 

fandy  foils  was  four  Indies,  iif 
loamy  foils  /our  and  three  quar- 
ters, and  in  clayey  foils  three  and 
an  half.  But  in  Ireland  they 
plough  much  deeper;  fometimes 
not  lefs  than  nine  or  tea  inches. 
Our  fanners  are  fometimes  led 
to  plough  too  fliallow,  to  fave  a 
little  labour.  And  fome  are  too 
much  afraid  to  turn  up  what 
they  call  dead  earth.  But  they 
fhould  know  that  all  the  foil  a- 
bove  the  hard  pan  may  be  well 
employed  in  tillage,  for  fome 
crops  or  other  ;  and  that  if  they 
turn  up  a  red  foil,  it  will  in  a 
year  or  tv/o  become  dark,  and  fit 
to  nourifh  plants,  by  being  expof- 
ed  to  the  fun  and  the  weather^ 
and  imbibing  rich  particles  from 
the   atmofphere. 

Trench,  ploughing  is  fome- 
times praclifed  to  advantage  ;  and 
the  culture  of  fome  plants  with 
tap  roots  reguires  it.  This  is 
done  by  pafling  a  plough  twice 
in  a  furrov/.  Ground  may  be 
thus  ploughed  to  the  depth  of 
twelve  or  fifteen  inches.  But, 
inffead  of  this  double  labour  ot 
the  plough,  where  labourers  are 
plenty,  the  furrows  may  be  deep- 
ened widi  fhovcls,  by  a  number 
of  hands  following  the  plough* 

In  old  countries,  where  lands 
have  been  tilled  for  a  thoufand 
years,  and  have  been  frequently 
manured,  the  rich  black  foil  has 
been  growing  deeper  and  deep- 
er. So  that  trench  ploughing  by 
this  time  may  be  very  proper  ia 
many  of  their  fields  ;  and  even 
necefTary  to  bring  up  the  flrength 
of  manures,  which  has  fubfided 
to  a  greater  depth  than  common 
ploughing  reaches. 

But  there  is  only  a  fmall  pro- 
portion of  our  land  in  this  coun^ 
try,  to  which  trench  ploughing 
is  fuitable,  or  which  will  well 
pay  the  coft  of  it.  In  moft 
of   o^or  foils^  even   where    the 

kari 


P  L  O 

Jian!  under  ftratiim,  or  pan,  Hfs 
deep,  trench  ploughing  woulJ 
throw  up  fo  mm  U  cold  hungry 
earth,  and  bury  the  upper  mould 
fo  deep,  as  to  render  the  land 
very  barren  at  hrft.  The  places 
where  it  would  anfwcr  bcft,  arc 
hollows,  into  which  much  vege- 
table mould  has  been  waflicd 
down  ironi  the  neighbouring 
heights,  which  hasablackraoory 
foil  to  a  great  depth  ;  and  fuch 
fpots  as  have  been  uled  as  gar- 
dens, and  have  been  ottcn  dug 
with  the  fpadc. 

li  labour  of  raen  and  teams 
were  as  cheap  as  it  is  in  fome 
countries,  it  would  he  advifabic, 
fo  give  more  ot  ourdcepeft  foils 
this  culture  than  we  do  at  pref- 
cnt.  But  wherever  it  is  once 
begun,  it  fhould  be  continued,  at 
leaft  tlirough  a  coarfe  of  tilTage  ; 
or  elfe  the  firft  ploughings  will 
be  worfc  than  lofl.  The  bell  of 
the  foil  would  be  buried  at  fuch 
a  depth  as  to  become  almoit  ufe- 
lefs,  unlefs  it  were  alternately 
brought  near  the  furfacc,  by  af- 
ter ploughings  equally  deep. 

Regard  fhould  be  had  to  the 
fhape  of  the  land  in  plougliing. 
They  who  plough  a  deep  hill  up 
and  down  injure  their  cattle,  and 
raifs  of  ploughing  their  land  to 
advantage.  The  furrow  that  is 
drawn  up  hill  mud  be  cxceflivc- 
ly  fhoal  ;  or  the  team  much 
ftrongcr  than  common.  For  this 
rcafon  a  hill  ftiould  be  ploughed 
horizontally  ;  with  turrows  as 
nearly  parallel  to  thehafe  as  pof- 
liblc.  This  may  be  caUIy  done 
when  all  the  fides  of  a  hill  are  to 
be  ploughed  at  once.  The  rains 
will  carry  much  ot  the  hncit  ot 
the  foil  to  the  bottom  of  the  hill. 
if  the  furrows  are  made  up  and 
down.  But  ploughed  the  other 
way,  the  heniings,  or  parting  fur- 
rows, will  be  fufficicnt  drains  ; 
and  the  water  will  roovc  fo  ilow. 


ly  in  them,  that  none  of  the  foil 
will  be  waOicdaway.  But  when 
a  hill  is  very  fleep,  no  turning  of 
a  furrow  upwards  thould  be  at- 
tempted. And  if  only  one  fide 
ot  a  fleep  hill  is  to  he  ploughed, 
the  turrows  fhould  be  all  cut  the 
fame  way,  the  team  returning 
light  after  each  furrow. 

The  reader  will  perceive,  that 
what  is  commonly  called  crofs 
ploughing  on  hills'  fides  is  not 
approved.  But  crofs  ploughing 
of  land  that  is  level,  or  gently 
Hoping,  is  oftentimes  very  prop- 
er. Land  in  general  fhould  be 
ploughed  one  way  and  the  other 
alternately,  that  it  may  he  the 
more  thoroughly  pnlverifed  and 
mixed  ;  that  is,  when  the  fhape 
ot  the  groimd  and  the  dimcn- 
fions  of  a  lot  admit  of  it. 

Green  fward  groun<l,  that  i» 
broken  up  in  the  full,  is  ufually 
crofs  ploughed  in  the  fpring  fol- 
lowing. But  this  fhould  not  be 
done  without  caution.  For  if 
the  turf  be  nbt  confiderably  rot- 
ted, crofs  ploughing  will  only 
drive  it  into  heaps,  inflead  of 
cutting  it  to  pieces  :  Neither 
will  the  harrow  reduce  the  turf 
to  powder.  In  this  cafe  it  will 
be  befl  to  omit  the  crofs  plough- 
ing :  And  after  a  heavy  harrow- 
ing length  wife  of  the  furrows, 
feed  the  land  with  peafe,  pota- 
toes, maize,  or  any  thing  that 
will  do  well   with  ftich  culture. 

Some  plough  green  fward  in 
the  fpring  and  feed  it  without 
delay.  It  lometimcs  docs  well 
for  maize,  oats,  and  flax,  if  well 
dunged  ;  or  tor  peafe  and  pota- 
toes without  much  dunging. 
Potatoes  fecm  to  do  better  tlian 
any  thing  elfe.  But  the  holes 
mufl  t>e  made  quite  through  the 
turrows,  whether  dunged  or  not. 
As  this  crop  requires  the  greatcft 
part  of  its  nourifhment  in  the  lat- 
ter part  of  fummcr,  about   that 

time 


'i64 


^  L  O 


time  the  turf  comes  to  be  in  its 
beft  ftate  for  yielding  nourifh- 
ment  to  plants. 

For  a  crop  of  winter  wheat  the 
tillage  ground  fhould  be  plough- 
ed in  the  fpring,  again  in  Ji^ne, 
and  laflly  iuft  before  fowing. 
Whatever  manure  be  put  on,  it 
fhould  be  juft  before  the  lafl 
ploughing,  and  ploughed  in  im- 
mediately. If  the  grain  be 
ploughed  ia  with  a  flioal  furrow, 
it  will  not  be  fo  apt  to  be  killed 
by  the  winter.  The  roots  will 
lie  deeper  than  thofe  of  harro^\'- 
ed  grain  ;  and  it  will  the  better 
bear  drought  in  the  following 
fummer,  if  that  fhould  happen. 

For  other  feeding  in  genera!, 
or  for  whatever  is  planted  or 
fown  in  the  fpring,  on  what  we 
call  old  ground,  it  fhould  be 
ploughed  near  the  time  of  feed- 
ing, although  it  were  ploughed 
in  the  fall  ;  and  the  nearer  to  the 
time  ot  feeding  the  better.  The 
feeds  will  be  the  better  fupplied 
with  moifture  to  make  them  veg- 
etate ;  and  the  crop  will  ha\e 
the  better  chance  or  being  able 
to  outgrow  and  ftifle  the  weeds, 
and  have  the  benefit  of  a  loofer 
foil,  during  the  whole  of  its 
growth.  Thefe  autumnal  plough- 
ings,  I  laave  found  to  be  greatly 
advantageous,  efpecidUy  in  clays, 
and  in  ftiff  loams. 

Many,  to  fave  labour,  plough 
their  land  fo  fhallow  for  fowing, 
as  fcarcely  to  take  up  the  roots 
of  the  weeds.  Men  of  common 
underflanding,  I  Ihould  fuppofe, 
need  not  be  told  that  this  is  bad 
hufbandry  :  For  it  may  rational- 
ly be  expected  that  there  will  be 
a  larger  crop  of  weeds,  than  if  it 
had  not  been  ploughed  at  all  ; 
and  that  the  roots  of  the  plants 
will  not  have  fufficient  room  to 
extend  themfelves.  Ploughing 
the  ground  in  autumn  will  have 
a  tendency  to  prevent  tliis  moil 


P  L  O 

abfurd  conduct  ia  the  fpring, 
which  m.anj^  go  into  that  they 
may  favour  their  teams  in  a  fainS 
feafon.  ■■ 

That  l^Q^  may  be  fown  as  ear- 
ly as  poflible,  many  are  led  to 
give  the  feed  furrow  before  the 
ground  is  fuiiicie'ntly  dry.  If  the 
crop  fiiould  be  a  little  earlier,  it 
will  be  the  poorer.  It  will  be 
flower  in  coming  up  ;  more  of 
the  feeds  will  fail  ;  thebladewill 
be  more  flender ;  nor  v/ill  it  grow 
fo  faff  as  if  it  were  fowed  later» 
when  the  gfound  is  warmer^  ' 
Sometimes  it  will  not  grow  at  all 
for  a  long  time,  but  become  fo' 
ftinted,  that  a  crop  mull  be  def- 
paired  of.  No  practice  can  be 
worle  than  to  give  the  feed  fur- 
row in  ftifffoils,  before  the  ground 
is  fufliciently  dried. 

Land  that  is  low,  and  flat,  and 
therefore  apt  to  be  too  wet  and 
heavy,  ought  to  be  ploughed  in 
ridges.  The  ridges  may  have 
two,  three  or  four  furrows  on 
each  fide, accordingas  the  ground 
is  wetter  or  drier.  The  wetteft 
ground  fhould  have  the  narroweil 
ridges  ;  hot  they  fhould  never  be 
narrower  than  four  furrows  in  a 
ridge.  The  rows  will  be  between 
four  and  five  feet  apart,  if  one 
row  of  plants  be  fet  on  each  ridge. 
But  if  there  be  fix  or  eight  fur- 
rows in  a  ridg-e,  it  may  admit  of 
two  rows,  one  on  each  fide  of  the 
veering. 

After  lying  in  ridges  through 
the  winter,  the  ridges  fhould  be 
thrown  into  the  hollows  by  an- 
other ploughing  in  the  fpring  ; 
vrhicli  will  bring  it  into  good  or- 
der for  feeding. 

Or  if  it  fhould  be  too  miry  to 
be  ploughed  in  the  fpring,  either 
maize  or  potatoes  may  be  planted  4> 
on  the  ridges  ;  and  what  is  want- 
ing <jf  the  proper  tillage,  may  be 
made  up  after  the  ground  is  be- 
come drier,  by  frequent  and  deep 

koif(» 


P  L  O 

horfe  hoeings.  Good  crops  of 
maize  have  been  obtained  in  this 
method  on  land,  whick,  with 
plain  ploughing,  would  have  pro- 
duced next  to  nothing. 

Moft  of  our  clay  foils,  which 
lie  level,  require  this  fort  ot  cul- 
ture ;  for  this  more  than  any  oth- 
er foil  IS  liable  to  be  injured  by 
overmuch  wetnefs.  And  the 
drier  it  lies  the  weaker  will  be 
the  cohefion  of  its  parts. 

Some  foils  which  lie  gently 
Hoping  are  fo  wet  as  to  need  ridg- 
ing, it  is  not  beft  to  make  the 
ridges  dire6tly  up  and  down  the 
Hope,  nor  horizontally,  but  on  a 
medium  between  both.  But 
where  the  land  will  admit  ot  it, 
the  ridges  (hohld  lie  north  and 
fomh.  It  is  tK)  bad  praftice  to 
Iny  lands  to  grafs  in  ridges  or  beds. 
For  too  much  wetnefs  is  apt  to 
hurt  grafs  lands,  as  well  as  lands 
tor  tillage,  whether  they  are  ufed 
for  mowing  or  palluragc.  In  the 
formej',  the  grafs  will  be  too  four  j 
to  make  a  good  hay  ;  in  the  lat- 
ter, not  only  the  grafs  will  be  bad, 
but  the  foil  fo  foft  as  not  well  to 
bear  the  tread  of  cattle.  I  have 
found  that  not  only  better  grals, 
but  a  greater  quantity,  will  be 
produced  in  this  method.  Nor 
will  the  foil  fo  foon  become 
hird  and  bound. 

Nor  is  it  a  bad  praftice  to  fplit 
the  hills  with  the  light  plough  in 
autumn,  dier  a  crop  of  maize  ; 
e-  j!i  the  ground  be  not 

Ic  the  following  fpnng. 

<)  irowolhillsisplough- 

C'  1  one  furrow,  and  the 

other  (ide  ploughed  off  the  con- 
trary way  by  anyther  furrow,  fo 
as  to  form  veerings,  orridgc";.  in 
the  intorv,r<  It  1.  t,u-,'..  m-d 
with   Icis  lie 

•'f  -^  ■•'  ■•■'  :  .  >.  ,.....^-  .  „.iw  wv.ar- 
l\  >\c  of   the    furface  is 

«ii...,  L  ,,v  n  up  or  covered.  Eji- 
xopeaa  writers  tliink  land  Qiould 

li 


P  L  U 


26  n 


nd 

I  noies, 
not  to 


be  ploughed  immcdiat'»lv 
crop  of  maize,    to    | 
ftubs-  from  robbing  t 
juices.     Be  this  as 

pin-  •«••"-•   ••     ■•     I  ■■" 

Oti 

when-  (in'!g  U.1N  ■ 

it  mixes  it  witfi 
mentior»  the  burying  i>t  lome  of 
the  ituLs  lid  'eives  of  the  corn, 
which  is  fd  fume  advantage  to- 
wards enriching  the  foil. 

There  is  another  way  of 
ploughing  called  ribbing;  which 
is  making  furrows  unconnefted 
with  each  other,  three  feet  or 
more  afunder.  It  is  but  about  a 
fourth  part  fo  much  work  as 
ploughing  plain.  One  very  con- 
fiderable  advantage  of  it  is,  in- 
creaftng  the  fuperficiesot  the  foil, 
by  which  it  is  more  expolcd  to 
the  atlion  of  frofl,  air,  and  dews, 
and  abforbs  the  lurgefl  quantity 
of  niHriti\ic  particles. 

In  tillage  land  that  is  fteep, 
ribbing  is  a  further  benefit  to  the 
foil,  as  it  prevents  the  walhing 
down  of  the  vegetable  mould, 
and  the  flrength  ot  manures. 
With  this  view  the  operation 
fhould  be  performed  in  autumn. 
And  the  plough  mufl  pafs  hori- 
zonully,  or  nearly  fo,  not  up  and 
down  the  fleep. 

In  paftiires  or  grazing  land,  de- 
clivities would  pi  orluce  the  more 
grafs,  if  they  were  ribbed  ;  as  the 
benefit  of  fudden  rains  would  not 
fo  foon  be  over,  by  moans  ot  their 
quickly  running  down  into  the 
vallies.  At  the  fame  time,  the 
vailies  wouKl  not  fo  often  be 
overcharged  with  water.  Furrows 
eight  or  ten  feet  ajartwouKl  an- 
fwer,  and  the  ribHing  would  not 
want  to  be  rejx-uied  tor  a  long 
lime.  The  furrows  (hould  Ik:  a« 
nearly  hori7' •  •  '^  «  poffibic,  a» 
well  as  in  iii 

PLl'M  1  ii...  -K.  I unus, done 
fruit  trcci.'A'Uich  produce   their  « 

fruit 


f^6 


P  O  L 


fruit  upon   fpurs,  that  fpring  out 
ot  all  parts  ot  the  limbs. 

The  moft  common  plum  in 
this  country,  is  the  damafcene 
plum,  an  excellent  fruit  ior  pre- 
serving, which  is  faid  to  have  been 
brought  from  Damafcus,  whence 
the  name. 

The  black  bullace,  is  a  glob- 
ular, tart  fruit,  of  the  flze  of 
grapes  ;  befideSjfome  very  crab- 
bed wild  forts,  which  are  oval 
fliaped, are  found  in  fome  parts  ot 
this  country.  There  is  alfo  a  re- 
markable wild  plum,  peculiar  to 
an  illand  near  Newbury,  of  a  fmall 
fize,  and  by  fome  much  valued. 

Tl>e  better  forts  which  are  cul- 
tivated, are  the  horfe  plum,  a  very 
pleafant  taRcd  juicy  fruit,  ot  a 
large  fize  :  The  peacli  plum,  red 
towards  the  fun,  with  an  agreea- 
ble tartnefs  :  The  pear  plum,  fo 
called  from  its  ihape,  wliich  is 
fwect,  and  of  an  excellent  tafte  : 
The  wheat  plum,  extremely 
fwect,  oval,  and  furrov.'ed  in  the 
i-hiddle,  not  large  :  The  green 
gage  plum,  which  is  generally 
preferred  before  all  the  reft. 

All  the  varieties  ot  plum  trees 
jnay  be  propagated  by  budding,  or 
grafting.  Budding  is  preferable, 
as  thefe  trees  are  apt  to  difcharge 
a  gum,  where  large  wounds  are 
made.  The  trees  grow  befl  in  a 
foil  that  is  on  a  medium  betwixt 
wet  and  dry.  They  fliould  be 
iept  clear  of  fuckers,  and  have 
but  little  other  pruning  ;  and 
care  fhould  be  taken  not  to  di- 
minilh  or  wound  the  fpurs. 

POLL  EVIL,"  an impofthume 
on  the  poll  of  a  horfe.  At  firft  it 
requires  no  other  method  ot  cure 
than  what  is  common  to  other 
boils,  and  inflamed  tumours.  But 
iomctimes  it  degenerates  to  a  finu- 
ous  ulcer,  through  ill  manage- 
ment, or  ncgletf. 

"  There  is  a  fmall  finus  under  the 
noil  bone,  where  the  matter-  i« 


P  O  !^ 

apt  to  lodge,  unlefs  careb<*  takea' 
to  keep  the  part  firm  with  a  band- 
age :  But  inflead  of  that  the  far- 
riers generally  ufe  to  ihruft  in  a 
long  teat,  which  raifes  the  flefh, 
and  opens  a  way  into  the  finus. 
And  thus  an  ulcer  is  created' 
where  there  needs  be  none.  All" 
therefore  that  is  further  neceffa- 
ry  on  this  head  is,  to  caution  the 
practitioner  againfl  fuch  ill  meth- 
ods. And  it  the  tumour  has  a 
•  very  large  cavity,  it  is  better  to 
lay  it  open,  than  to  thrult  foreign 
fubftances  into  it.  And  if  it  ac- 
quires an  ulcerous  difpofition,  if 
muft  be  treated  as  fueh."  Gtb- 
fons  Farriery. 

POND,  a  collcaion  of  Hill  wa- 
ter. A  mill  pool  is  fo  called, 
though  it  gradually  receives  wa-- 
ter  in  one  part,  and  difcharges  it 
in  another  :  So  that  it  is  not  per- 
fe6fly  ftill  water.  The  water  is 
fo  often  fhitted,.  that 'it  is  not'apt 
to  putrefy-. 

Failures  that  are  deftitute  of 
water,  fhould  hare  artificial 
ponds  made  in  them,  for  water- 
ing places.  *■'  Obferve  where 
rulhes,  reeds,  flags,  and  other  a- 
quatick  plants  grow  fpontane- 
oufly  ;  or  where  frogs  are  ob-- 
ferved  to  lie  Iquatted  down  clofe 
to  the  ground,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive its  moillure.  Or  obferve" 
where  a  vapour  is  frequently  feeii 
to  rife  from  the  fame  fpot.  Some  • 
fay,  wherever  little  fwarms  of 
flies  are  feen  conflantly  flying  in 
the  fame  place,  and  near  the 
ground,  in  the  morning  after 
funrife,  there  is  water  under- 
neath." "  If  a  well  is  made  in  a 
floping  ground,  and  the  declivity^ 
is  fufficient  to  give  it  a  horizon- 
tal vent,  it  will  be  worth  the  huf- 
bandman's  while  to  dig  fuch  a 
pafTagc,  and  by  means  of  pipes, 
or  any  other  conveyance,  to  car- 
ry the  water- acrofs  the  light  foil,, 
tliroligh  which  it  might  other- 
wife 


P  O  T< 

wifeHnk.    Th-  -:->^.  ■'■!.... .--v  i 
of  water  will 

'.  necjuic   uu'if  will  w<-  4  j 
i  fircam. '     There  i»  no; 
•nc  d  durable  ! 
W.  Let  a  large 
hollosv   D....;:i  I'.'    made    in  Inch 
earth,  and  it  will  prefcrve  the  wa- 
ter that  tails  in  rain.     Biu  it  is 
apt  to  be  fhich  snd  dirty.il  fome 
pains  be  nt  it. 

The  de-  c  cat- 

tle i,  and 

j:ra  a  the 

Or  It  imgiit  be  better  it 
T  !e  were  paved. 

i  here  arc   many  b'  i' 

ponds,  which  have  oir.  c 

part,  and  are  fuppHcd  by  brooks 
or  ri%*ers  in  otnr-r  narts  ;  but  a 
greater  numl  iler  ponds 

which  are  pc,  u  ....  — „'nant,  un- 
Jcfs  when  tliey  arc  a^jit  ucd  by 
■winds.  Suchpondsas  the  laixer. 
in  hot  feafons,  are  apttolecomc 
putrid,  and  c — ^ — ite  the  air 
about  them.  vrafon  they 

fhould,  it  pc.'.iiDic,  rj  drained. 
Aad  when  the  water  is  not  deep, 
and  an  outlet  can  be  II.    '  'i- 

oui  too  much  coft.  t  ■{ 

be  drained  toi  the  fahe  or  reclaim- 
ing the  I'o.I.  This  will  be  ot 
great  value,  as  it  commonly  is 
found  'T  be  extremely  rich,  he- 


wai 

.\:  funk- 

en  fpots,  which  are  moil  of  the 
year  covere  !  u ::';  w.ct  -,  r-.'id  pro- 
duce fo;  >>  and 
Aveeds, .s  har- 
bours tor  frogs  :  and  .irc  thcrc- 
f'.-o  ,-.]'.}    r,.,T    ^-v" '.-       i  hey 

pr3C- 

••le 
1 


POP  2^7 

they  would  be  worth  when  drain, 
cd.  bccaule  of  the  height  ol  tlic 
land  on  every  fide.  But  in  ihi* 
cafe,  if  the  banks  he  not  clay, 
they  may  be  drained  in  the  fol- 
1  ).•  !nj5  manner. 

1  akc  notice  on  winch  fide  l.tnd 

that  is   lower  than  ihe  pond  is 

neareft.     On   i'        '  in   the 

bank  near  the  ,  _  a  kind 

of  ccllai,  two  or  iU..:c  !cci  deep- 

,  er  than  the  furf.jcc  of  the  pond  i 

I  do  it  in  a  dry  feafon.     If  a  hard 

j  flraium  appear,  dig  through  it  ; 

!  and  leave  digging  where  the  bot- 

(  tom    is    looie   gravel,   or    fand. 

1  Then  make  an  open  or  a  covered 

'  drain  from  the  pond  to  the  cellar. 

1  The   vater   will   be   difcharged 

I  from  the  pond,  and  foak  into  the 

j  esrth  through  the  bottom  of  the 

!  cellar,  till  a    fcurf  is  formed  on 

{  the  bottom  that  will  flop  the  wa- 

,  xcr  from  foakir-  '"'"   ''^  •  "'•-f^. 

,  1  his  fcurf  fho 

I  time  to  time,  aii'i  ia^eiin»  .i>  v>,.ii 

a    long  handled    hoe.     Or,   the 

j  cellar  may  be   f.llcd  up  with  reJ- 

life  ftones,  which  I  think  is  pret- 

I  crable  to  the  other   method. 

j      If  the  pond   Ihould  not  then 

I  become  f    '  r  dry,  a  fmall 

I  ditch  fho  .  'wii  round  it, 

!  :■    "  'lie cellar. 

I   J  lined  will 

he  ncii  muck,  much  of  which 

mnv  be  carted  away  for  manure  ; 

>mmon  earth,  or  fand,  may 

e  it,  without  detriment  lu 

I  the  loil. 

i  POPL.'\R.  Popui'uf,  a  well 
known  tree  of  quick  growth  ; 
but  fiiort  lived,  and  feUlom  ar- 
rives to  any  great  fi^c.  The 
v^TJod  decays  very  Toon  >\rhen  c\- 
poicd  to  tlie  weather.  But  '-"tmi; 
a  white,  fweet,  and  light  wood, 
it  is  d^d  for  trays,  and  various 
turned  \      '     ^' 

The  J.'  '  plat  begins  to 


aa  I 


li- 


268 


POT 


The  trees  grow  moft  rapidly,  are 
ftraight,  tall,  and  beautifully  ta- 
periiig  ;  and  are  therefore  covet- 
ed for  groves,  and  to  adorn  yards 
and  avenues.  They  fiourifh  well 
in  a  moift  foil,  and  everl  in  a 
heavy  and  clayey  one.  To  what 
fize  they  will  arrive,  and  how  du- 
rable they  will  be  in  this  country, 
time  willdifcover. 

POTATO,  Solanurn,  a  well 
known  vegetable.  This  plant  is 
defcribed  by  Mr.  Houghton,  to 
be  a  bacciferous  herb,  v»'ith  efcu- 
lent  roots,  bearing  winged  leaves, 
and  a  belled  ilower. 

The  potato  was  not  known  in 
Europe,  till  carried  thither  from 
Virginia,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh, 
in  the  year  1623.  He  flopped  at 
Ireland,  where  he  gave  away  ma- 
ny oi  the  roots,  which  were  plant- 
ed there,  and  multiplied  fo  laft, 
that  in  the  wars  that  happened  af- 
terwards, when  ail  tiie  corn  was 
deiiroyed,  potatoes  \\'ere  the  chief 
fupport  of  the  people. 

It  is  more  than  half  a  century 
iince  thii  root  found  iis  way  into 
this  country.  And  within  thir- 
ty or  forty  years  they  have  been 
much  cultivated.  They  have 
been  found  by  long  experience, 
to  be  a  'v^ery  wholefome  food  for 
man  :  For  no  people  enjoy  bet- 
ter health  and  fpirits  than  the 
common  people  of  Ireland,  who 
make  them  their  principal  food. 
So  that  their  being  clafFed  by 
botanifls  among  poifonous  plants, 
will  not  deter  its  from  cultivat- 
ing them,  and  freely  feeding  up- 
on them.  If  they  were  eaten 
raw,  perhaps  they  would  be 
lound  to  be  very  unwholefome. 
Biit,  kkc  feveral  other  plants,  the 
aiiion  of  lire  renders  them  very 
wholefome,  and  nourifhing  to 
man  and  beaft. 

The  colour  of  tlie  roots  may  be 
known  by  the  flowers.  The 
white  have  white,  and  the  red 


POT 

reddifli  flowers,  fucceeded  Ify  aa 
apple,  or  berry,  as  big  as  a  grape, 
containing  a  rauhitudc  of  fmall 
white  feeds.  Potatoes  are  ufually 
propagated  by  the  roots  :  But  it 
is  eafy  to  propagate  them  feverr- 
al  other  ways.  Cuttings  from 
the  top  branches,  fet  in  the 
ground,  will  produce  a  confider- 
able  crop.  The  cuttings  will 
even  flrike  root,  if  they  are 
planted  bottom  upwards.  The 
fprouts  broken  from  potatoes 
which  have  been  kept  in  cellars 
will  produce  roots.  So  will  the 
apples,  the  bare  eyes  or  buds,  or 
even  a  piece  out  of  the  heart  of 
a  potato. 

There  feems  to  be  nothing 
about  a  potato  but  what  is  pro- 
lifick,  like  the  polypus.  The, 
parts  of  the  plant,  above  and  be- 
low the  furface  of  the  earth, 
feem  to  be  the  fame.  The  run- 
ning roots  produce  fruit,  if  con- 
fined under  ground  ;  but  if  they 
chance  to  pierce  through  the 
furface,  they  bear  leaves  and  ap- 
ples. So  that  potatoes  may  be 
confidered  as  a  fruit  growing  un- 
der the  furface  of  the  ground. 

The  forts  or  varieties,  may  be 
multiplied  in  infinitum.  It  is 
therefore  ftrange  that  fo  few 
forts  have  yet  been  known  in 
this  country.  No  longer  ago 
than  about  the  year  1740.  we  had 
but  one  fort,  a  fmall  reddifh  col- 
oured potato,  of  fo  rank  a  taftc 
that  it  was  fcarcely  eatable. 
Soon  after  this,  the  white  kid- 
ney potato  appeared,  as  good 
table  potatoes  as  any  that  I  have 
known  fince;  ualcfs  the  brown 
rough  coated  potato  be  except- 
ed, which  v/as  introduced  foon 
after.  Since  thefe  we  have 
had  the  Spanifh  potato,  ex- 
tremely prolifick,  but  fit  only 
for  cattle  and  fwine  :  Then  the 
bunker  potato  :  The  fmall  round 
potato,  white  and  good  tafled :  A 

long 


POT 

T','  ;   i"!  n.!rt  w:.;to. '  ■ 

!  the  late  ■y.-iT  :  .\    .i v:l 

V  '.mcoftin 

t.:  jx>r3t->. 

f:  .oar:   P 

C  potat-^. 

no  appjr--  />n  ■ 
of  ail,  t.  .^   w: 

lad  IS  a^  (  'eaiant  tatird  as  any 
that  arc  now  culti\-atcd,  and  ex- 
ceeded by  none,  unleU  it  be  the 
yellow  roii^h  coat. 

In  th*  ycaf  i~Sj,  I  planted  in 

JPV       ■   '-   "--v        '     "       •■   •    ■-'■    ■>!•    -^'^    ♦.^"> 

Ic 

V...  . ^    T    .     ..      ..i^     -...;. 

roujjh  '.kinned  p<i:aroj>.  From 
&.■  •  '  ^-  —■' ten  varieties, 

r»  ".  anv  I  have 

fc:- 

t'..'.  .rrung.  !o  •;i::inj'ir  ^  Jrer.c- 

-,-       t:ht  beeafily  guefled.    As 

r         i  forts  had  erov«m  mixed  to-  • 

^l:;..:.  I    fuppofed    thoir    f^ein^ 

impregnated  Mnih  t!~ 

rttJ»:yaiij  ot  each  oth 

calion      thefe      new      vir.etie>. 

Sor?e  f>f  thcTt    ap-^ctir  r^  :  c  cx- 

Ci  ' 

P- 

t\. 
x.y 
til.  .'c  IS  no 

.  I  have 
fo  -  ot  po- 

ti-  no  new 

tb  ..I,    >.;..   ;..^    . .  Mrrr.ers. 

rhey  hold  it   to  be  accelTary  t  j 

do  !i  once  •-  •  -   -  - 

%-cars  ;  bee 

prjtatoes  degci.orj.  \  .;  i  i  -i; 

lefs    and     lefs    till    they   airy.  >:* 

come  to   nothing,      ' 

rough  coats,  anri    w 

potatoes,  have  thus  tailed  :z.  . 

counlrr  ;  and    mhcr   fort*    h 


POT 


2F5 


"  '  improved 
.  from  the 

I  ::i  c  much  reafon  to  think. 

renewed  potatoes  %rill  prove 

ptT>J'!*iivc  :  For.  in  the 

three  pecks  of  the 

i  ir.  3  ?m".\  "v.'poor 


^na  hunared  rooueach; 

. .'  3  greater  number,  by  a 

third    part,    than    I    have  ever 

found  of  other  forts.     This  was 

the  fccond  year  from  the  feed. 

As   fomc  perfons  may  be  dif- 

pofcd   to   renew    their   potatoc* 

trom   the  top  feec,  I  fliall   here 

pive    the   method  of  doing   it. 

Take  t**-    — '  -  in  the  bejrin- 

ning  ot  (  'eJore  the  troft 

::tcr:  :   riang    them  up 

ot  fta!ks  in  a  dry  clofet, 

v.".ers  :  '  :  :   Let 

them  h?    _  pnl  : 

Then  nialli  tr.e  j.-^.-^ij:.  -.c 

feeds    from  the  pulp.  :>* 

n  in  a  funny  window,     ijow 

iceds  in  a  bed,  about  the  firft 

of  May.     \\'hen   the  ;:• 

four  or  five  irc':-^-    *- 

plant  them  ir 

'.' ''C?.  <^ic  r:  •  .... 

-::    Tuii    grown 
_,,    -:,  '-•':   :nc    roc:? 

w^ill  be  ■ 
if  the   fe, 
tumn,  fomc  • 

:  :$  more   cot- 
.1   jj.peariog  in  fiei..-.  .^.,^.c 
p  >:atoei  have    been   raifcd    ibe 


^  are  come  to  be  of 


,.-it 


piwJUw^;* 


syo  POT 

produces  the  beft  eatingpotatoes ; 
one  that  is  rather  moift  will  give 
the  largell  crops.  But  if  ybii 
plant  them  in  a  clay  foil,  they 
•will  be  ill  tafted,  wormy,  and  fit 
only  tor  cattle.  The  land  fhould 
be  ploughed  deep  for  this  crop  ; 
becaufe  roots  will  commonly 
grow  as  low  as  the  foil  is  Ilirred, 
and  no  deeper.  And  the  more 
the  ground  is  pulverifed  before 
planting,  the  better  will  be  the 
crop. 

Perhaps  green  fward  ground 
ought  to  be  mentioned  here  as 
an  exception.  I  have  had  the 
largefl  crops  on  fuch  land,  even 
•with  one  ploughing,  and  that 
3ull  before  planting.  I  account 
ior  it  thus  :  Potatoes  want 
air  ;  fuch  land  affords  it  from  the 
hollows  under  the  furrows,  in 
no  fmall  quantity,  both  fixed  and 
putrid,  and  in  the  greatefl  abun- 
dance towards  the  end  of  fum- 
mer,  when  they  require  the 
greatefl  quantity  of  nourifhment. 

No  dung  is  found  to  be  more 
fuitable  tor  potatoes  than  hogs' 
dung,  mixed  with  a  great  deal  of 
j[lraw,  or  other  rubbifh.  This 
dung  is  late  in  fermenting,  and 
therefore  affords  the  roots  plenty 
or  nourilhment,  when  they  mofl 
need  it.  And  as  they  want  air 
and  room,  rubbilh,  and  even 
Clicks  and  chips,  or  any  thing 
that  makes  the  ground  lie  light  and 
hollow,  encourages  their  growth. 

But  thofe  roots  are  account- 
ed befl  tor  eating,  which  are 
raifed  without  dung.  I  once 
had  a  middling  crop,  by  putting 
a  handful  of  old  weather  beaten 
fak  hay  in  each  hill.  New  land, 
burnt,  produces  excellent  roots, 
and  a  large  crop,  without  any 
manure  but  what  is  made  by  the 
burning  ;  fometimes  not  lefs  than 
a  peck  in  a  hill. 

The  potato  is  fo  hardy  a 
plant,  that  it  will  grow  in  any 


P  O  T 

kind  of  foil,  and  even  with  the 
pooreft  culture.  It  is  a  great  im- 
prover of  land  ;  not  only  by  the 
rotting  of  its  fucculcn't  ftalks, 
which  fhould  be  buried  in  th^ 
foil  at,  or  immediately  after  dig- 
ging ;  but  the  digging  itlclt  is  a 
further  improvement.  A  crop 
of  potatoes  is  good  to  prepare 
land  for  other  crops.  It  is  not 
imcommon,  on  poor  land,  with 
very  little  cultivation  and  with- 
out manure,  to  obtain  one  hun- 
dred bufhels  per  acre.  But  iti 
Ireland,  with  deep  ploughing, 
or  digging,  with  manure,  four 
times  that  quantity  is  common  : 
And^vlr.  Youngmentionsone  in 
fiance  of  an  acre  in  England,  pro- 
ducing a  thoufand  bulhels.  As 
they  will  grow  almofl  any  how, 
we  are  tempted  to  negleft  them  ; 
but  no  crop  that  1  know  of  will 
better  pay  for  good  cultivation. 

The  firfl  of  May  is  perhaps  the 
right  feafon  for  planting  pota- 
toes, in  a  dry  warm  foil  :  But 
they  will  fometimes  produce 
well,  though  planted  at  the  laft 
of  June.  An  early  crop  w-ill  be 
better  ripened,  and  more  dry 
and  mealy.  A  late  one  is  unfolid 
and  watery,  as  the  roots  do  not 
arrive  to  their  full  maturity. 

When  the  ground  has  been 
well  prepared,  by  deep  plough- 
ing, crofs  ploughing,  and  har- 
rowing,let  the  fets  be  prepared  by 
cutting.  Pieces,  as  I  apprehend, 
are  better  for  fets  than  whole  po- 
tatoes. Pieces  confume  quick 
in  the  earth,  and  pafs  their  fub- 
flance  into  the  ne:w  plants  : 
But  when  potatoes  are  planted 
whole,  they  come  out  of  the 
ground  in  autumn,  almofl  as  hard 
and  folid  as  when  they  were 
planted.  And  whole  potatoes 
fill  tlie  ground  with  fuch  a  mul- 
titude of  roots,  that  they  wiij 
rob  one  another  of  their  nom-- 
ifhment.  I  choofe  potatoes  of  a 
middling 


i>  O  T 

Ihidfiling  fizc  to  cut  into  firts. 
Such  a  one  will  make  half  a 
dozcfi,  or  more  ^ood  fets,  with 
one  or  two  buds  in  each  ;  three 
or  tour  of  which  fets  are  luffi- 
cieni  for  one  hill,  and  they 
/bould  be  plaied  fix  or  eight 
inches  apart ;  for  the  roots  fhould 
never  be  much  crowded. 

The  lliooting  parts  exift  in  a 
potatoe,  in  the  form  of  a  tree,  of 
which  the  llock  is  at  t!je  but,  or 
root  end.  I  therefore  take  care 
to  cut  athwart  thcfc  parts  as  little 
as  polTible  :  For  though  they  will 
grow  any  way,  the  greater  length 
of  fliooting  Hem  there  is  in  a  let, 
the  more  llrong  and  vigorous 
will  be  its  growth  at  firft. 

If  dunw  be  ufed,  it  may  be 
fpread  hetoic  thefecond  plough- 
ing, or  elfe  laid  under  the  fets. 
The  latter  method  will  give  a 
larger  crop.  Dung  laid  under 
the  lets,  will  produce  more  than 
if  laid  above  them  ;  as  Mr.  Wynn 
Baker  proved  by  accurate  exper- 
iments. The  feeding  roots 
fhould  go  into  the  dung,  not  di- 
retily  into  hungry  earth  below; 
and  thefe  roots  ilrike  downwards ; 
and  therefbre  need  fomc  loofe 
earth  under  the  dung  to  extend 
themfclves  into. 

The  lafiiionable  way  of  plant- 
ing potatoes  in  hills,  may  be  as 
good  as  any  in  rough  ground, 
or  that  which  is  not  well  fubdu- 
cd.  But  in  a  rich,  mellow  foil, 
well  pulverifed,  the  drill  method 
is  to bepref erred.  The  fets  may  be 
either  in  fingle  rows,  three  feet, 
or  double,  one  foot  apart,  and 
from  fevcn  to  nine  inches  afun- 
der  in  the  n)ws.  One  ot  my 
neighbours  planted  in  his  gar- 
den, drills  and  rows  of  hilli.  al- 
ternately of  equal  length,  and  c- 
aually  manured  ;  when  he  dug 
tnem  he  found  the  drill  rows 
produced  twice  as  much  as  the 
•tber.    It  u  not  mure  labour  to 


POT 


^71 


lay  the  dung  in  drills,  than  in 
hills  ;  and  the  labour  of  hoeing 
is  not  increafed.  My  tiials  in 
the  drill  way,  have  produced 
only  half  as  much  again.  But  I 
did  not  put  dung  in  the  furrows, 
but  always  put  dung  in  the  hills. 
My  method  has  been,  in  dry" 
ground,  Hrft  to  plough  in  the 
dung  ;  then  harrow  ;  raife  the 
ridges,  and  dibble  the  feis  in^ 
the  ridges. 

The  lazy  bed  method,  or 
trenching,  is  mod  prattifcd  in 
Ireland.  I  have  tried  it  feveral 
times,  and  am  convinced,  that  3 
greater  quantity  on  the  lame 
ground  maybe  raifed  in  this  way,, 
than  in  almoft  any  other.  But 
the  labour  is  fo  great,  as  it  niuft 
he  performed  with  the  fpade,  that 
1  dare  not  recommend  it,  unlefs- 
in  particular  eafes.or  to  thofe  who 
have  but  little  land. 

It  is  a  good,  and  very  cfTeflu- 
al  method,  to  fubdue  bad  weeds* 
in  theborderofafield.whichcan- 
not  well  be  ploughed.  But  the 
foil  fhould  be  deep, that  the  trench- 
es may  not  go  into  the  under  (Ira- 
tum  of  hard  earth, nor  too  near  to  it. 
And  in  this  way  good  crops  may 
be  got  in  Ipringy  and  miry  places, 
which  arc  too  wet  for  ether  til- 
lage. But  the  work  mud  be  be- 
gun in  autumn.  In  Ofclobcr, 
mark  out  the  beds,  five  feet  wide, 
leaving  two  teet  between  each 
bed  for  the  trench  :  Spread  the 
dung  upon  the  beds  :  Dig  the 
trenches,  and  with  their  contents- 
cover  the  beds  to  the  depth  of  a- 
bout  five  inches.  In  May  follow- 
ing, dibble  the  fots  into  the  beds, 
quite  down  to  the  dung,  and  fill 
the  holes  with  earth.  Behdes 
getting  a  good  crop,  the  foil  will 
be  thus  drained  and  fubducd,  and 
fitted  for  ploughing,  and  tillage 
crops. 

An  exjjeditious  way  of  plant- 
ing potatoes  ii  as  fullow(.     Alter 

lh« 


272  POT 

the  ground  is  prepared, by  ploU-gli- 
ing  and  harrowing,  cut  furrows 
■with  the  horfe  plough,  fortv  irtch- 
cs  apart ;  drop  the  fets  in^  the 
furrows  ;  then  pafs  the  plough 
along  the  back  of  each  furrow, 
which  will  throw  the  earth  of 
both  furrows  upoH  the  fets  ;  and 
after\'aids  level  the  ground  with 
the  back  ot  a  harrow,  or  with  a 
harrow  that  has  Ihort  tines  if  you 
will  ;  but  it  is  of  no  great  confe- 
queace  whether  it  be  levelled  at 
all.  Another  method  of  plant- 
ing is,  to  plough  the  ground 
plain,  keeping  the  furrows  llraight 
and  regular,  and  drop  fets  in  eve- 
ry third  or  fourth  furrow.  But 
before  this  is  done,  the  ground 
ihoukl  be  ploughed  and  made 
level  and  fine  with  the  harrow. 

But  the  method  laft  mernioned 
is  fit  only  for  a  dry  foil,  v/here 
the  feed  needs  to  be  laid  deep. 
"Wl^re  the  foil  is  moid,  a  better 
way  %vould  be  to  furrow  the 
ground,  and  lay  the  fets  on  the 
furiace,  clofe  to  the  backs  of  the 
furrows,  and  cover  them  by  turn- 
ing another  furrow  towards  each. 
If  this  fhould  bury  the  fets  too 
deep,  the  ridges  may  be  eafily 
lov/ered,  with  a  hoe  or  a  rake  ; 
but  I  do  not  apprehend  it  would 
be  aecedary.  The  ridges  may 
remain  as  the  plough  leaves  them. 

As  foon  as  rows  oi  potato 
plants  are  grown  to  thelieight  ot 
four  or  five  inches  above  the  fur- 
face,  or  earlier  if  the  ground  be 
Aveedy,  the  cultivator,  with  two 
mouldboards,  fhould  be  pafTed 
between  them,  as  deep  as  One 
borfe  can  draw  it.  For  want  ot 
a  cultivator,  a  common  light 
plough  fhould  go  and  return  in 
an  mterval,  turning  the  earth  at 
the  firfl  ploughing  from,  and  then 
at  the  fecond  towards,  the  rows. 
After  each  ploughing  the  plants 
fliould  be  weeded,  and  a  little  of 
the  treUi  earth  drawn  clofe  to 


POT 

their  flems,  uncovering  thofc 
which  chance  to  be  covered  by 
the  cultivator,  or  plough.  This 
operation  fhould  berepeated  three 
times,  taking  care  not  to  earth- 
the  plants  too  much,  as  fome  are" 
apt  to  do  whei'e  the  ground  is 
light  and  meflow  :  For  potatoes 
will  not  grow  well  more  than  a- 
bout  five  inches  under  the  fur- 
face,  being  too  far  removed  from 
the  influence  of  the  fun.  The 
ridges,  or  hills,  fhould  be  rather 
broad  than  fleep  ;  flat  on  the 
top,  that  the  Avater,  which  falls  in 
rain,  may  notbe  toomuch  divert- 
ed from  the  roots. 

Tl:ie  lail  Iweing  fhould  be  fin- 
ifhed  before  the  plants  are  in  blof- 
fom  ;  and  befoi-e  the  branches  be- 
gin to  trail  upon  the  ground. 
Otherwife  a  new  fet  of  roots  will 
be  formed,  too  late  to  get  their 
full  grov/th,  and  which  will  rob 
the  former  fets  of  their  nourifh- 
ment.  But  if  killing  weeds  be 
I  ecellary  after  bloflbming,  it  may 
be  done  with  the  hand  hoe,  ob- 
fer'v  ing  not  to  earth  up  the  plants 
a-all. 

Cattle  fhould  be  kept  from  a 
field  of  potatoes,  till  'the  roots 
have  got  their  full  growth,  as 
carefully  as  from  a  field  of  corn. 
For  potatoes  will  not  grow  after 
the  tops  are  browfed.  They 
doubtlefs  receive  as  much  of  their 
nourifhment  through  thetops^  as 
almoft  any  plant. 

As  foon  as  the  tops  are  dead, 
either  by  ripenefs  or  by  frofl,  the 
roots  may  be  taken  up.  It  they 
lie  in  the  ground  till  they  are 
foaked  by  the  heavy  autumnal 
rains,  they  will  be  the  worfe  ; 
and  the  labour  of  digging  will  be 
increafed.  Thofe  that  do  not 
much  adhere  to  the  tops,  may  be 
thrown  up  by  the  cultivator,  or 
by  the  horfe  plough,  which  will 
facilitate  the  digging.  But  the 
tops  fhould  be  pulled  out,  and  the 

fruU 


POT 

fruit  th.1t  comes  out  with  them 
^•ithcred,  before  the  plough  ii 
pafTed  under  the  rows.  Some 
rrcommend  a  tour  or  five  prong- 
Cil  fork,  as  the  bcii  tnilrumemto 
tliff  them  wtth. 

There  is  no  difficulty  in  keep- 
ing theiu  through  the  winter,  in 
a  cellar  lijat  is  Irce  from  froft. 
Caves,  dug  in  a  dry  foil.preferve 
them  very  well.  They  Ihould 
be  covered  with  two  feet  of 
earth  over  theni.  If  they  are 
ill  danger  ot  froft  in  a  cool  cel- 
lar, they  Ihould  be  covered  with 
a  little  fait  hay.  This  any  farm- 
er may  cafily  do,  who  bas  a  mar- 
itime (tiuation. 

.  In  cellars,  they  are  more  for- 
ward to  iprout  in  the  fpring,  than 
in  cavck.  Thofc  which  are  for 
fummer  eating,  fhould  he  attend- 
ed to  in  May.  the  (prouts  rubbed 
off,  and  put  into  a  coo!  and 
dark  part  ol  the  cellar.  They 
Will  thus  keep  well  till  new  pota- 
toes arc  grown.  Butif  any  light 
come  to  them,  they  will  fend  out 
long  (hoots  towards  the  place 
wlicre  it  enttrrs. 

Raw  potatoes  will  keep  fwinc 
-live  through  the  winter  :  But 
they  will  not  grow   much  with 
thi>  food  alone.     Parboiled,  iliey 
are  an  excellent  food  for  Iwine, 
and  will  alinoft  fatten  them.  The 
Englilh    farmers    parboil   iheni, 
not  only  lor  fwine,  but  for  horn- 
ed cattle.     I  know  of  no  food  ^ 
that  will  more  incrcafc  thequan-  i 
tity  of  milk  in  cows  ;  and  they  I 
give  milk  no  ill  lalle,  whether  ' 
Di)iL-d  or   ravr.     In    either  way  1 
CO  ;  them.    For  • 

h.'  J  boiled.        I 

1  Lou^li   liic  bpanifh  prnatoes  ■ 
be  not  fit  for  tlte  table,  ilicy  are 
fo  very  produrtivc,  that  it  would  { 
be  well  to  rdiic  them  by  them-  , 
fclvcs   for  caulc.     And   out  of 
other  (bfLs.  the  largcll  and  fmall- 
«fl,  the  irresulor  Ihapcd  and  the  i 

Kk 


POT  »73 

cut  ones,  fliould  be  put  by  for  the 
cattle  :  For  niKhlliHg  roots  are 
bell  bt^.i  tor  eating  and  planting. 
Overgrown  ones  arc  apt  to  be 
hollow  and  watery  ;  and  wound- 
ed ones  rot,  ottener  ilian.  lounJ 
ones. 

As  a  further  recommendatioit 
of  this  ufeful  root,  I  may  add, 
the  farinaceous  part  of  it  makes 
an  excellent  ftarch,  much  fupe- 
riour,  as  fome  fay,  and  not  halt  fo 
coflly,  as  that  made  of  wheat. 
The  method  of  making  potatoc 
I  ftarch,  according  to  Mr.  Wel- 
I  ton,  is  as  follows  :  '*  Wafh  and 
pare  them,  grate  them  upon  large 
tin  graters,  and  nil  tubs  about: 
halt  full  with  the  pulp  :  Thca 
fill  them  up  with  water  :  Stir  it 
well  once  a  day,  foV  three  or  four 
days,  and  take  off  all  the  fcum. 
About  the  jth  day  take  out  the 
pulp,  and  put  it  into  fhalFow  earth- 
en pans,  fuch  as  are  ufcd  for 
milk,  as  rsuch  as  will  cover  the 
bottom  an  inch  thick,  and  put 
water  upon  H.  tvery  morning 
pour  off  the  water,  break  up  the 
ftarch,  and  add  frelh  water. 
When  it  is  thus  become  very 
white,  leave  it  m  the  pans  till  it 
is  quite  dry,  then  put  it  into  pa- 
per bags,  and  put  it  in  a  dry  place 
to  keep." 

This  fort  of  ftarch  has  been 
made  and  ufed  in  my  houfe,  for 
twenty  orihirty  years  part.  The 
making  of  a  quantity  that  will 
fer\e  for  a  year  is  always  begun 
and  finilhed  in  a  day  or  two. 
As  foon  as  t!ie  ftarch  is  fettled  to 
ihc  bottom,  which  it  docs  in 
twenty  mini;tes.  the  water  is  re- 
newed ;  and  inftead  ol  its  ftand- 
ing  in  tub>,  and  being  fkinurcf. 
we  flrain  it  iliiough  a  ci^ii.. 
Which  of  thefe  methods  is 
:o  be  picleried  I  do  not  dcter- 
iiiine. 

Some  fuppofr  this  (larch  is  apt 
10  rot  the  tli;ag$  wbicharc  ftiffen- 


S74^         POT 

ed  with  it ;  but  this  is  a  great 
miftake. 

In  an  ab61ra6l  of  the  MJinoirs 
of  the.  Szuedifll  Academy,  the  a- 
bove  writer  Found  the  tollowing 
account  of  one  of  their  methods 
of  ufing  potatoes.  "  Mr.  Charles 
Skytfe  has  propofed  to  diflil 
brandy  from  potatoes,  in  order 
to  fave  the  corn,  which  is  fo  dear 
in  Sweden  ;  and  finds  by  expe- 
rience, that  an  acre  of  land  fet 
with  potatoes,  will  yield  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  brandy,  than 
when  fown  with  barley."  It  is 
aderted  that  a  gallon  of  good 
flrong  fpirit  may  be  taken  from 
lix  pecks  of  boiled  potatoes,  by 
diftillation. 

The  account  given  by  Dr.  An- 
derfon  of  his  fuccefs  in  extraft- 
ing  potatoe  Ipirits  is  this  ;  He 
boiled  72  pounds  of  potatoes,' 
they  were  then  bruifed,  and  paff- 
ed  through  a  riddle  along  with 
fome  frefli  water.  The  pulp  was 
then  mixed  with  cold  water,  till 
the  whole  amounted  to  about  20 
gallons.  This  was  allowed  to 
cool,  till  it  attained  to  fuch 
a  temperature,  as  would  be 
proper  for  mixing  yeaft  with 
wort,  v/hcn  fome  yeaft  was  put  to 
it.  In  ten  or  tv/elve  hours  the  fer- 
mentation began,  which  contin- 
ed  very  brifkly  tor  as  many  hours. 
After  waiting  {bnie  time,  and  in 
vain  warming  it  a  little,  with  a 
view  to  renew  the  fermentation, 
lie  illrred  it  briikly,  which  renew- 
ed the  fermentation.  Stirring  it 
daily,  the' fermentation  v/ent  on 
for  a  fortnight,  and  then  abated, 
and  could  not  be  renewed  by  ag- 
itation or  otherwife.  It  was  then 
diflil  led  with  due  caution,  care 
having  been  taken  to  ffir  it  in  the 
Hill,  until  it  began  to  boil,  before 
the  head  of  the-ftill  was  applied  ; 
and  the  fire  was  afterwards  fo 
kept  lip  as  to  keep  it  boiling 
]s>rifkly,  till  the  whole  was  run 


I*  o  tr 

over.  In  confequence  of  theff 
precautions  and  due  re£lification, 
he  obtained  an  Englifh  gallon  of 
pure  Ipirit,  confiderably  above 
proof,  and  about  a  quart  more  of 
a  weaker  kind,  a  good  deal  below" 
proof.  I'he  Dr.  fays,  it  was  in 
every  refpeft  the  moll  agreeable 
vinous,  fpirit  he  ever  faw  ;  and 
that  in  tafle  it  fomewhat  rtffem- 
bled  fine  brandy.  According  to 
this  account,  one  acre  of  potatoes 
might  yield  300  gallons  of  good 
flrong  fpirit,  worth  at  leaft  90/. 

My  new  method  of  planting 
potatoes  is  this.  After  the  dung 
is  fpread  and  ploughed  in,  and 
the  ground  levelled  with  the  har- 
row, I  raife  the  ridges  about  three 
feet  and  a  halt  apart,  with  the  cul- 
tivator ;  and  then  dibble  in  the 
fets  along  the  tops  of  the  ridges, 
about  feven  or  eight  inches  apart, 
laying  each  fet  about  as  low  as 
the  furface  was  before  the  ridges 
v/ere  made.  I  have  had  as  good 
crops  in  this  way,  as  in  any  other. 

The  method  of  raifing  potatoes 
under  flraw,  is  very  fimple  and 
eafy.  Lay  the  fets  about  eight 
inches  apart  each  way,  on  any 
kind  of  foil  that  is  not  too  rich  : 
Cover  them  with  flraw,  or  refufe 
hay,  to  the  depth  of  about  twelve 
inches.  Nothing  more  is  to  be 
done  to  them  till  they  are  taken 
up.  They  will  be  very  clean, 
and  the  crop  confiderable. 

POULTRY,  all  kinds  of  tame 
birds,  as  hens,  geefe,  ducks,  tur- 
keys, &c, 

Tfiefe  may  be  confidered  as 
part  of  a  hufbandman's  flock  : 
But  the  keeping  of  great  num- 
bers of  dunghill  fowls  will  not 
turn  to  his  advantage  ;  as  it  is 
certain  they  will  never  indemni- 
fy him  for  the  corn  and  grain 
that  are  requifite  for  their  fup- 
port.  Yet  on  a  farm  a  few  of 
them  may  be  ufeful,  to  pick  up 
what  would   otherwife  be   lofl. 

And 


QUA 

And  in  this  view  they  fecm  to  he 
Mrofitable  only  part  ol  the  year, 
it  confined  ihcy  will  not  prof- 
per,  though  they  liave  a  yard  of 
iome  extent;  it  not  confined  they 
will  be  inifchievous  to  ihc  gar- 
den and  field. 

PRONG  IIOE,  a  hoc  with 
pronps  in  Head  ot  a  blade.  It  is 
cither  a  hidens,  or  a  trident.  It 
is  eafily  (buck  into  the  ground  ; 
and  us  the  tines  arc  fix  or  feven 
i'li  IRS  l<>ng,it  will  flir  the  ground 
1.)  t!ir  I. line  depth  that  a  plough 
docs.  It  is  ufelul  in  taking  up 
fliDiig  rooted  weeds,  and  open- 
ing ground  that  is  crufted,  or  be- 
come too  compaft.  The  eye 
and  handle  arc  the  fame  as  a 
common  hand  hoe.  It  is  the 
befl  inflrunient  to  flir  the  ground 
vith,  clofc  to  the  roots  of  plants. 

PROVENDER,  dry  food  for 
bnates.  as  h<iy,  corn,  &c. 

PULSE,  the  fruit  of  legumi- 
nous, or  podded  plants,  wtiich 
produce  tlieir  feeds  inclofed  in  a 
pericarpium,  confiiling  ot  t\vo 
valves,  joined  by  avihble  future, 
having  the  feeds  faflened  alter- 
nately to  the  two  valves. 

Q- 

QUAKING  MEADOW,  or 
M.ARISH,  low  boggy  land,  that 
fhakes  and  fettles  under  any  one 
in  j^afTing  over  it. 

It  has  a  fward  that  is  tough, 
being  a  web  of  the  roots  of  ftrong 

?;ra(Ies  ;  hut  the  mud  under  the 
ward  is  very  fjft  and  yiel.ling. 
Such  places  fhould  be  drained 
when  it  can  l)c  done  without  too 
mucli  expenle.  For  its  natural 
produce  conlifls  of  the  word  wa- 
ter "rafles,  cranberries,  &c.  hut 
the  foil  IS  alwiys  deep,  and  rich. 
Sec  the  article  Draining. 

Mr.  Eliot  drained  fuch  a  piece 
of  ground,  and  foon  read'-  v  • 
tor  tillage. 


O  U  I  27$ 

Q  U  I  C  K,  or  QUI  C  K 
HEt)GE,  all  kinds  of  live  hedge, 
of  whatever  plants  they  arc  com- 
pofcd.  The  hawthorn  or  white 
thorn  is  moft  commonly  ufed. 
The  young  fctsarc  railed  in  nur- 
feries  in  the  old  countries. 

Mr.  Millerfavs,"  In  the  choice 
of  fets.thofe  which  are  laifed  in 
nurferics  are  to  be  preferred  to 
fuch  as  arc  drawn  out  of  the 
woods,  becaufe  the  hitter  have 
fcldomfogood  roots  ;  though,  as 
they  are  larger  plants  than  arc 
commonly  to  be  had  in  the  nur- 
fery,  many  people  prefer  them 
upon  that  account  ;  but  he  has 
found  by  long  experience,  that 
thofe  hedges  which  havt  been' 
planted  with  young  plants  from 
the  nurfery,  have  always  made 
the  bed  hedges.  He  fays,  if 
perfons  would  have  patience  to 
wait  for  thefe  from  the  leed,  and 
to  fow  the  haws  in  the  place 
where  the  hedge  is  defigned, 
thcfeunremovcd  plants  will  make 
a  much  flrongcr  and  more  dura- 
ble fence  than  thofe  wh;fh  are 
tranfplanted  :  But  where  the 
hedge  is  to  be  planted,  the  fets 
lliould  not  be  more  than  three 
years  old  from  the  haws  ;  lor 
when  they  arc  older,  their  roots 
\mi\  be  hard  and  woody  ;  and 
as  they  are  commonly  trimmed 
ofFbclore  the  fets  arc  pl.inicd,  li» 
they  very  often  mifcarry,  and 
fucii  of  them  as  do  live  will  not 
make  fo  good  progrefs  as  young- 
er plants,  nor  are  they  fo  dura- 
ble."   Se-  //<'/•;<•  Fence. 

QtllCKS,  this  tiame  is  giyea 
to  the  y<)u;ig  plants  of  which 
a  live  hedi;-:  is  coriinofed. 

QUICKSILVER,  or  MER- 
CURY, a  ponderous  mineral 
fluid.  It  has  been  often  afferte.i 
iliat  quicklilver  w;ll  d.  Trov  in- 
Tocis  on  trees.     Tlie  :  ' 

applying  u  is  thus.  Ma  c 

Hoping  through  the  liud  or  barJ., 

V  iib 


fi?^        Q  u  I 

•with  an  awl.  The  hole  fiiould  go 
into  the  wood,  but  not  reach  the 
teart  or  pith.  Pour  in  a  fniail 
drop  or  two  of  quickfilver,  and 
flop  up  the  hole  with  a  peg.  On 
the  i8th  ot  May,  in  the  prefent 
year,  1787,  I  applied  quickfiker 
as  above  to  two  apple  trees 
\vhich  had  young  nells  of  cater- 
pillars on  them.  One  was  in  a 
young  orchard,  the  other  in  a 
nurfery  ;  nefts  of  the  fame  age 
being  on  neighbouring  trees, 
M'hich  ferved  as  ftandards. 
Watching  the  nefls  daily,  I 
iound  that  th^  infefts  fpread 
themfelves  on  the  latter,  and  ate 
the  leaves  as  ufual.  On  the 
fonner  they  multiplied  butlittle; 
and  I  could  not  find  that  many 
of  them  fpread  on  the  trees,  or 
ate  the  leaves  at  all.  And  from 
the  nelt  in  the  nurfery  many  ot 
jhe  infefts  removed  to  other 
trees.  But  the  caterpillars  were 
not  all  dead  in  either  nefl,  till 
about  the  fummer  folftice,  the 
iifual  period  of  their  exiflence. 
Wheilce  I  conclude  that  though 
the  quickfilver  feemingly  had 
fome  good  effeft,  this  is  not  to 
be  relied  on  as  themoftefifectual, 
eafiefl  and  cheapeff  method  of 
cleilroying  thefe  mfecls,  or  pre- 
venting their  ill  effect.  * 

OUIXCE  TREE,  Cydoma,  a 
fmall  fruit  tree,  bearing  a  large 
yellow  fruit,  ufelul  in  cookery 
and  medicine,  but  not  fit  to  eat 
raw. 

It  is  eafy  to  propagate  the  trees 
by  fuckers,  layers  or  cutting-;, 
but  they  require  a  moilt  foil. 
The  cuttings  fhould  be  planted 
early  in  autumn.  The  trees  re- 
quire very  little  pruning  ;  the 
principal  thuig  is,  to  keep  the 
ilems  clear  of  fuckers,  and  thin 
the  branches  where  they  crofs 
each  other.  Upright  luxuriant 
{hoots  in  the  top  fhould  alfo  be 
taken  out,  that  the  trees  nviy  no: 


R  A  B 

Ivave  too  much  wood,  which  is 
bad  for  all  forts  of  fruit  trees. 

QUIXXUNX  ORDER,  ac. 
cording  to  Mr,  Miller,  is  applir 
ed  to  a  plantation  of  trees,  dif- 
pofed  originally  in  a  fquare.  con- 
fiftnig  ot  four  trees,  one  at  each 
corner,  and  a  fifth  in  the  middle; 
which  difpofition,  repeated  a- 
gain  and  again,  forms  a  regular 
grove,  wood,or  wildernefs ;  and, 
when  viewed  obliquely,  prefents 
ftraight  rows  of  trees,  and  parral- 
lel  alleys  between  them. 

QUITCH  GRASS,  called  al- 
fo IVitch  grafs,  Jivitch  grajsy 
Couch  grafs,  Dutch  grafs,  and 
^'^g^  g^cj-'^,  Lolnim,  a  mofl  ob- 
ffinate  and  troublefome  weed, 
which  fills  the  foil  with  white 
flrmgy  roots,  and  is  harder  to 
fubdue  than  any  other  weed. 
The  more  the  foil  is  tilled,  and 
the  oftener  hoed,  the  faffer  it 
grows  ;  for  if  the  roots  be  ever 
lo  much  cut  to  pieces,  each 
piece  will  live  and  become  a  new 
plant. 

Land  that  is  much  infefled  with 
this  weed  fliould  be  laid  down  to 
grafs  ;  and  as  foon  as  the  fward 
binds,  which  it  is  apt  to  do  foon, 
burn  beating  fhould  be  applied, 
which  ivill  go  near  to  conquer  it. 
See  Burn  bahng. 

But  it  may  be  kept  from  bindr 
ing  by  plentiful  and  frequent 
manuring,  and  the  grafs  roake^ 
very  good  bay. 

R. 

RABBITS.  "  In  fome  fitua, 
tions  thefe  animals'  may  be  kept 
to  advantage,  as  they  multiply 
exceedingly,  and  require  no  trou- 
ble in  bringing  up.  1  hey  de- 
light in  the  fides  of  fandy  bills 
which  are  generally  unproduc- 
tive wben  tilled,  but  level 
ground  is  improper  for  them.— 
The  :ur  of  the  rabbit  is  worth 
thrice 


T^  A  D 

fhricr  the  whole  value  of  thr 
carcafs.  Therefore,  fiipj)ori:ig  a 
rabbit  to  confiime  a  quanlity  lA 
food  in  proportion  to  it";  carcafs, 
it  is  a  Ipecies  of  flock  nearly 
thrrc  times  as  valu.ible  as  either 
cattle  or  fhccp.  Rabbit  war- 
rens oiiglit  to  be  inclofed  with  a 
ftone  or  fod  wall  :  And  at  ibei< 
firfl  flocking,  it  will  be  nccclfa- 
ry  to  form  burrows  for  them,  un- 
til they  have  time  to  make  them 
for  thcmfclves.  Boring  the 
ground  horizontally  witii  a  large 
auger  is  perhaps  the  bell  method 
that  can  be  prattifed.  Eagles, 
kites,  and  other  birds  of  prey,  as 
well  as  cats,  weafels,  and  pole- 
rats,  are  great  enemies  ot  rabbits. 
The  Norfolk  warreners  catch  the 
birds  by  traps  placed  on  the  tops 
of  flumps  ot  trees,  or  artificial  hil- 
locks ot  a  conical  form,  on  which 
thcv  naturally  ^\'\ght.''—Encyc/op. 

Rack,  a  frame  made  to  hold 
fodder  for  cattle,  to  prevent 
their  trampling  it  under  loot,  and 
wafling  it. 

Thofe  racks  which  arc  under 
cover,  as  in  Ihecp  houlcs,  horfe 
Ifablcs,  &c.  may  be  conflructed 
of  almolf  any  kind  of  wood  ;  but 
thofe  which  (land  abroad  Ihouid 
l>col  fuch  timber  as  lafls  long  in 
the  weather,  i'he  rails  m.iy  be 
larch,  or  white  cedar,  and  the 
crofs  flic  ks  white  oak.  Such  a 
one  will  endure  the  weather  ma- 
ny years. 

RADICLE,  that  part  of  the 
plantulc  in  a  feed,  which,  when 
It  vegetates,  becomes  the  root. 
Whatever  be  the  pofition  of  a 
feed,  the  radicle  will  ihoot  down- 
wards. Ihe  radicle  !hoots  from 
the  feed  before  th.'  phimula, 
which  is  the  blade  ot  a  young 
plant. 

RADI.SM.  Rih/ianuf,  a  plea- 
fjnt  root,  which  lias  an  aitenu.ir- 
ing  virtue,  and  is  a  good  antifcir- 
bucick. 


RAG  277 

I  have  had  better  fuccefs  with 
thole  lown  as  late  ns  June  or 
July,  than  with  tl.ofc  Town  in 
the  fpring.  The  c.irucfl  are  apt 
to  be  dclFroyed,  or  greatly  injur- 
ed, bv  the  white  rruigpois  ;  to 
which  fca  water  is  an  antidote  ; 
but  with  refpetk  to  this  root  not 
quite  effcHual. 

To  have  a  conflant  fucceflion 
of  ladiflies  at  table,  the  feedt 
fhould  befown  once  a  fortnight, 
from  April  to  Auguft.  But  in 
midliimmer  they  fooner  grow 
fticky  and  ftrong,  than  in  fpring 
or  fall.  They  muft  therefore 
be  eaten  while  they  are  young. 
I  have  had  better  fuccefs  with 
thofe  fown  in  Auguft,  than  in  any 
other  month.  In  iiot  houfes  they 
may  be  raifed  any  month  in  the 
year.  Or  thofe  raifed  in  autumn 
may  be  kept  in  dry  land,  ht  for 
eating  in  the  winter. 

As  radilhes  arc  uncertain  in 
their  growth,  the  befl  method  is 
to  j)ut  in  the  feeds  between  rows 
ot  other  plants  ;  and  they  3re  fo 
loon  pulled  up,  tliat  they  will 
not  incommode  the  plants  among 
which  they  grow. 

Radilhes  tliat  are  for  feed  re- 
quire much  room,  as  they  grow 
to  a  large  fi/e.  Forihis  purpofc 
fome  ot  the  molt  thrifty  unes 
(hoiild  be  left  Handing  ;  or  elfe 
be  tranfpianted  to  a  place  where 
each  fhall  have  as  much  room  as 
near  a  yard  Iquare.  The  ripe- 
nefs  ot  the  feed  is  known  by  the 
pods  turning  brown.  Yor  this 
purpofe  the  leeds  muft  be  fown 
early  in  the  fpring,  becaule  they 
ripen  ilowly. 

RAGS,  pieces  of  worn  out 
cloth,  a  valuable  manure.  Wool- 
len rags  arc  an  animal  fubllancj, 
and  therefore  contain  much  foo<i 
for  plants.  1  he  longer  they 
have  been  \^-orn,  the  more  dir'v 
they  are,  ioid  the  U'ore  perfpii  1- 
blc  matt' 4   thcv  have  iiiibibcd. 

the 


«7S  R  A  I 

the  better  they  are  for  this  ufe. 
But  Ihreds  of  new  cloth  are 
good  ;  fome  quantities  of  which 
may  be  collected  where  tailors 
work.  Woollen  rags  (hould 
be  chopped  fmall  on  a  block, 
and  be  fcattered,  or  fown  by 
hand.  It  is  recommended  to  ufe 
ihefe  as  a  top  drefTrng.  This 
manure  attracts  nitre,  and  im- 
bibes dews,  which  the  firll  rain 
carries  into  the  foil.  Or,  as  the 
earth  grows  dry  it  attrafts  moif- 
ture  from  the  rags. 

Woollen  rags  are  peculiarly 
good  for  a  dry  foil,  as  they  will 
retain  moifture  a  long  time  ;  and 
in  fuch  a  foil  I  think  they  will 
do  beft  when  they  lie  a  little  un- 
der the  furface.  I  would  mix 
them  in  the  foil  with  the  harrow. 
Before  they  diffolve,  they  will 
caufe  plants  to  be  nouriftied,  by 
Iceeping  the  ground  moift :  when 
they  are  dilfolved,  they  become 
food  for  plants.  Twenty  iour 
bufhels  will  be  a  fufHcient  dref- 
iing  for  an  acre. 

Linen  rags,  like  other  vegeta- 
ble fubflances,  contain  food  of 
plants  ;  but  they  fliould  be  well 
cotted  in  dunghills,  beiore  they 
are  applied  to  the  foil.  They  do 
not  retain  moifture  lihe  woollen; 
and  they  dilTolve  flowly. 

RAILS, pieces  of  timber  plac- 
■«d  horizontally  in  fences,  fup- 
ported  at  the  ends  by  pofts.  See 
the  article  Fence. 

RAIN,  condenfed  vapour, 
which  falls  in  drops,  and  waters 
the  earth.  This  is  of  more  ad- 
vantage to  the  hufbandman  than 
all  his  labour  and  care.  No  kind 
or  degree  ot  culture  will  fecure 
a  crop,  if  the  ground  do  not  re- 
ceive a  confiderable  quantity  of 
moifture  from  the  clouds  ;  for 
if  the  earth  be  not  frequently 
moiltened,  the  food  of  plants  in 
it  will  become  fixed  ;  and  there 
will  be  no  fermenta  '^on  iu  the 


R  A  I 

foil  ;  fo  that  the  roots  of  plar>t3 
cannot  receive  any  nourifliment. 
Was  it  not  for  the  falling  of  dews 
the  want  of  rain  would  be  much 
oftener  deftruftive  to  plants 
than  it  is.  Dews  are  often  great 
in  a  dry  feafon  ;  and  from  dews 
plants  receive  a  confiderable 
part  of  their  nourifhment. 

The  due  quantity  of  moifture 
might  indeed  be  fupplied  by  wa- 
tering by  hand,  as  long  as  wells, 
fprings  and  ri\'ers  were  not  dri- 
ed up.  But  the  labour  of  doing 
it  would  be  worth  more  than  all 
the  crop.  Neither  would  artifi- 
cial watering  have  fo  good  aa 
effeft  as  rain,  on  account  of  the 
inferiour  quality  of  the  water  for 
this  ufe,  and  the  mode  of  apply- 
ing it.  The  gentleft  rains  are 
generally  moft  conducive  to  the 
growth  of  plants,  and  the  fruit- 
f  ulnefs  of  the  foil,  as  all  parts  are 
more  equally  foaked  ;  and  cloudy 
weather,  which  moft  common- 
ly happens  before  rain,  helps  to 
predifpofe  the  earth,  and  its  veg- 
etables, to  receive  the  greater  ad- 
vantage from  the  water  that  falls.' 
It  is  alfo  believed  the  derrick 
fluid,  which  is  conduced  to  the 
earth  by  rains,  conduces  much  to 
the  invigoration  of  plants. 

Rain  not  only  gives  fluidity 
and  motion  to  the  food  ot  plants 
contained  in  the  foil,  but  contains 
in  itfelf  znore  or  lefs  of  the  in- 
gredients of  it.  The  atmofphere 
contams  abundance  of  faline, 
earthy  and  oleaginous  parti- 
cles ;  fo  that  rain  water  cannot 
fail  of  being  impregnated  with 
them. 

It  has  been  proved  by  a  varie- 
ty of  experiments,  that  a  much 
greater  quantity  of  rain  falls  at 
the  furface  of  the  ground,  than 
at  the  top  of  a  houfe,  or  other 
building  ;  which  may  be  partly 
owing  to  the  vapour  contained 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  atmof- 
phere, 


RAT 

phere,  which   is  joined   to  the 
drops  in  their  dcfceiit. 

Pfrhaps  the  ariion  ot  the  fun's 
heat  is  proporiion.ibly  grt-atcr  in 
Villies  than  on  (uintnits  oi  hills; 
it  (o,  there  is  a  happy  balance 
between  heat  ami  rain  on  all 
parts  ot  the  furtace  ot  the  earth. 
Though  it  is  often  regreticJ  tkat 
Tow  hollows  are  overcharged 
with  water,  it  is  commonl\  foon 
exhaiilledby  the  heat  of  the  fun  in 
funimer,  which  is  much  greater 
in  vallies  than  on  hills. 

It  may  be  alked.  would  it  not 
hdvc  been  better,  if  a  greater  pro- 
portion of  rain  had  talien  on  hills 
than  on  vallies  '  But  they  need 
k  not  fo  much,  becaufe  of  the 
greater  coolnefs  of  the  air  on 
nills.  More  of  the  fine  mould 
would  have  been  wafhed  down 
into  the  hollows,  and  deeper 
channels  would  have  been  made 
in  the  foil  by  the  running  ot  wa- 
ter, which  would  have  been  con- 
fidcrable  inconveniences. 

The  quantity  of  water  that 
falls  in  a  year  may  be  from  twen- 
ty five  to  thirty  inches.  If  the 
whole  were  to  fall  at  once,  dcf- 
truirtive  deluges  wotild  be  experi- 
enced, and  droughts  equally  de- 
Urudive.  It  is  the  frequency  of 
rains  that  renders  theeanh  Iruit- 
tul.  To  fome  foils,  as  Uiff" clays 
and  loofcfands,  frequent  rains  are 
more  needful  than  to  others. 
The  former  imbibes  the  water 
too  flowly  ;  the  latter  pans  with 
it  too  fpcedily.  Thefe  two  kinds 
of  foil,  therefore,  need  the  raoft 
hequeni  Ihowers^ 

1".  fjrr.c  years  the  rains  are  fo 
r:  •;  :.  as  to  make  the  feafans 
Kuit  truilful.  A  r 
quaimty  in  each  week 
tnc  fununer  will  be  apt  to  luppiy 
fb  much  m'vflur*'.  and  kp?p  up 
r  •\  in 

'  J  to 

.iC  prugrcii  wi  vcj^cuitOii. 


RID  27^ 

Farmers  in  this  climate  gen- 
erally wifli  tor  but  little  rain 
in  April,  and  lor  much  in  May 
and  part  of  June  ;  then  lefs  in 
hay  lime,  and  Englilh  harveft. 
But  as  it  is  not  left  to  us  to  order 
this  matter,  we  fhould  endeavour 
to  accommodate  ouricl\c'$  to  the 
feafons ;  and  toalTjft  nature  when- 
ever we  have  opporuinity  for 
doing  it,  draining  land  which 
is  too  wet,  watering  that  which 
is  too  dry,  and  applying  more 
manures  to  dry  foils,  which  will 
make  them  more  retentive  ot 
water. 

RATS,  amifchicvous  kind  of 
vermiiie  too  well  known  to  the 
farmer.  No  wails  that  I  kriowof 
have  been  found  to  be  fufficieni 
barriers  againlt  them. 

The  fame  poifon  which  I  pre- 
fcribed  for  mice,  will  well  fer\'eto 
deflroy  thefe  animals. But  thcbeft 
way  is  to  catch  them  in  a  cage  made 
of  wire,  in  a  cubical  form,  en- 
clofed  in  a  wooden  box.  E^ch 
fide  of  the  cage  fliould  be  a  plane 
ot  about  fifteen  inches  fquare. 

RKDWORM.  See    Jn/ecfs. 

REED,  Arundo,  "'  the  name 
of  an  aquatick  plant,  infefling 
low  grounds.  The  befl  method 
of  deUroying  them,  is  by  drain- 
ing the  land.  Alhcs  and  foot 
will  kill  them.  So  will  plough- 
ing the  land,  and  laying  it  in 
high  ridges.  They  always  indi- 
cate   a    good    foii.".    Compleie 

RIDGLING,  a  male  animal 
half  caflratcd.  A  horfc  of  this 
kind  is  as  troublcfome  as  a  ftal- 
Ijon,  or  more  {o  ;  but  is  not  fit  to 
be  depended  ou  as  one.  A  ridg- 
ling  hog  will  never  be  fat,  nor 
grow  fo  large  as  a  harrow,  till 
his  caflraiion  be  i;  as 

it  may  be  by  mak  ning 

in  the  belly,  whc;  is  the 

moft difficult.  Th  ll>e ci- 

ther killed  yoimg,  or  (  v 


£8o 


R  O  L 


caftraied.  The  {lefli  of  a  young 
ridgling  pig  is  good  ;  but  that  of 
an  old  one  brawnj'  and  difagree- 
able. 

RIFLING  CART,  a  machine 
to  pertorm  the  work  of  reaping. 
In  a  pamphlet  publiflied  atNe\%- 
york,  in  the  year  1790.  by  F.  C. 
H,  B.  PolUntz,  a  ripHng  cart,  as 
he  calls  it,  is  recommended  tor 
the  harvelting  of  wheat.  In  the 
operation  the  heads  of  the  corn 
are  taken  off  by  feven  combs, 
each  four  feet  in  length.  The 
combs  are  Itrongly  faflened,  at 
equaldiflances,  toarolier,  which 
is  turned  by  bands  from  the 
wheels  of  the  cart,  and  which 
throws  the  heads  into  the  cart, 
which  is  puHied  forward  by  one 
horfe,  harnellcd  with  his  head  to- 
wards the  cart.  Allowing  that  the 
horfe  travels  twenty  miles  per  day, 
ten  acres  are  reaped.  A  buy 
placed  in  the  cart  fills  facks  with 
the  heads,  as  the  cart  is  going, 
and  throws  them  out  at  the  head 
lands. 

After  the  heads  aje  thus  col- 
le6ted,  the  threftiing  of  the  wheat 
is  reprefentcd  as  performed  by  a 
mill  built  on  the  principles  of  a 
common  coffee  mill,  which  is 
turned  and  fed  by  two  fmall 
boys,  who  can  do  three  bufhels 
in  an  hour.  If  thefe  modes  ot 
threfhing  and  reaping  were 
brought  into  common  ufe,  it  is 
iiilonifhing  to  think  how  much 
labour  might  be  faved.  But  1 
fufpett  there  are  difficulties  at- 
tending the   method  oi  reaping. 

ROD,  tJie  fame  as  a  perch,  or 
pole  ;  a  nieafure  of  five  yards 
andaha)}.  A  iqnare  rod  ot  fuper- 
ficies  is  the  i6ctlipartot  an  acre. 

ROLLER,  a  cylindrical  in- 
ftrument  to  pafs  over  lands,  to 
anfwer  feveral  good  purpofes  in 
hufnandry. 

Thofe  rollers  which  are  cut  out 
af  free  iione,  being  heavier  ihaa. 


R  O  L 

wooden  ones,  are  beft  to  fn^oothj- 
and  harden,  the  aUey  sin  gardens, 
walks,  &.C.  But  wooden  ones 
anfwer  better  in  tillage,  wheri 
they  are  fufficiently  large.  A 
roller  for  field  huToandry  Ihould 
be  fise  or  fix  feet  long  ;  to  that 
it  may  perform  much  in  a  fhort 
time,  being  drawn  by  a  horfe  or  a: 
yoke  of  oxen, fur  eitherof which  it 
may  beeafily  harnefTed.  Itlhould 
be  made  periettly  round  and 
fmooth,that  it  may  be  drawn  the 
more  eafily,  and  prefs  the  ground 
the  more  equally  in  all  parts. 
And  it  Ihould  be  from  eighteen  to- 
twenty  four  inches  diameter.  Be- 
ing large,  the  preffure  will  be 
greater  ;  a!>d  the  furiace  will  be 
left  the  more  level. 

A  fpiky  roller,  er  a  roller  fill- 
ed with  fpikes,  fix  or  feven  inch- 
es long,  fharp  pointed  at  the  out- 
er ends,  is  fometimes  ufed  in  the 
old  countries,  to  pulverife  clod- 
dy land  in  tillage,  or  to  brake 
and  open  the  fward  of  grafs  land 
when  it  is  bound,  and  too  com- 
pact. After  grafs  land  is  fo  brok- 
en, a  top  dreffing  will  have  the 
better  effect.  A  roller  is  fome- 
times armed  with  circular  knives, 
four  or  five  inches  broad,  put  on 
in  the  manner  ot  hoops,  the  edg- 
es at  right  angles  with  the  axis 
of  the  roller,  twenty  inches  from 
each  other.  They  ufe  thefe  in- 
Uruments  to  cut  the  fward  into 
llrips,  in  order  to  cut  up  the 
turfs  with  a  Iharp  inoned  plough 
for  burn  beating.  This  manner 
ot  doing  the  work,  is  far  lefs  ex- 
peniive  than  cutting  up  the  turfs 
witli  the  beating  axe.  But  the 
fward  of  land  to  which  this  in- 
ftrument  is  applied,  ought  to  be 
cxtrcmeiy  level,  and  free  from 
Hones  and  Itrong  roots. 

ROLLING,  fraoothing  and 
moderately  hardening  the  fur- 
face  of  land,  by  drawing  a  roller 
over  it. 

The 


R  O  L 

The  rolling  of  land  in  ullage 
niould  be  done  only  in  dry 
Weather  ;  ne\'er,  when  the  foil  is 
fo  wet  as  to  Hick  to  the  roller. 

No  foil  will  admit  ot  rolling  that 
is  very  uneven,  or  much  rocky  or 
ilony.  But  ftnall  round  pebbles 
in  a  mellow  foil,  well  pulvcrif- 
ed,  need  not  prevent  rollfng  :  For 
the  roller  will  prefsthem  all  into 
the  foil.  Land  that  is  apt  to 
have  aftiff  cnift  formed  upon  it, 
by  lying  only  a  few  weeks,  I 
think  Ihould  not  be  rolled  ;  bc- 
caufe  it  will  caufc  the  crull  to  be 
the  more  hard  and  ftiff.  But  the 
advantaeesot  rolling ina  lightand 
rich  foil  are  fo  ^rcat,  that  it  is 
pity  that  the  prathce  of  it  is  fo  gen- 
erally laid  afide  in  this  country. 
Rolling,  after  fowing  and  har- 
rowing, will  caufe  the  mould  to 
cnclofe  the  feeds  ;  much  ot 
which,  othcrwife,  lying  in  cavi- 
ties tlut  foon  become  dry,  is  apt 
to  tail  ot  vegetating. 

Rolling  al fo  fills  up  ten  thou- 
fand  little  cell«,  which,  when  left 
open,  are  haunts  and  hirbours  for 
flies  ami  other  nox'ous   infetts  ; 
befides,   it  has  the  advantage  of 
dettroying  fomc  kinds  of  infetts  j 
in  the  operation.     It  is  peculiarly 
beneficial  on    this  account  to  a  i 
crop  ol  turnip's.     And  lome  rcc-  I 
ommend  patting  the  roller  over  ' 
turnip  ground,  not   only  when  I 
the  feed  is  newly  fown,  but  after  ' 
the  pUnts  arc  up.  ' 

When  a  clay  foil  is  fown,  roll- 
ing brc-iks  many  lumps,  or  hard  ' 
cl"  *  'i    have   cfcaped   the  j 

pi'  he  harrow.     But  an  j 

ovfr   light   foil,  which  is  apt  to  I 
dry  too  t  J  If,  needs  rolling  more  i 
than  any  other.    It  ferves  to  pre- 
vent r(i-  rv  ip'^rition  of  moillurc, 
porous.  ! 

ropcan  farmerv  ' 
r  the  grain  has 
_;  .1  of  four  or  hve 
But  ot  the  utility  of  this 
Li 


R  O  O 


281 


by 

.s.. 
prcicr  r 
riten  to 
inches. 


we  are  not  yet  convinced  by  a 
fufficient  number  of  trials. 

In  all  kinds  of  foil  that  are  laid 
down  to  grafs,  rolling  is  nccella- 
ry,  to  lay  the  lurtace  fo  fniootli 
and  even  as  to  facilitate  mowing 
and  raking.  And  thofe  kinds  of 
fowcd  corn  which  are  to  be  cut 
with  the  Icythe.and  raked,  fhould 
be  rolled,  that  lofs  may  be  pre- 
vented in  harvelling.  Without 
it,  a  crop  ot  barley  cannot  be 
well  taken  up  clean  with  a  rake, 
elpecially  when  the  corn  is  (liort 
and  fmall,  as  I  have  often  found 
to  my  lofs.  Some  writers  on 
hufbandry  think  a  crop  of  barley, 
in  particular,  will  be  confidera- 
bly  larger  for  rolling  it,  as  it  is  a 
dry  feed,  that  needs  to  be  well 
enclofcd  with  mould,  in  order  to 
its  vegetating.  Lands  that  arc  ia 
grafs,  may  be  kept  even  by  a 
yearly  rolling,  which  will  prefs 
down  mole  hills  and  other  un<f- 
vennefles,  and  caufe  the  grafs  to 
grow  thicker.  It  will  alfo  be  aa 
advantage  to  be  able  to  mow  it 
the  more  clofely. 

ROOD,  forty  perches  ot  land, 
or  a  quarter  ot  an  acre. 

RCJOTS,  the  parts  of  plants 
that  are  under  the  furface  of  the 
earth,  which  imbibe  the  nutritiou.<: 
juice  of  the  earth,  which  feeds  and 
increnfes  the  plants. 

Botanifts  diRinguifh  roots  into 
divers  forts,  according  to  their 
different  forms.  But  the  only 
diftinflion  to  which  the  hutband- 
man  nec<ls  to  ^ive  his  attention, 
is,  to  confider  roots  asot  the  tap, 
Sulbotis,  or  fibrous  kind.  Of  the 
firll  kind  are  thi'  carrot,  pjrfnep, 
bect,&c.of thcfecon<i,thqi'(  tit  ■, 
onion,  turnip,  a.nd  fevc 
of  the  laft,  wheat  and  ot  > 

ot  grain,  and  many  grades. 

But  ftill  then-  arc  perhaps  hut 

few  plants  which  have  only  one 

ot  thefc  kinds  of  roots,  th«)iigl> 

the  form   that  is  moft   obvious 

deaoiDinau:» 


282 


R  O  O 


denominates  a  root.  Carrots, 
and  otiier  tap  rooted  plants,  fend 
out  horizontal  fibres  to  a  confid- 
erable  diftance.  Trees  in  gener- 
al have  both  tap  and  fibrous  roots. 
A  turnip  has  the  three  kinds  of 
roots,  having  a  bulb,  a  tap,  and 
many  lateral  fibres  from^  the  tap. 
Mr.  Mills,  on  this  fubjeft  fays, 
the  roots  that  proceed  immedi- 
ately from  the  feed,  are  always  of 
the  carrot  or  tap  kind.  Tap 
roots  ftrike  down  perpendicular- 
ly into  the  earth,  till  it  becomes 
too  hard  to  admit  of  their  farther 
paffage  ;  but  when  the  foil  is 
deep,  and  eafily  pierced,  they 
penetrate  fometimes  to  the  depth 
of  feveral  yards,  unlefs  they  are 
cut  or  broken  ;  in  which  cafe 
they  alter  their  direftion.  This 
is  frequently  obfervcd  ;  particu- 
larly in  plants  raifed  in  water 
only.  The  tap  roots  fhoot  out 
branches  which  extend  hori- 
zontally ;  and  tbefe  branches 
are  ftronger,  in  proportion  as 
they  are  nearer  to  the  furtace  of 
that  layer  ot  earth  which  is  llu- 
red  by  the  plough  or  fpade. 

Thefe  are  the  roots  which  we 
call  creeping  or  fibrous.  They 
extend  fometimes  to  a  confider- 
ablc  diftance  from  the  plant  that 
produced  them  ;  but  then  they 
become  io  minute,  that  the  nak- 
ed eye  can  no  longer  trace  them  ; 
efpecially  when  they  have  taken 
the  tincture  of  the  earth  that  fur- 
rounds  them,  as  they  generally 
do. 

A  carrot,  for  an  example, 
which  feems  to  have  only  one 
great  root,  furniihed  with  fome 
fibres,  pulhes  its  roots,  according 
to  Mr.  Tull,  to  a  confiderable 
diftance  ;  but  they  grow  fo  very 
{lender,  that  they  cannot  be  dif- 
tinguilhed  from  the  earth  that 
covers  them,  without  great  at- 
tention. The  cafe  is  the  fame 
^vith  almoft  all  plants. 


R  O  O 

To  convince  the  reader  of  this^ 
and  at  the  fame  time  to  ftiew 
how  far  the  roots  of  plants  can 
extend  in  ground  that  is  well 
loofened,  he  recomm.ends  the 
experiment  which  I  have  men- 
tioned under  the  article,  Pajiure 
of  Plants,  which  fee. 

The  following  inftances,  fays, 
JVI.  Duhamel,  ftiew  what  effort 
trees  will  make,  to  find  a  proper 
foil  for  the  extenfion  of  their 
roots.  On  examining  thofeof  a 
hedge,  at  the  fide  of  which  a, 
ditch  had  been  dug,  it  appeared^ 
that  after  pafTing  underneath  the 
ditch,  they  reafcended,  and 
Iprcad  themfelves  in  the  plough- 
ed earth  on  the  other  fide. 

He  made  the  fame  obfervation 
on  a  row  of  elms,  which  were 
very  near  being  killed  by  the 
digging  of  a  deep  ditch  pretty 
near  them,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  roots  from  damaging  an 
adjacent  piece  of  ground.  The 
ehns  Ihot  out  irelh  roots  in  the 
loofe  mould  that  dropped  into 
the  ditch  ;  thefe  roots  reafcend- 
ed on  the  other  fide  of  the  ditch, 
and  fpread  in  the  ploughed 
ground,  and  the  elms  foon  recov- 
ered then-  former  vigour. 

He  likewife  obferved,  that  on 
digging  a  trench  at  a  fmall  dif- 
tance from  a  young  elm,  and  fil- 
ling it  with  good  mould,  the 
roots  of  that  elm  took  their  di- 
rection towards  the  trench,  and 
grew  to  a  great  length  in  it. 

Thefe  obfervations  prove  that 
horizontal  roots  extend  far,  ef- 
pecially in  loofe  mould:  And  a& 
a  plant  thrives  in  proportion  to 
the  length  of  its  roots,  Mr,  Tull 
jnftly  infers  the  necefiity  of 
keeping  the  earth  in  tillage  in  a 
light  ftate,  that  the  roots  may  ea- 
fily penetrate  it. 

A  root  that  has  been  cut  or 
broken,  never  grows  longer,  but 
foon  produces  feveral  new  roots, 

aU 


n!iilt!;i!\  iiiij   of    the    roots,    and 
co]\*  (.jticntTy  thf  greater  nourilh- 


ROT 

all  ot  which  j^atlicr  (ho  proper 
too'!  of  the  plant.  Its  means  of 
fuhfiflence  arc  t!urefi>re  intieaf- 
cd,  by  the  brcakiiij;  ot  its  roots, 
in  Higgipfj  or  phxii^hing,  rather 
than  ot!H•^^^i^e.  In  the  liofic 
hoeing  !n;'!\in(!ry  nia'jy  ol  the 
fihrousio.  iv  o!  thegrowingplants 
are  iinciuuinedl^'  tut  oH  by  the 
plough.     Bui    It    occafions    the 

ly  the 
li;;  1'  <>t  the  plants. 

KOT,  a  difcafe  in  fhecp,  fiini- 
lar  to  a  puiniouaiy  conlumption 
in  men.  A  writer  in  the  Scots 
Fanner  thinks  that  if  the  difeafc 
have  not  proceeded  tar,  the  an- 
imals may  be  cured  by  feeding 
on  turnips.  But  this  is  rattier  to 
bedoulDtcd.  It  is  fdidtobecaufed 
by  keeping  them  in  a  pafture 
tliat  is  to\)  moilt,  producing 
rank  and  watery  grades.  The 
raging  ot  this  dillcmpcr  in  a 
flock,  is  (topped  by  removing 
them toa dry  lituatioti :  But  tlie in- 
dividuals which  are  deeply  fcized 
with  it,  arc  feldom  cured.  Cough 
is  a  conflant  fymptom.  The 
lungs  decay,  and  tlie  whole  body 
droops  and  languifhes,  in  the 
fame  manner  as  pcrfons  in  a  hec- 
tick.  The  fick  of  the  flock 
ihould  be  removed  liom  the 
found  fhecp,  that  tlic  infection 
may  fprcad  no  turilicr  among 
the  flock. 

ROTATION  of  CROPS,  a 
courfe  of  different  crops  in  fuc- 
cefhon,  on   the    fame   piece   of 
ground. 
^      This  matter   has  not  yet  been 
»,^   fufliciently  aitetuled  to  l)y  Kcw- 
)  cngland  Farmers.     This  appears 
/    by  their  oltcn  being  neccflitated  j 
to  lay  their  tillage  lands  whHv  for 
a  confidcrablc  number  of  years, 
that    they    may    get    recruited. 
The  cxpenfc  of  recruiting  worn  ; 
out  tana   is  fo  great,   that  fucli  a  ; 
courfe  of  cropb  uu^lit  to  be  pre- 


ROT  283 

loriT'i  as  the  foil  will  bear  with- 
out material  injury,  or  wiiliont 
being  too  muchexhaufted.  And, 
wlicn  other  things  are  equal, 
(tich  a  courfe  Ihould  l)e  a- 
dopiod,  as  ►requires  the  lea  ft  la- 
bour, or  coll  of  manures  and  cul- 
tivation. Whenacouiic  is  well 
cholcn,  it  may  be  repeated  on 
the  Ijimc  fpot  perpetually,  with- 
out t^magc  to  the  foil. 

it  is  :io»  to  be  expetted,  that  the 
heft  rules  concerning  this  matter 
can  be  cftablilhed,  but  trom  tlie 
experience  of  many  years.  For 
tliough  it  may  be  eafy  to  com- 
pare the  refpe6tive  advantage? 
of  different  courfes,  in  a  few 
years,  fo  as  to  find  which  is  more 
produttivc  ;  it  will  take  a  much 
longer  time  to  determine  which 
courfe  will  be  bell  on  the  whole. 
For  the  flate  ot  the  foil,  at  the 
end  ot  a  long  courfe,  is  to  be 
taken  into  the  account.  Audit 
is  to  be  remembered  ttiata  courfe 
that  is  fuitabic  for  one  toil,  may 
not  be  fo  for  another. 

In  countries  whore  a  fpirlted 
attention  to  agriculture  has  lor  a 
long  time  fubfiftcd,  one  would 
expecr,  that  people  have  moil 
probably  adopted  tlie  bcft 
courfes.  It  is  not  amifs,  there- 
fore, to  obfervc  what  courfe.s 
they  generally  pretcr  in  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  taking  care  not 
to  go  into  a  ralh  and  iiiconfider- 
ate  imitation  of  them,  without 
making  allowance  for  local  dif- 
terciices,  &c. 

A  common  courfe  in  Ireland 
is,  turnips,  l)arley,  clover,  wh?-*i : 
0:-,poiJtoes,barley,clover,wheat. 

From  the  account  that  .Mr. 
Young  gives  of  the  courfes  ia 
different  places,  whicli  he  paflcd 
through  in  his  northern  tf»ur,  the 
following  things  are  obfcr\able  : 
Tliat  white  iluy  do  not  tallow. 
Srccn  and  whue  crops  !•  ' 
citli  other  alternately  ;  an 

V.  ncav 


284 


ROT 


follows  clover  ofiener  than   any  . 
other  crop  :  That  where  fallow- 
ing  is   praftifed,  wheat  is   next, 
and  after  it  fometimes  another  I 
white  crop  ;  btu  not  generally,  i 
It  ought  to  be  never.  j 

The  courfes  of  crops  in  Ire- 
land, will  furnifli  nearly  the 
iame  obfervations. 

The  judicious  farmer  knows, 
that  forae  regard  mult  be  had  to 
the  nature  of  the  foil  in  a  courfe 
of  crops.  Thofe  crops  which 
require  a  light  foil,  fhould  make 
no  part  of  the  courfe  in  a  fliff 
Gne,  and  vice  verfa. 

But  fuppofing  the  European 
courfes  to  be  the  bell  that  can  be, 
fome  variation  is  furely  to  be 
made  in  this  country  ;  what  that 
variation  is,  experience  mufl  dif- 
cover.  Not  only  our  climates, 
but  alfo  our  crops  are  different. 
^Ve  raife  forae  crops  that  they 
do  not,  and  not  all  that  they  do 
raife.  But  a  rule  that  is  fit  to  be 
extended  to  all  countries,  is, that 
two  impoverifhing  crops  fhould 
jeldom,  or  never,  fucceed  each 
other  in  a  courfe.  And  it  is 
certain,  that  white  crops  irj  gen- 
ial, are  apt  to  impoverifh  the 
foil,  as  they  continue  to  draw 
nounfhment  from  the  earth,  for 
fome  time  after  the  leaves  are 
dead,  and  ceafe  to  receive  nour- 
lihment  from  the  air.  And  all 
plants  that  bear  an  oily  feed,  rob 
the  foil  of  much  of  its  vegetable 
food  :  Such  are  EdX  and  hemp, 
fuppofing  them  to  continue  on 
ihe  ibil  til!  the  feed  is  ripe. 

Reafoning  from  experience 
and  obfervation,  I  am  led  to  be- 
lieve, that  th:;  foliQwing  are  as 
good  courfes,  as  may  be  expect- 
ed to  be  introduced  in  this  coun- 
try. On  light  warm  foils,  the 
firft  year,  maize  dunged,  peafe, 
or  potatoes  :  2d  3'ear,  rye,  bar- 
ley, or  buck  wheat:  The  3d,  and 
4th,   clover  ;  The  5th,    wheat  : 


ROW 

The  6th,  and  7th,  clover.  On 
cold  and  ftifF  foils,  iff,  oats  or 
potatoes:  2a,  Potatoes  well  dung- 
ed :  3d,  flax,  or  wheat  :  4th, 
Grafs,  and  fo  on  till  it  needs  to 
be  broken  up  again.  Though 
thefe  may  ferve  for  general  rules, 
yet  as  there  is  a  great  variety  in 
foils,  and  fome  farmers  can  ob- 
tain manure  in  greater  plenty 
than  others,  each  farmer  mufl  en- 
deavour to  accommodate  his 
courfes  to  his  foil  and  other  cir- 
cumflances. 

ROWEL,  a  kind  of  iffue,  or 
artificial  wound,  made  in  the 
fkin  of  a  horfe,  by  drawing  a 
fkain  of  filk,  thread  or  hair, 
through  the  nape  of  the  neck,  or 
fome  other  part,  anfwerijig  to 
what  furgeons  call  a  feton. 

Horfes  are  roweled  for  inward 
flrains,efpecial]y  about  the  fhoul- 
ders  or  hips,  or  for  hard  fwellings 
that  are  not  eafily  difTolved.  The 
rowel  may  be  made  in  almofl  any 
part,  and  fhould  always  be  not 
far  from  the  difeafed  part,  and 
about  a  hand  breadth  beneath  it. 
The  two  ends  of  the  rowel  Ihould 
be  tied  together,  that  it  may  not 
come  out,  and  be  fmeared  with 
lard,  or  frefh  butter,  before  it  is 
put  in.  Afterwards,  it  fhould 
be  daily  fmeared  again,  and 
drawn  backwards  and  forwards, 
that  the  putrid  matter  may  dif- 
charge  itfeif. 

What  are  called  rowels  by  the 
Englifh  Faniers  are  made  as  fol- ' 
lows  :  An  incifion  is  made 
through  the  f}:in,  about  three 
eighths  of  an  inch  long.  Then 
the  fkin  is  feparated  from  the 
flefh  with  the  finger,  or  with  the 
end  of  a  blunt  horn,  as  far  as  the 
finger  will  eaCly  reach.  Into 
this  a  piece  of  leather  made  very 
thin,  and  round  fhaped,  is  intro- 
duced, about  the  fize  of  a  crown 
piece,  having  a  large  round  hole 
m  the  middle  of  it.  Previous  to 
introducing 


RUN 

introducing  the  leather,  it  is  co\'- 
cred  with  lint  or  tow,  and  dipped 
in  fouiediKeftivc  ointment.  Al- 
fo  a  pledgit  ol  tow,  dipped  in  the 
fame  ointment,  is  put  in  the  ori- 
fice, to  keep  out  the  cold  air. 
Sec  Clark's  Farriery. 

RUNN'ET.  or  RKXNET,  an 
acid  juice,  contained  in  the  maw 
of  a  call  that  has  fed  on  noth- 
ing but  milk..  When  the  rennet 
is  to  be  preferveJ  for  ufe,  the 
calf  fhoald  be  killed  toon  after 
he  has  fucked ;  for  then  the  curd 
is  entire  and  undigefled. 

Dairy  women  ufually  preferve 
the  maw,  and  the  curd  contained 
in  it,  after  faltiug  them  ;  and 
then  by  flecping  this  bag  and 
curd,  make  a  rennet  to  turn  their 
milk  for  making  cheefc.  But  a 
method  which  feems  to  be  more 
fimplc,  and  is  equally  good  in 
every  refpeft,  is,  to  throw  away 
tlie  curd,  and  aticr  fteeping  it  in 
very  ftrong  pickle,  flrctch  out 
the  maw  upon  a  flender  bow  in- 
fcrted  into  it,  which  will  foon  be 
very  dry,  and  keep  well  lor  a 
long  time.  Take  an  inch  or  two 
of  the  maw  thus  dried,  and  flcep 
it  over  night  in  a  few  fpooniuls 
of  warm  water  ;  which  water 
rcr\cs  fiill  as  well  as  if  the  curd 
had  heen  prefervcd,  tor  turning 
the  milk.  It  is  faid  that  one  inch 
will  fcrve  for  the  milk  of  five 
cows. 

In  the  Bath  papers,  Mr.  Haz- 
?ard  gives  the  following  receipt 
for  making  rennet:  *'  \Vhcn  the 
raw  (kin  is  well  prepared  and  fit 
tor  the  purpofc,  three  pints  of  fuft 
water,  clean  and  fwcet,  Ihould  be 
mixed  with  fait,  wherein  fhould 
be  put  fwect  brier,  rofc  leaves  and 
flowers,  cinnamon,  mace,  cloves, 
and  almoli  every  fort  ot  fpice  ; 

1  it   thefe   are  put   into   two 

.  irts  of  water,  thty  muft  boil 
gently,  till  the  liquor  is  reduced 
to  ihxcc  pints,  and  care  (hculd  be 


RUN 


«S5 


taken  that  this  liquor  is  not  fmok- 
e<l.  It  fhould  be  iirained  clear 
from  the  fpices,  &c.  and  when 
found  to  be  iK)t  warmer,  than 
milk  from  the  cow,  it  fhould  be 

f mured  upon  the  cell  or  maw  ;  a 
emon  may  be  diced  into  it,  when 
it  may  remain  a  day  or  two  ;  af- 
ter which  it  fhould  be  firained  a- 
gain,  and  put  into  a  bottle,  where, 
it  well  corked,  it  will  keep  good 
for  twelve  months.  It  will  fincll 
iikc  a  perfume  ;  and  a  fniall 
quantity  of  it  will  turn  the  milk, 
and  give  the  cheefc  a  picaling  fla- 
vour." He  adds,  "  If  the  maw 
be  faltcd  and  dried  for  a  week  or 
two  near  the  fire,  it  will  do  for 
the  purpofe  a<^ain  almoll  as  well 
as  before."  Another  receipt  ij 
as  follows  :  After  the  maw  has 
been  well  cleaned  and  failed,  and 
dried  upon  fficks  or  f'plints,  take 
boikvUvatcr  two  quarts,  made  in- 
to brine  that  will  bear  an  egg,  let 
it  be  blood  warm,  put  in  the  maw, 
cither  cut  or  whole  ;  let  it  ffeep 
twenty  four  hours,  and  it  will  be 
fit  for  ufe.  About  a  tea  cup 
full  will  turn  the  milk  of  ten 
cows.  It  fhould  be  kept  in  glafs 
bottles,  well  corked. 

An  ingenious  correfpondent, 
who  has  made  firitt  inquiry  into 
this  fubjett,  recommends  the  fol- 
lowing method  ot  preparing  a 
rennet,  which  he  has  found  to 
bcbetterthanany other.  "Throw 
away  the  natural  curd,  which  is 
apt  to  taint,  and  give  the  bag  a 
bad  Imell  :  Then  make  an  artiH- 
cial  curd,  or  rather  butler,  of  new 
cream,  of  luHicient  quantity  to 
fill  the  b;it;.  Add  three  new  laid 
eggs  well  beaten,  one  nutmeg 
grated  fine,  or  any  other  good 
fpicc  :  Mix  them  well  together, 
with  three  tea  cup  lulls  ot  fine 
fait  :  Fill  the  rennet  bag  with 
tlusfubllanrc :  Tieupthe  mouth: 
Lay  it  under  a  ffrong  biiiie  for 
three  da\ »,  turning  it  over  ci^iily  : 

ThcD 


286 


RYE 


Then  hang  it  up  in  a  cool  and 
dry  phce  for  fix  weeks,  and  it  will 
be  fit  for  ufe.  When  it  is  uled, 
take  with  a  fpoon  out  of  the  bag, 
a  fufficient  quantity  of  this  ani- 
ficial  butyrous  curd  for  the  cheefe 
Vou  purpofe  to  make  :  Diffolve 
it  in  a  fmall  quantity  of  warm 
water,  and  then  ufe  it  in  the  fame 
manner,  as  other  rennet  is  mixed 
Vith  the  milk  ior  its  coagUiation.'' 

Whatever  kind  of  rennet  the 
dairy  woman  choofes  to  prepare, 
fhe  Ihouid  keep  it  in  mind,  that 
this  animal  acid  is  extremely  apt 
to  turn  rancid  and  putrefy,  and 
take  care  to  apply  a  fuiEcient 
quantity  of  fak  to  prefen^e  it  in 
its  beft  ftate.  It  fhould  be  as 
touch  falted  as  poflible.  The 
flrongeft  kind  of  fait  lliould  be 
ufed.  For  it  is  probable  that  the 
rank  and  putrid  taile,  which  is 
fo  often  in  cheeles  made  in  this 
country,  is  owing  to  a  putridity 
in  the  rennet. 

RUSH,  /U77CUS , 3itToiih\e[i^m-ie 
fort  of  plant,  commonly  found 
growing  in  wet  and  miry  land. 

"  RuChes  always  indicate  a 
good  foil.  They  may  be  def- 
troyed  by  lime,  even  after  it  has 
been  flaked,  by  fea  coal  afhes,  or 
by  draining  the  land.  Rufhes 
thrive  moft  in  land  that  is  too 
cold  and  raoift  for  moft  other 
plants.  Afhes,  and  other  warm 
manures  of  various  kinds,  laid  on 
plentifully,  will  keep  down  the 
rulhes  ior  a  time :  But  to  eradicate 
them  perfectly,  it  is  necelTary  to 
drain  the  land."  Complete  Far Tner. 

RUST,  dark  fpots,  of  tlie  col- 
our of  the  ruil  on  iron,  that  ap- 
pear on  the  ftems  and  leaves  of 
blighted  grain.  See  the  article 
MildezL). 

Some  forts  ©f  grafs  are  alfo  : 
fubieB  to  the  fame  diftemper. 

RYE.  or  RIE,  SecaU,  a  well 
known  gram,  that  is  much  culti- 
vated in  this  coantry. 


Rye 

Tho'igh  rye  by  itfelf  makes  a 
dark  coloured,  clammy,  ard  un- 
fa", oury  land  of  bresd,  it  is  belter 
to  mix  with  Indian  meal  in  bread, 
than  any  other  kind  of  EngliGi 
grain  ;  and  ior  tlxis  reafon,  our 
farmers  are  the  more  fond  oi  cul- 
tivating it. 

Rye  is  as  liable  to  fuffer  by 
ruft,  as  wheat  ;  but  it  is  feldom 
known  to  be  fmutty.  It  is,  how- 
ever, lometimes  hurt  by  a  diftem- 
per  called  the  Spur.  See  that 
article. 

Mr.  Miller  thinks  there  is  but 
one  fon  of  rye,  though  diftin- 
guifhed  by  farmers,  into  winter 
and  fpring  rye.  The  winter  r^e 
is  larger  and  hea\-ier  than  the 
other,  and  is  commonly  ir.ore 
profitable  to  the  farmer.  T: 
fown  in  autumn,  at  the  :.  : 
time  as  wheat.  The  fpring  nc 
ihouid  be  fowed  as  early  in  the 
fpring,  as  the  ground  will  admit 
of  it. 

Some  fow  their  winter  rye  at 
the  laft  hoeing  6t  Indian  corn. 
and  hoe  it  in.  This  is  a  gooi 
practice,  when  it  is  fown  on  flat 
land,  or  on  a  rich  or  heavy  foil, 
where  grain  is  apt  to  fuiler  by 
the  froit  of  winter.  For  the 
plants  of  rye  wnll  be  mofily  on 
the  ccrn  hills,  and  fo  efc^pe  in- 
jury from  froft  :  At  leaft  thejr 
will  molt  commonly  efcape,  or 
fo  mary  of  them  as  are  neceffary^ 
to  give  a  good  crop.  The  plants 
that  are  killed  will  be  thofe  in 
the  low  fpaccs  betw'een  the 
hills. 

Sandy  and  gravelly  foils  are 
mofi  fuitable  for  rj'e.  It  com- 
monly profpers  much  better  on 
fuch,  than  on  richer  foils  :  The 
principal  reafon  of  which  may 
be  its  ripening  earlier,  and  fo  es- 
caping the  bfight.  Weak  land 
has  llrength  enough  to  produce 
rye,  and  it  does  not  exhauft  the 
foil  fo  much  as  other  com. 


RYE 

I  have  known  the  fame  foot 
produce  twenty  crop?  of  tiiis 
grain  in  fuccefCon.  i^cxct-ptiiig 
that  it  was  planicrl  with  Ijulijn 
corn  once  or  twice,  t<i  lubdue  the 
vreeds)  the  crops  yc.irly  incrcaf- 
ing.  inftead  of  diminilhing.  Tlic 
right  method  is,  to  plough  in  the 
ftubblc  as  foon  as  the  crop  is  oR  ; 
and  in  a  fortnight  or  three  weeks, 
according  a.s  weather  and  cir- 
ciimftances  favour,  crofs  plough 
the  ground,  and  few  the  feed. 
The  ftiibble,  fo  early  buried  in 
the  foil,  ferves  as  a  manure.  It 
will  need  no  dung. 

It  is  faid  by  fome  writers,  that 
fowing  rye  tv.o  or  three  years  on 
a  warm  dry  foil,  it  will  be  for- 
warded, fo  as  to  ripen  a  month 
earlier  than  that  which  has  been 
long  cultivated  in  other  foils. 
This  ought  to  be  attended  to  by 
farmers  in  this  country,  where 
grain  that  ripens  late,  is  fo  apt  to  be 
blafted.  But  this  obfcrvation,pof- 
fibly,may  not  be  founded  in  truth. 
The  quantity  of  feed  to  be 
fowed,  is  recommended  by  fome, 
to  be  two  bufhcls  per  acre.  But 
when  the  grain  is  fmall,  five  or 
fix  pecks  ipay  be  a  fufficient 
quantity.  For  the  fraaller  the 
grain  the  greater  the  number  of 
feeds. 

The  figns  of  ripcnefs  are,  the 
vellow  colour  of  the  flraw,  the 
flanging  of  the  ears,  and  the  hard- 
ncfs  ot  the  grain.  But  fome 
choofe  to  cut  it  when  in  the  milt, 
becaufc  the  flour  will  he  whiter. 
The  quantity,  however,  will  be 
KT\.  unlefs  it  lie  a  good  while  on 
t!  ;i    to  ripen,  which   it 

V  ■  do  in   good  weather, 

it  \^j.'.L  Ll-  taken  to  keep  the  top 
cuds  from  the  ground.  Winter 
rye  is  fotne  times  fit  to  harveft 
by  the  middle  of  July  even  in 
the  northern  parts  of  Newen- 
gland   :    Spri.-ig    rye  b  alwjys 


SAL  2%y 

Some  recommend  fowtn^  win 
tcr  rj'e  for  grazing  ar- 
It  affords  very  tarly  ti 
tie  in  the  fpring.      Or  u  loaj^  be 
mowed    for    hay    two  or   three 
tinus   in    a  fummer.     In  coun- 
tries that  are  dry,  and  do   not 
p»turj!ly    produce  much   grafs, 
this  may  bcconftdered  as  a  good 
piece  of  hiifbandry. 

RYE  GRASS,  Lo/ium,  a  fort 
of  grafs  propagated  in  England 
for   hay,  fometiipes   called  Hay 

s. 

SALT,  a  fubftance  that  readi- 
ly diffolves  in  water,  has  a  pun- 
gent tafte,  and  dfily  unites  with, 
earth. 

Salt  is  one  ot  the  elfential  in- 
gredients of  the  nourifliment  of 
plants  ;  and  fome  kind  oi  fait  is 
contained  in  every  plant. 

Common  fjlt  is  tound  in  a  va- 
riety of  forms  :  But  it  always  af- 
fumes  a  cubick,  or  narallelopip- 
ed  figure,  after  lolution  and 
cryftallization.  It  is  contained 
not  only  in  the  fea,  and  in  fait 
fprings  ;  but  in  large  flrata  or 
malTcs  in  the  bowels  ot  the  earth. 
Sdltisof  effential  importance  to 
the  farmer  as  a  manure.  It  may  be 
applied  to  the  foil,  either  by  itfelf, 
or  mi.>:ed  and  diffolvcd  in  com- 
port. In  the  latter  method,  I 
have  found  it  to  l)c  a  great  fer- 
tiliser of  land. 

But  if  fait  be  applied  unmixed 

and  undilfolvfd.i:  will  endanger 

J  the  exiftence   ot  tender   plants. 

I  Mr.  Tull   afferts,  that  common 

'  fait  is  poifon  to  all  plants,  ex- 

;  cept    marine   ones  :  He  doubt- 

I  lels  means  that  it  is  fo,  before  i( 

is  mixed,  altered  and  adlmilated, 

j      In  June,    17S6,    I    failed  one 

bed  of  my  onions,   one   bed  of 

,  my  carrots,  and  one  bed  of  my 

i  early   turnips  ;  laying  the   lali 

un«jcr 


2S8 


SAL 


under  the  furface,  in  the  centies 
of  the  intervals  between  the  rows, 
at  fome  diftance,  perhaps  fix  inch- 
es, from  the  plants,  that  the  fait 
might  have  time  to  be  diflolved, 
and  altered,  before   the  fibrous 
roots  fhould  reach  it.     The  car- 
rots of  the  faked  bed,  evidentl}-  | 
grew    much    larger   and  better  j 
than  the  reft  of  the  carrots  ;  but  i 
I  could  not  perceive  that  the  fait  | 
was  at  all  beneficial  to  the  onions, ! 
or  to  the  turnips.  j 

According  toMr.   Ford's  ex- ( 
periment  in  faking  flax  ground,  \ 
fait  feems  to  be  highly  beneficial  | 
to   that   crop.     He   fpreads  the  | 
fait  over  the  ground,  at  the  time  j 
of  fowing  the  feed  ;  and  thinks  | 
that  the  quantity  of  fait  fliould  | 
be  double  thatcf  the  feed.  From 
three  acres  in  flax  faked,  he  had 
fifty  bufliels  of  feed,  and  an  ex- 
cellent  crop    of    flax.      It  was 
thoughtthat  the  advantage  of  fall-  j 
ing  appeared  more  in   the  feed 
than  in  the  harle. 

Mr.  Eliot  telis  of  five  bufliels 
of  fait  being  applied  to  one  acre 
of  flax,  which  is  a   much  la4ger  j 
proportion,  and  that  it  had   an  I 
extraordinary    effect  :  And  alfo  j 
of  a  crop  of  wheat  being  increaf-  j 
ed  by  fait.     It  is  hoped   that  tu-  i 
ture  trials  will  more  fully  afcer-  j 
tain  the  utility  of  this  kind  ot  I 
manure,    and   to   what  crops  it  i 
may  be  moft  advantageoufly  ap- 
plied. 

SALTING  of  MEAT,  the 
method  ot  preventing  its  cor- 
ruption for  a  long  time,  by  the 
application  of  common  ialt,  &c. 

As  farmers  are  moft  commonly 
too  fardiftant  from  market  plac- 
es, to  be  fupplied  from  them 
with  frelh  meat,  and  as  it  is  moft 
ccrtivenient  for  them  to  kill  only 
at  certain  feafons,  they  ought  to 
bew-ell  acquainted  with  the  beft 
methods  ot  keeping  meat  in  good 
©rder,  by  faking. 


&  A  L 

I      The  common  method  of  pre- 
j  ferving  pork,  referving  the  lean 
1  parts  for  ufe  in  the   cold  feafon, 
I  and  applying  a  large  quantity  of 
fait  to  the  fat,  is  perhaps  as  good' 
as  any  can  be.  But  beef  is  great- 
ly injured,    and   rendered    un- 
wholefome  by  a   fevere   faking. 

A  good  method  of  preferving 
beet,  which  I  have  known  to  be 
praftifed  for  feveral  years  paft,  is 
as  follows  :  For  a  barrel  of  beef 
of  the  common  fize,  reduce  to 
powder  in  a  mortar  four  quarts 
of  common  fait  ;  then  eight 
ounces  of  fait  petre,  and  five 
pounds  of  brown  fugar.  Let  the 
fait  be  well  rubbed  into  the  pie- 
ces, pack  them  clofe  in  the  bar- 
rel, and  fprinkle  the  fait  petre 
and  fugar  evenly  over  each -lay- 
er. No  water  at  all  is  to  be  appli- 
ed. The  juices  ot  the  meat,  if 
well  packed,  will  form  a  fuffi- 
cient  quantity  of  brine  ;  and  the 
beef  will  keep  fweet  and  good 
through  the  following  fummer, 
fuppofing  it  killed  and  packed  in 
the  beginning  of  winter,  or  late 
in  autumn  ;  and  will  not  be  too 
fait  to  be  palatable.  Draining 
off  the  brine  and  purifying  it  by 
boiling  and  fcumming,  with  the 
addition  of  a  little  fait  in  the  be- 
ginning of  fummer,  and  return- 
ing the  brine  upon  the  meat,  wilt 
be  a   real  improvement. 

Dr.  Anderfon  recommends  a 
fimilar  method  for  preferving  but- 
ter. Takeoffugar  onepart,  of  ni- 
treonep3rt,and  of  thebeft  Span- 
ilh  great  fait  two  "parts.  Beat  tlie 
whole  into  a  fine  powder,  mix 
them  well  together,  and  put  them 
by  for  ufe.  One  ounce  of  this 
is  to  be  thoroughly  mixed  with 
a  pound  of  butter,  as  foon  as  it  is 
freed  from  "the  milk,  and  then 
immediately  put  into  the  veflel 
defigned  to  hold  it  After  which 
It  muff  be  prefTed  fo  clofe  as  to 
have  no  air  holes ;  and  then  fo 
cJ:ofelif 


S  A  N 

dofcly  covered  that  no  air  can 
come  to  it.  II  all  this  is  done, 
he  thinks  tiic  butter  may  he  kept 
{)iTtcttly  lound  .uid  good  ior 
induy  years,  lor  he  had  fccn  it 
at  twoycJr^  old,  in  every  rifpcti 
as  iweetrtnd  foiiMd  as  when  oidy 
a  month  old. 

SAND,  is  dcfcribcd  as  a  ge- 
nus of  lofhls,  found  in  minute 


SAN 


289 


glebe,  or  earth  aIoi>e,  receires 
no  prowfh  or  increment  at  all, 
but  is  either  Jlarved  or  fufibcat- 
cd  :  But  mix  the  two,  and  the. 
mais  becomes  fertile.  In  effect, 
by  means  of  fand,  ihc  earth  is 
ren<kred,  in  fome  manner,  or- 
gariical  :  Pores  and  interfticcs 
being  hereby  maintainetl,  fome 
thing  analogous  to  veifels,  by 
concretions,  forming  together  a  \  which  the  juices  may  be  convey 


kind  of  pt)wder,  the  genuine  par 
tides  of  which  are  all  ot  a  ten- 
dency to  one  particular  lliape, 
and  appear  regular,  though  more 
or  lefs  complete,  concretions  ; 
not  to  be  didolv  ed,  or  difunited 
by  water,  or  lorming  into  a  co- 
herent mjfs  by  it,  but  retaining 
their  figure  in  it  :  Tranfparent, 
vitrifiable  by  extreme  he.it,  and 
not  dilloluble  in,  or  efTerveicing 
with  acids, 

"  The!-  are  fuhjefl  to  be  va- 
riouOy  blended  and  intermixed, 
either  with  honiogone  or  hetc- 
rotjcne  pjiticlcs,  partictv|arly 
with  Hakes  ol  talk  ;  and,  accord- 
ing to  thefe,  and  their  dillerent 
colours,  arc  to  be  fubdiridcd  in- 
to different  kinds,  as  red,  white, 
&c. 

"As  to  fai;d,  its  ufc  is  tomakf 
the  clavey  earth  leriile,  and  ht 
to  letd  vej^rtables  :  Fur  fuch 
eartli  nlone,  we  hud,*  is  liable  to 
coalefce,  and  gather  into  a  hard 
coherent  inafs,  as  is  apparent  in 
mere  clay.  The  earth  thus  em- 
bodied, and  as  it  were  glued  to- 
gether, is  nr)  ways  dilpoled  to 
nouriih  \e;;ctables.  But  if  with 
fuch  <.-arih,  a  fufHcient  quantity  of 
fdiul  be  intermixed,  it  will  keep 
the  pores  «)t  live  earth  open,  and 
the  earth  itfelf  loofe  and  in- 
coinpad  ;  and  by  that  means 
give  room  inr  t!ic  juices  to  af- 
cend,  and  lot  plants  to  be  nour- 
illir<i  tli.rcby. 

"    1  h.i.^.  a  vegetable  planted, 
ithcr  in  fand  alone,  or  in  a   tat 


ed,  prepared,  digeftcd,  circulat-, 
ed,  and  at  length  excerned,  and 
thrown  off  into  the  roots  ok 
plants. 

"  Grounds  that  are  fandy  and 
gravelly,  cafily  admit  both  heat 
and  moifture  :  But  then  they 
are  liable  to  thefe  inconvenien- 
ces, that  they  let  them  nafs  too 
foon,  and  fo  contratf  no  ligature, 
or  elfe  retain  it  too  long,  efpc- 
cially  where  there  is  a  clay  bot- 
tom :  And  by  that  means  it  either 
parches  or  chills  too  'much,  and 
produces  nothing  but  mofs  and 
cankerous  infirmities.  But  it' 
the  land  happci.s  to  have  a  fur- 
face  ot  good  mould,  and  a  bot- 
tom of  gravel,  or  loofe  flone, 
though  it  do  not  hoKl  water,  it 
may  produce  a  forward  fweet 
grafs  ;  and  though  it  may  be  fub- 
jctt  to  burn,  yet  it  quickly  re- 
covers with  the  leart  rain. 

"  Sea  fand  is  accounted  a  very 
good  coinpoft  for  11  iff  ground  : 
For  it  effetls  tlieie  two  things  ; 
it  makes  way  tor  the  tree  or  feed 
to  root  in  ftiff  grounds,  and 
makes  a  fume  to  feed  it. 

*'  Sand  indeed  is  apt  to  puftl 
the  plants  that  grow  upon  it,  ear- 
ly in  the  fpring,  and  make  the/n 
germinate  near  a  month  fooncr 
than  thofe  tliat  grow  upon  clay, 
becaufe  the  lalts  in  the  fand  arc 
at  lull  liber'y  to  be  rjifed,  and 
put  into  m'>fion,  upon  the  leaft 
a]>proach  of  the  warmth  of  the 
(un.  But  then,  as  they  are  hally, 
they  are  foon  exhaled  and  loft. 
M  m  "  The 


■i-gcs:  S'  A  N 

"  The  beft  fand,  for  the  farm- 
er's life,  is  that  which  is  wafii- 
ed  by  rain  from  roads,  or  hills, 
or  that  taken  from  the  beds  of 
rivers.  The  common  fand,  that  is 
dug  in  pits,  never  anfwers  near- 
ly fo  well.  Sand  mixed  with 
dung,  is  much  better  than  laid  on 
alone  :  And  a  very  fine  manure 
is  made,  by  covering  the  bottom 
of  (heep  folds  with  feveral  loads 
of  fand  every  week,  which  are  to 
be  taken  away,  and  laid  on  cold 
ififf  lands,  impregnated  as  they 
are,  with  the  dung  and  urine  of 
fteep. 

•'  Befides  clay  land,  there  is 
another  fort  of  ground  very  im- 
proveable  by  fand.  This  is  that 
iortof  black  foggy  land,  on  which 
bufhes  and  ledge  grow  naturally, 
and  which  they  cut  into  turf  in 
fome  places.  Six  hundred  loads 
of  fand,  being  laid  on  an  acre  of 
this  land,  meliorate  it  fo  much, 
that  it  will  yield  good  crop5  of 
oats,  &c.  though  before,  it  would 
have  produced  fcarce  any  thing. 
If  after  this  crop  is  taken  off,  the 
land  be  well  dunged,  and  laid 
down  forgrafs,  it  will  yield  a  large 
crop  of  fweet  hay./ 

"  Sea  fand,  which  is  thrown 
up  in  creeks  and  other  places,  is 
by  much  the  richcll  of  all  fand 
for  manuring  the  earth  :  Partly 
us  faltnefs.and  par'tly  the  fat  and 
-anctuous  filth  that  is  mixed  a- 
niongit,  give  it  this  great  virtue. 
In  the  wellcrn  parts  of  England, 
that  lie  upon  the  fea  coalt,  they 
make  great  advantage  of  it.  The 
fiagmenis  of  fea  fliells  alfn,  which 
always  abound  in  this  fand,  add 
fo  its  virtues  :  And  it  is  ahvays 
the  more  efleemed  by  the  tarm- 
ers,  the  more  of  thefe  fragments 
are  among  it. 

"  Sea  land  is  beft,  which  is 
taken  up  from  under  the  water, 
or  from  fand  banks  which  are 
covered   by  every    tide.      The 


S  A  N- 

fmalleft  grained  fand,  is  themoft- 
fudden  in  its  operation,  and  is 
therefore  beft  tor  the  tenant,  who- 
is  only  to  take  three  or  four 
crops  •  But  the  coarfe,  or  large 
grained  fand,  is  much  better  for 
the  landlord,  as  the  good  it  does 
lafts  many  years."  Complde 
Farmer. 

Sand  entirely  changes  the  na- 
ture of  a  clayey  foil  ;  fo  that  it 
will  fcarcely  ever  become  fa 
compacf,  as  it  was  before  fand- 
ing.  Nor  is  any  other  manure  fo 
good  as  fand,  to  loofen  and  foft- 
en  it.  No  other  will  have  fo 
lafting  an  effeft.  From  being- 
the  leaft  produftive,  a  foil  of 
clay,  by  fanding,  comes  to  be  the- 
moft  tiaiitful  of  any,  when  it  is- 
fufficiently  fanded  ;  for  it  has 
more  of  the  food  of  plants  in  it- 
than  any  other  foil,  wanting  on- 
ly to  have  its  cohehon  fufHcient- 
ly  broken,  to  give  a  free  parage 
to  the  roots  of  vegetables.  For 
this  purpofe,  a  yery  fmalldrefTing 
of  fand  ^vill  not  fecm  to  produce 
any  efFe6f.  A  layer  of  two  and 
a  half  or  three  inches  will  not  be 
too  much  for  land  in  tillage,  ii' 
it  be  a  ftifFclay. 

The  benefit  of  fanding  does 
not  appear  fo  much  the  firft  year 
or  two  as  afterwards  :  For  the 
ofteiver  tl^e  land  is  tilled,  the 
more  thoroughly  is  the  fand  mix- 
ed with  the  cicty  ;  by  which  the 
vegetable  jiafture  is  more  and 
more  increafed.  , 

But  fand  laid  upon  clay  land  in- 
grafs,  will  have  a  great  effeft, . 
without  mixing  it  with  the  foil. 
I  have  known  half  an  acre  of 
clay  land  laid  to  grafs,  Ni-hich  be- 
came fo  bound  and  ififl,  as  to 
produce  only  two  or  three  cocks 
at  a  mowing,  with  a  mixture  o{ 
low  mofs  and  other  trafti.  The 
owner.in  October,  1783,  with  one 
yoke  of  oxen,  carted  on  eighty 
loads  of  yellow  fand  from  the 

road, 


SAN 

-oad,  which  was  about  equal  to 
tony  cart  fulls  ;  levoilcd  it  with 
a  harrow,  and  threw  m  lomc  hay 
Iced.  Tbc  iol lowing  year  it  pro- 
duced ten  hundred  weight  of 
good  hay  :  Lall  year  it  produced 
twejity  hundred  ;  and  it  is  e.\- 
pc6icd,  that  about  thirty  hundred 
will  be  the  weight  of  the  crop  in 
the  preient  year,  1786.  'Ihc  fand 
not  only  added  warmth  to  the 
foil,  but  prevented  the  clay  from 
becoming  fo  dry  and  hard  as  to 
j>rcvent  the  roots  of  the  grafs 
Irom  extending  themfclvcs  in  it. 

SANDY  SOI  L,  a  foil  in  which 
fand  is  the  predominant  ingredi- 
ent. 

It  is  fddom  found  unmixed 
with  other  ingredients.  Wherev- 
er it  is  lo,  it  is  extremely  barren, 
and  ot  little  or  no  value.  It  will 
fcarcely  produce  weeds. 

Some  barren  fands  conhft  oi 
very  hnc  panicles,  and  have  no 
fward  over  them.  The  wind 
drives  them  before  it,  and  makes 
what  are  called  Junii  JJoods, 
which  bury  the  neighbouring 
lands  and  fences.  The  fences 
near  them  Jhould  be  tall  hedges 
to  abate  tlie  hirce  of  winds  : 
And  trees  which  rcquiie  but  lit- 
tle nourilhmcnt  Irom  the  earth, 
Ihould  be  planted  in  thefc  fands, 
:hata  fward  may  be  obtained  up- 
on them.     See  Locujl  Ir^e. 

VViien  a  fandy  foil  is  ufcd  in 
tillage,  It  fhould  be  for  thofe 
crops  which  require  the  moil 
heat,  and  are  lea  ft  apt  to  fuffcr  by 
drought  ;  as  mai/e,  tobacco,  rye, 
peafe,  &.c. 

The  beil  manures  for  a  fandy 
foil,  are  m<u  le,  cow  dung,  and 
fwincs'  dung  ;  mud  from  flats, 
fw.imps,  ponds,  rivers,  &c. 

Clay  is  as  beneficial  to  a  Tandy, 
as  fjnd  is  to  a  clayey  foil.  A 
dreffmgofclav  two  or  three  inch- 
es thick,  laid  on  a  fandy  foil, 
aud  well   mi-\ed,  will   make  it 


SAP  agY 

fruitful  for  many  years  after,  as  I 
have  found  by  experience.  It 
brings  the  foil  to  the  right  con- 
(i (fence,  renders  it  lels  porous, 
and  caufes  it  to  retain  its  moid. 
ure.  At  the  fame  lime  it  is  more 
retentive  of  manures  applied  to 
it  :  Pel  haps  the  benefit  received 
from  the  clay  will  never  f^e  whol- 
ly loft.  I'fjough  the  clay  is  con- 
tmually  finking  further  into  the 
earth,  by  means  of  every  rain, 
deep  ploughing  will  return  it  to 
the  furface  ;  fo  much  of  it  at 
leafUs  is  neceflar)'.  And  repeat- 
ed drclFings  of  clay  may  be  needed, 

SAP,  the  fluid  contained  in 
plants,  which  is  drawn  from  the 
earth  and  atmolphcre,  by  which 
plants  arenourilhcd,  augmented, 
and  rendered  fruitful.  It  an- 
fwers  the  fame  purpoles  as  the 
blood  and  other  circulating  juices 
in  animals.  It  conveys  nourifh- 
ment  to  all  the  parts. 

Before  this  iuice  enters,  it  is 
called  the  food  of  plants  ;  after- 
wards, it  has  the  name  fap  :  liut 
it  Hill  confiffsof  nearly  the  fame 
ingredients,  being  compound- 
ed of  earthy,"  faline,  aqueous, 
oleaginous,  and  aerial  particles. 

The  greater  part  of  the  fap  en- 
ters at  the  root,  being  a  fubacid 
juice  :  And  tlic  nearer  it  is  to  the 
root  in  a  plant,  the  lefs  it  is  al- 
tered from  its  original  ifate.  But 
the  farther  it  removes  from  the 
root,  or  the  more  it  circulates,  the 
more  it  is  affimilated  to  the  na- 
ture of  the  plant ;  the  heteroge- 
neous particles  being  flopped  by 
ilrainers,  or  thrown  ofT  by  per- 
fpiration.  When  the  fap  has  ar- 
rived to  the  germs  and  budi,  it  is 
highly  concotted  :  And  when 
the  leaves  unfold,  they  icrve  as 
lungs  for  the  further  preparation 
of  this  liquid  for  the  purpoles  na- 
ture intcnd.s  it  ihould  ferve. 

It  has  long  been  difputed 
whether  there  ii  a  circulation  of 

tke 


292  SAP 

^he  juice  in  vegetables,  fimilar  to  1 
^hat  of  the  blood  in  animals. 
Malphigi,  Grew,  and  others,  have 
contended  in  favour  ot  fuch  a 
circulation.  They  fuppofed  the 
fap  to  afcend  through  tubes,  or 
arteries  in  the  woody  part,  and 
to  return  in  what  they  call  veins, 
between  the  wood  and  the  bark. 
But  Dr.  Hales  has  confuted  this 
doftrine,  and  fubflituted  a  more 
rational  one  in  its  place. 

To  conceive  aright  of  the  mo- 
tion of  the  fap,  it  fhould  be  con- 
fidered  that  the  pabulum  for  the 
jiourifhraent  of  plants  is  prefent- 
ed  to  them,  and  efpecially  to  their 
roots,  in  the  form  of  a  fleam,  or 
vapour  :  That  the  capillary  pores 
in  the  fuperficies  of  the  roots  and 
other  parts,  imbibe  this  vapour 
by  the  principle  that  is  common 
to  all  capillary  tubes  ;  from 
whence  it  pafTes  by  anaftomofing 
canals  to  the  inner  ]»arts,  where 
it  gets  its  higheft  perfe61ion.  By 
the  fame  principle,  the  fap  alio 
afcend s  to  the  top  :  But  this  is 
not   the  only  caufe  of  its  afcent. 

The  increafed  rarefaftion  of 
this  juice  within  the  plants,  often 
expands  it  and  caufcs  it  to  moimt 
upwards.  As  often  as  once  eve- 
ry day,  when  the  weather  is 
•warm,  as  in  fpring  and  fummer, 
the  fap  afcends  and  defcends. 

In  hot  weather  plants  perlpire 
freely,  through  the  pores  of  the 
leaves  and  bark,  at  which  feafon 
the  fap  is  much  rarefied.  By 
means  oi  the  heat,  the  air  in  the 
tracheae,  or  air  veffels,  expands, 
and  enlarges  their  diameters. 
Therefore  they  comprefs  and 
Itraiten  the  fap  velfels,  which 
are  in  contaft  with  them.  The 
fap  by  that  prefTure  is  forced  up- 
'  ward,  as  it  cannot  efcape  by  the 
root,  and  fends  out  the  excre- 
rnentitious  and  ufelefs  matters 
contained  in  it, through  the  leaves 
and  branches.    On  the  cooling 


SEA 

of  the  air,  the  Hip  fubfides  again 
in  its  veflels.  The  velTels  in  the 
uppermoft  branches  and  leaves, 
j^re  thus  alternately  emptied  ;  and 
m  their  exhaufled  ftate,  they  im- 
bibe food  from  the  air,  which 
mixes  with  the  fap,  and  incrcaf- 
es  its  quantity.  This  is  a  circula- 
tion peculiar  to  plants,  and  is 
different  from  that  of  animals. 

SCRATCHES,  ar  Setenders, 
a  diforder  between  the  hinder 
paftern  joints  and  hoofs  of  horfes, 
confining  of  cracks  and  forcnefs, 
with  fuppuration.  It  is  trouble- 
fome  commonly  in  the  winter 
feafon  only.  The  method  of 
cure  is  the  fame  as  for  malandcrs. 
See  that  Article. 

SEA  WATER,  this  fluid,  be- 
fides  water  and  particles  of  com- 
mon fait,  contains,  according  to 
Dr.  RufTel's  account,  fulphur, 
nitre  and  oil. 

As  it  undoubtedly  contains 
much  of  the  elfence  of  animal  and 
vegetable  fubftances,  by  means 
of  the  perilhing  and  confuming 
of  both  in  it,  it  is  fitter  than 
mere  fait  to  be  ufed  as  a  manure, 
whether  by  itfelf,  or  incompoft. 

In  the  year  1786, one  hundred 
hills  of  potatoes  near  the  fhore 
v/ere  watered  with  fea  water, 
about  two  quarts  on  a  hill,  being 
one  hour's  work  of  a  man.  The 
ci'op  was  half  as  much  again,  as 
in  the  fame  nun)hcr  of  hills  ad- 
joining. The  water  was  appli- 
ed to  the  foil  juft  after  planting 
the  lets,  which  I  fuppofe  to  be 
the  hell  time  for  doing  it,  as 
there  can  be  no  danger  of  burn- 
ing the  young  (lioots,  and  as  the 


fait 


)e  mixed  witn  ram  a 


nd 


the  moifture  of  the  earth,  before 
Ihoots  are  produced. 

In  the  year  17H7,  alternate 
rows  were  watered  in  the  fame 
inannerwith  fea  water,  1  here- 
fult  of  this  experiment  was  un- 
certain ;  becaufeby  ploughing  ofF 

and 


SEE 

and  on  alternately  b;'tu'ccn  thr 
row^,  the  firth  of  the  ut-tcrci  am\ 
nnwatcrcti  rows  wa«;  llrmlfd  to- 
gether. But  all  together,  a  good 
crop  wasobfdiiief!. 

The  r<me  year  a  7>lc*cc  of  flax 
was,  in  the  month  of  Jone.  very 
fljort  and  yellow  on  one  (lie  of 
the  piece  ;  but  of  a  good  colour 
on  the  oilier,  and  nuiih  i.jller  : 
This  indiiccd  the  owner  to  water 
the  poor  iide  from  the  fea.  In 
ten  days  it  was  equal  in  length 
and  colour  with  that  on  i\r:  oth- 
er lidc,  though  very  little  rain 
lell  in  the  time.  At  pulling,  the 
watered  fidi;  was  evidently  bet- 
ter grown  than  the  oth^r.  This 
was  a  lufficient  denionliration  ot 
the  advantage  ot  fea  water, 
when  the  land  lies  adjoining  to 
thelealliorc  ;  fo  that  the  labour  of 
applying  it  is  inconfiderable. 

The  above  experiments  were 
nial?  in  a  clayey  foil. 

In  a  (jindy  foil  the  fame  year, 
watering  the  grotmd  where 
French  turnips  werejuft  fown, 
had  an  excellent eficd.  Though 
it  was  a  'pot  where  the  turnips 
had  been  dellroycd  by  infecls, 
fcveral  years  lucceflively,  they 
generally  efcapcd  this  year.  Not 
more  than  one  pailfuil  was  appli- 
ed to  a  drill  row  two  rods  in 
lengfli,  wetting  the  ground  over 
rlie  feeds,  foon  attpr  fowing. 

Salt  water  applied  to  tender 
plants,  niofl  connnonly  proves 
too  ftrong  for  them,  it  applied 
wlien  the  ground  is  dry.  But  it 
it  be  wet,  the  tlrcngth(»f  the  wa- 
ter is  abated  by  niixing  wi»h  the 
iuices  in  the  foil,  before  it  is  tak- 
en up  by  the  roots,  and  thus  u  is 
rcndv'red  innocent  and  laic,  as  i 
have  found  by  experience.  1  he 
feeds  bear  the  application  ot  the 
fea  water,  better  than  the  young 
plants  do. 

SKKDS  ofVerjfablet.  "  their 
lull  product,  by  whirh  their  Ipc- 


S   K  E  293 

cics  are  projiagated  ;  being  tie- 
qucntly  all  ilic  ii;iit  of  a  platit, 
but  lometjnics  only  a  part  includ- 
ed in  the  Iruit. 

"  Kvcry  fej-d  contains  a  plant 
in  eip.bryo.  The  e!iibry<»,  which 
is  the  whole  future  plant  in  niini- 
.nture,  1^  called  the  geim  or  bud  ; 
and  is  rooted  in  the  cotyledon,  or 
placenta,  which  make  its  involu- 
crum,  or  cover.  'I'iie  cotyledon 
is  always  double  ;  and  in  the  mid- 
dle, or  common  centre  t)t  the 
two,  i^  a  point  or  fpeck,  viz.  the 
einbryo  plantule,  which  being 
a^tcd  on  oy  the  warmth  ol  the 
fun  and  of  the  earth,  begins  to 
protrude  its  radicle,  or  root, 
downwards,  and  rfK)n  alter,  its 
pluniula,  or  bud,  upwards  ;  and  as 
the  requiliie  heat  continues,  it 
draws  nourdhmeiu  by  the  root, 
and  fo  continues  lo  unlold  itfelf 
and  grow. 

"  1  he  two  cotyledons  of  a 
feed,  are  a  cafe  to  the  little 
embryo  plant  ;  covering  it  up, 
and  Iheltering  it  irom  injuries, 
and  tecding  it  from  its  own  piop- 
er  lublfaiue  ;  which  the  plan- 
tide  receives  and  draws  to  itfelf 
by  an  iiiHnite  number  ol  little  iil- 
amcnts,  which  it  fends  into  the 
body  of  the  placenta. 

"  '1  tie  cotyledons  for  the 
moll  part  abound  with  a  balfarn 
dill)«>led  in  proper  cells  ;  and 
this  feems  to  bcoil  brought  toits 
greateff  perfection,  while  it  re- 
mains tumid,  and  lodged  intliefe 
repofitorics.  One  part  ot  the 
compoiition  of  this  balfani  is  oily 
and  tenacious,  and  leives  to  dc- 
lcn<l  the  embryo  from  any  ex- 
traneous moilturc  ;  aiid,  by  :tT 
vifcidiiy,  i«>  entangle  and  retain 
the  fine,  pare,  volatile  Ipini, 
which  is  the  ultimate produ^iioti 
of  the  plant.  This  oil  is  never 
oblcrvcd  to  enter  into  the  vellcU 
ol  the  embryo,  which  are  too 
liue  to  jidmu  fu  thick  u  fluid. 

'IliC 


^94  SEE 

The  fpirit,ho\vever,being  quick- 
ened by  an  aftivepower,may  pof- 
fibly  breathe  a  vital  principle  into 
tlie  juices  that  nourifli  the  em- 
bryo, and  llamp  upon  it  the 
charafter  that  diftinguifiics  the 
family  ;  after  which,  every  thing 
is  changed  into  the  proper  na- 
ture ot  that  particular  plant. 

"  Now  when  the  feed  is  com- 
mitted to  the  earth,  the  placen- 
ta flill  adheres  to  the  embryo  for 
fome  time,  and  guards  it  from  the 
acccfs  of  noxious  colds,  &c.  and 
even  prepares  and  purifies  the 
cruderjuice  the  young  plant  is  to 
receive  from  the  earth,  by  flrain- 
ing  it  through  its  own  body. 
This  it  continues  to  do, til  1  the  em- 
bryo plant  being  a  little  enured  to 
its  new  element,  and  its  root  tol- 
erably fixed  in  the  ground,  and 
fit  to  abforb  the  juice  thereof, 
it  then  perifhes,  and  the  plant 
may  be  faid  to  be  delivered  ;  fo 
that  nature  obferves  the  fame 
method  in  plants,  as  in  animals 
in  the  mother's  womb. 

"  Many  fortsof  feeds  will  con- 
tinue good  for  feveral  years,  and 
retain  their  vegetative  faculty  ; 
whereas  others  will  not  grow 
after  they  are  one  year  old  :  This 
<liflcrence  is  in  a  great  meafure 
owing  to  theirabounding  more  or 
lefs  with  oil ;  as  alfo  to  the  nature 
of  the  oil,  and  the  texture  of 
their  outward  covering.  All 
feeds  require  fome  fhare  of  frelh 
air,  to  keep  the  gcrmen  in  a 
healthy  flate  ;  and  where  the 
air  is  abfolutely  excluded,  the 
vegetative  quality  ot  the  ieeds 
vf'iU  be  foon  loft.  But  feeds  will 
ie  iongen  C,i  ?11  preferved  in  the 
earth,  provided  they  «r£  buried 
fo  deep  as  to  be  beyond  the  in- 
fluence of  the  fun  and  Ibowers  ; 
{mce  they  have  been  found  to 
lie  thus  buried  twenty  or  thirty 
years,  and  yet  vegetate  as  well 
as  new,  feeds.    How  the  vegeta- 


S  E  M 

tive  life  is  fo  long  preferved,  by 
burying  them  fo  deep,  is  very 
difficult  to  explain  ;  but  as  the 
faft  is  very  well  known,  it  ac- 
counts for  the  production  of 
plants  out  oi  earth  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  vaults,  houfes,&c, 
"In  the  common  method  of 
fowing  feeds,  there  are  many 
kinds  which  require  to  be  fown 
foon  after  they  are  ripe  ;  and 
there  are  many  others  which  lie 
in  the  ground  a  year,  fometime* 
two  or  three  years,  before  the 
plant  comes  up  :  Hence,  when 
feeds  brought  from  d ilia nt  coun- 
tries are  fown,  the  ground  fhould 
not  be  diflurbed,  at  leaft  for  two 
years,  for  fear  of  deftroying  the 
young  plants. 

"  As  to  the  method  ot  pre- 
ferving  feeds,  the  dry  kinds  are 
befl  kept  in  their  pods  or  outer 
coverings  ;  but  thefeeds  of  all  foft 
fruits,  as  cucumbers,  melons, 
8cc.  mull  be  cleanfed  from  the 
pulp  and  mucilage  which  fur- 
round  them  ;  otherwife  the  rot- 
ting of  thefe  parts  will  corrupt 
the  feeds. 

"  When  feeds  are  gathered,  it 
fhould  always  be  done  in  dry 
weather  ;  and  then  they  fhould 
be  hung  up  in  bags  in  a  dry 
room,  fo  as  not  to  deprive  them 
of  air."     Dulionary  of  Arts. 

SEEDING,  the  fame  as  fow- 
ing  of  feed.  See  the  article  Sozu- 
ing. 

SEEDLING,arootthat  fprings 
from  feed  fown.  The  name  is 
applied  alfo  to  the  tender  tops  of 
plants  that  have  newly  come 
from  feed.  The  little  plants  are 
thus  dillinguilhed  from  cuttings, 
layers,  and  flips. 

SEMINATION,  the  rnanner 
in  which  plants  fhed  anddifperfe 
their  feeds. 

Some  feeds  are  fo   heavy,  that 
they  fall  dire61ly  to  the  ground ; 
Others  are  furnilhed  with  a  pap- 
pus, 


SHE 

pus,  or  down,  that  ihcy  may,  by 
t  means  thereof,  be  difperfcd  by 
the  wind  ;  and  oiIrts  again  are 
contJined  in  cUllick.  capfules, 
which,  burfting  f^vjri  with  con- 
(idcrable  force,  dart  or  throw  out 
the  feeds  to  different  di(bnccs. 
Some  of  the  fecoiid  fort  are  waft- 
ed over  vafl  trafts  of  land,  or 
even  carried  to  remote  countries. 
The  weed  that  is  peculiar  to 
burnt  land,  a«d  is  called  fire 
weed,  has  fuch  a  kind  of  feed  : 
It  is  not  ftrange,  therefore,  that 
we  Tee  it  grow  in  burnt  plac^, 
many  miles  from  where  it  has 
grown  before. 

SHADE,  a  fhelter  or  defence 
againft  theheatof  the  fun.  Cat- 
tle need  not  only  to  be  Iheltcrcd 
againft  cold  and  wet  weather  in 
other  feafons,  but  againft  heat  in 
fummer.  Therefore  the  paftures 
in  which  they  feed,  fhould  have 
trees  in  them,  that  they  may  re- 
pair to  their  Ihadow  in  the  hotteft 
hours.  Clumps  are  preferable  to 
fingle  trees,  as  they  not  only  af- 
ford a  cool  ihade.but  may  fcrcen 
the  cattle  from  the  violence  ot 
rain  and  Itorms,  fome  of  which 
happen  in  the  time  ot  grazing. 
,  SHKD,  a  flight  roof  or  cover- 
ing, ot  boards  or  other  niatcrials, 
tor  temporary  purpofes.  Where 
boards  are  not  eaHly  obtained, 
they  may  be  covered  with  ftraw, 
which  will  laft  a  few  years  ;  or 
with  the  bark  of  trees,  which 
will  be  far  more  durable. 

SHEEP,  a  well  known  tame 
animal. 

They  multiply  faft  ;  they  are 
fubjefct  to  but  lew  difeafes  in  this 
cotmtry  ;  their  flclh  i&  excellent 
food,  and  their  wool  of  the  great- 
eft  importance  to  this  nation  ;  in  ' 
which  the  \  "  ■  fnanufat'-tory  i 
oiighi  to  be  rd.and  may  J 

Ik  a  to  great  advantage.  ' 

;    fays,  *'  The  tarmei  • 
j.oalU  always  buy  his  Iheep  from  1 


SHE  295 

a  worfe  lantf  than  his  own,  and 
they  Ihould  be  big  boned,  and 
have  a  long  giealy  wool. 

"  Eor  the  choice  ot  Iheep  \x> 
breed,  the  ram  mult  be  young, 
and  his  (kin  of  the  fame  colour 
with  his  wool  ;  for  the  lambs 
will  be  ol  the  fame  colour  with 
his  fkin.  Thoie  ewes  which 
have  no  horns,  are  iound  to  be 
the  beft  breeders." 

The  farmers  in  Europe  know 
how  to  diftinguifti  the  age  ot 
Iheep  by  their  teeth.  When  a 
Iheep  is  one  (hear,  as  they  ex- 
pre(s  it,  that  is,  has  been  (beared 
but  once,  or  is  in  its  fecond  year, 
it  has  two  broad  teeth  before  i 
When  it  is  two  (hear,  it  will  have 
four  :  When  three,  fix  :  Whcu 
four  (hear,  or  in  its  fifth  year,  iL 
will  have  eight  teeth  before.  Alter 
this,  their  inoiuhs  begin  to  break. 

'*  Ihe  fat  paftures  breed  ftraight 
tall  Iheep,  and  the  barren  hills- 
fquare  and  (hort  ones.  But  the 
beft  Iheep  of  all,  arc  thofe  bred 
upon  new  ploughed  land,  the 
reafon  of  which  may  be  ealily 
guclfed,  as-  (uch  land  is  common- 
ly the  moft  tree  trom  bad 
gra(res. 

"  All  wet  and  moift  lands  are 
bad  for  (heep,  efpecially  fuch  a» 
are  fubjcft  to  be  overftowed,  and. 
to  have  fand  and  dirt  leit  oq 
them.  The  fall  marlhes  arc  an 
exception  from  this  general  rule : 
For  their  faltnefs  makes  amends 
for  their  nioifture  ;  any  thuig 
fait,  by  reafon  ot  its  drymg qual- 
ity, being  of  great  advantage  to 
(heep.  The  beft  time  lor  (heep 
to  yean,  which- go  twenty  weeks 
with  lamb,  is  in  Apiil,  uuli-.ii 
the  owner  has  any  forward  grafs, 
or  turnips.  Ewes  tbnt  are  big, 
Ihould  be  kept  but  bare  ;  tor  in* 
dangerous  for  them  to  be  tat  at 
the  time  of  their  bringing  torih 
their  young.  They  may  be  well 
fed,  iiuiccd,  like  cow5,  a    lo;u 


296  SHE 

night  beforehand,  to  put  them  in 
heart.  ' 

.  M.BufFon  fdvs,"  0ne  ram  will 
be  fuf'icicnt  tor  twenty  five  or 
thirty  e^v-es  ;  but  that  he  ihould 
be  remarkable  tor  ftrength  and 
comelinefs  :  That  thuie  which 
have  no  horns  are  very  indiffer- 
ent :  That  the  hcTid  of  a  ram 
fhould  be  large  and  thick,  the 
forehead  broad,  the  eyes  large 
and  blacl:,  the  nofe  Ihort,  the 
neck  thick,  the  body  long,  the 
back  and  rump  broad,  the  teiJi- 
cles  large,  and  the  tail  long  : 
That  the  beil  are  white,  with  a 
large  quantity  of  wool  on  the 
belly,  tail,  head  and  ears,  down 
to  the  eyes  :  That  the  heft  (heep 
for  propag.ition,  are  thofe  which 
have  moll  wool,  and  that  dole, 
long,  filky  and  white  ;  efpeciaily 
if,  at  the  fame  time,  they  have  a 
large  body,  a  thick  neck,  and  are 
light  footed." 

He  fays,  "  that  ewes  fatten 
very  faff  during  tl^.eir  pregnancy  j 
that  as  they  oitenhunthemfelves, 
and  frequently  mifcarry,  lo  they 
fometimes  become  barren  ;  and 
that  it  is  not  very  extraordinary 
for  them  to  bring  forth  monilrous 
prod'i6tions.  But  when  proper- 
ly tended,  they  are  capable  of 
yeaning  during  the  whole  of 
their  life,  or  to  the  age  of  ten  or 
twelve  year";.  But  moil  com- 
monly when  they  come  to  be 
feven  or  eight  years  old,  they  be- 
gin to  break,  and  become  fickly; 
and  that  a  ram  is  no  longer  fit  for 
propagation  after  eight  years,  at 
which  titne  lie  fhould  be  knit, 
and  fattened  with  the  old  Iheep." 

According  to  the  lame  writer, 
*'  fheep  lliould  in  the  fummcr  bo 
turned  out  early  in  the  morning 
to  feed  ;  and  in  tour  or  five  hours, 
after  watering,  be  brought  back 
to  the  fold,  or  to  fome  fhady 
place.  At  four  o'clock,  P.  M. 
thev  Ihould  be    turned   to  ti^acir 


S  PI  E 

pafture  again,  and  continue  *here 
till  evening  ;  and  were  it  not  for 
the  danger  of  wolves,  they  fhou'.d 
pafs  the  night  in  the  open  air, 
which  would  render  them  more 
vigo^ous,.  clean,  and  healthy. 
As  the  too  great  heat  cf  the  fun 
is  hurtful  to  them,  fliady  pyflures 
arc  bell  for  them  ;  or  elfe  tc» 
drive  them  to  a  place  with  a 
wcilern  defcent  in  the  morning, 
and  the  contrary  towards  even- 
ing." That  their  ^vool  may  be 
laved,  they  fhould  not  be  paflured 
in  bulhy  places,  or  where  th^re 
are  briars.  Sheep  are  often  thus 
deprived  of  moll  of  their  fleeces  ; 
which  be(i<les  tfie  lofs  of  the 
wool  is  very  hurtful  to  the  an- 
imals, when  the  weather  is  not 
^  warm. 

j      The  above  writer  direfts, "  that 
!  every    year   a    flock    of    fbeep 
!  fhoulu  be  examined,  in  order  to 
I  find  out  fuch  as  begin  to   grow 
I  old,  and  ought  to  be  turned  oft 
for  fattening.     As  they  require 
1  a  particular  management,  fo  they 
j  fhould  be  put  in  a  flock  by  them- 
i  feives.     They  fhould  feed  while 
the  grafs  is  moiftened  with  dew 
in    the    morning.      Salt    fhould, 
be  given  tiiem  to  excite  thirfl,  as 
the  more   they  drink   the  taller 
they  will  grow  fat.  But  to  com- 
^plete  their  fattening,  and  make 
their  tlelh   firm  and  folid,   they 
fhould  have  fome  corn  or  grain 
given  them."    They  may  be  fat- 
tened in  the   winter  ;  but  it  is 
commonly    too     expenfive,    as 
they  will  require  a  good  deal  of 
richer   food  than   hay.     When 
fhcep  are  once  become  fat,  they 
fhould    be  killed  ;  for  it  is  faid 
they  cannot  be  made  fat  a  fecond 
time.     The  teeth  of  ewes  begin 
to  decay  at  five,  thofe  of  weath- 
ers at  feven,  and  tliofe  of  ram^ 
not  until  eight. 

Weihearoar  Ihecp  in  general 

too  cariy    in  this  coun^ry.     la 

iingland, 


SHE 

England,  where  the  fpring  is 
more  forward  than  in  this  coun- 
try, the  approved  time  oi  Ihearing 
is  from  themiddleto  the  latterend 
ot  June.  They  Ihould  bewafhed 
in  a  warm  time.  Alter  this  they 
ihould  run  three  or  tour  days  in 
a  clean  pafture,  before  they  are 
fhorn.  It  is  good  for  them  to 
have  time  to  (weat  a  little  in  their 
wool,  after  walhing. 

In  fhcaring,  great  care  fhould 
be  taken  not  to  wound,  prick,  or 
cut  their  (kins  with  the  (hears. 
In  England,  after  (hearing,  the 
farmers  fmcar  their  (hccp  with  a 
mixture  of  tar  and  frelh  butter. 
This  not  only  cures  any  little 
wounds  they  may  chance  to  get 
in  (hearing,  but  is  fuppofed  to 
lortify  their  bodies  agaiiilt  cold, 
and  caufc  their  wool  to  grow  a- 
gain  the  (boner. 

If  any  cold  rains  happen  foon 
after  (hearing,  the  (heep  (hould 
be  put  up  in  a  warm  hotrfc.  For 
if  they  be  left  abroad,  it  is  apt  to 
be  fatal  to  th^'n. 

But  Mr,  Young  thinks  they 
are  fo  apt  to  be  hurt  by  being  kept 
very  warm  that  they  Ihould  nev- 
er be  confined  to  a  houfe,  but  al- 
ways hare  the  door  open,  that 
they  may  bo  in  the  houfe  or  the 
yard  as  they  choofe.  They  will 
andoulMe'ily  prefer  the  warmer 
place  when  they  are  newly  Ihoro, 
if  the  air  be  colder  than  common. 
Small  (locks  commonly  prolper 
better  than  large  oaes,  as  they 
are  not  often  lo  overheated  by 
crowdinij  each  other. 

In  France,  fifteen  pounds  of  (alt 
per  annum  are  allowed  to  a 
(heep.  and  fi^ty  tor  cac'.i  head  of 
rattle.  The  truth  is,  that  in  the 
inland  parts  of  this  countr)',  both 
fons  (houM  have  fait  often,  an  I 
be  allowed  to  eat  as  much  as  they 


SHE  igj 

Some  are  fond  of  having  black 
(heep  in  their  (lock.  But  their 
wool  is  feldom  fo  fire,  or  fi> 
llrong,  as  that  of  white  ones. 
Nor  is  the  wool  ever  a  perfectly" 
good  black,  and  it  is  tound  diffi- 
cult to  give  It  any  good  durable 
colour  by  (lying. 

SHELLS,  Ifony  coverings, 
wh:ch  nature  prepares  for  cer- 
tain kinds  of  animals  in  the  fe.), 
and  by  which  they  aie defended; 
which  are  therelore  denominat- 
ed (hell  (ifh. 

Thelo  (hells  arc  much  of  the 
fame  nature  as  lime  ftone,  and 
are  one  of  the  bed  kinds  ot  ma- 
nure. No  length  of  time  de- 
prives thofelhellsof  their  virtue^ 
which  are  buried  deep  in  the 
earth.  Thofe  which  murt  have 
been  in  that  fituation,  at  leaft 
ever  fince  Noah's  flood,  arc  un- 
altered. But  fhclls  which  lie  on 
the  furface  of  the  ground  will 
gradually  moulder,  and  become 
lime. 

This  manirre  is  fo  highly  ef- 
teemcd  in  fome  parts  ot  turope, 
that  the  farmers  even  carry  it  in 
bags  upon  horfes  to  the  diilance 
ot  feveral  miles  trom  the  fea. 

Shells  may  be  applieil  to  the 
foil  at  one  (ealen  ot  the  year  -is 
well  as  at  another  ;  exceptmoj' 
that  they  (ho'ild  not  be  carted  on 
at  atimewhen  the,;;rouiid  isfowet 
.IS  to  be  poachy  ;  bccaufe  poach- 
ing is  hurtful  to  all  foils.  The 
farmer  may  generally  do  thi-s 
work  at  a  time  when  he  is  moll  at 
leilure.  Even  in  winter  thole 
may  well  be  removed,  which  he 
i«)wer  in  the  fea  than  high  water 
mark. 

Mr.  Weflon  recommends  that 
(hells  be  ground  (inc  before  they 
are  ufed  as  manure  ;  and  lays, 
the   finer  they    arc   ground   the 


pleafctheir  h'jiith  rcquiresit,aii(l  I  farther  they  will  go.     But  it  re 
they  will  pay  well  tor  it  to  the  ]  i;iiire$  fo  much  labour  to  grind 


•wncr. 


N 


tlicro,  that  1  doubt  whether  it  be 

KCUh 


293  S  I  L 

worth  while  to  do  it,  unlefs  it  be 
for  gardens.  And  in  the  long 
run,  they  will  benefit  the  foil  as 
much  without  grinding.  Though 
the  benefit  of  them,  when  appli- 
ed whole,  do  not  appear  much  in 
thefirliandfecondycar,thetillage 
of  every  year  will  help  to  break 
and  crumble  them  ;  and  in  a 
courfe  of  years,  by  continual  til- 
lage, they  will  be  fufficiently  dif- 
folved,  and  intimately  mixed  with 
the  foil. 

It  is  chiefly  the  fmaller  {hells 
that  fhould  be  thus  ufed,  fuch  as 
thofe  of  clams,  mufcles,  &;c.  tor 
thefe  will  be  fooner  diffolved 
than  larger  ones.  As  ftnall  fhells 
are  moftly  mixed  with  fand,  or 
tenacious  mud,  they  need  not  be 
feparated  from  thefe  fubllances. 
Thofe  that  are  mixed  with  fand 
■will  he  a  proper  dreffmg  for 
cold,  (tiff  and  clayey  foils  ;  and 
thofe  which  arc  mixed  with  mud 
Jhould  be  laid  upon  foils  that  arc 
dry  and  light.  For  many  of  the 
fhells  will  lie  with  the  concave 
fides  upwards  in  the  eartli,  and 
will  flop  the  water  in  its  delcent, 
and  fo  afliU  the  foil  in  retaining 
moiflure. 

Mr.  Eliot  tried  a  fort  of  fhell 
fand,  which  he  fays  he- found  to 
be  equal  to  good  dung.  It  it  had 
as  mucii  effect  as  dung  at  firft,  it 
mutt  have  been  vaftly  better  than 
dung  upon  the  whole  :  Becaufe 
fhells  are  a  lafting  advantage  to 
the  foil. 

SKRUB,  a  buPn  or  dwarSfh 
tree.  Some  apply  the  term  to 
all  phnts  that  are  woody  and  do 
not  arrive  to  the  tize  ot  trees, 
though  not  fo  drtrable  as  trees. 
The  fmall  oak  bulhes  on  plains, 
the  elder,  whortleberry  buih, 
thorn,  fweet  fern,  &c.  are  rank- 
ed under  this  head. 

SILIOUOSE    PLANTS,  or 

leguaiinous    plants, 

thofe  whicU   contain  their   feeds 


S  L  1 

in  pods.  The  feeds  adhere  to 
the  ftrongcr  limbs  of  the  two 
valves  alternately,  Ot  this  kind 
are  peafe,  beans,  vetches,  and 
many  more. 

SITHE,  a  well  known  imlru- 
ment  to  cut  grafs.  This  initru- 
ment  ihould  confifl  of  tough  iron 
and  the  befl  of  fleel,  well  wrought 
together,  and  nicely  tempered. 
It  the  temper  of  a  fuhe  thould 
prove  to  be  too  high,  it  may  be 
lowered  by  laying  it  to  the  hot 
fun  a  tev/  days  in  midfummer. 

SLED,  or  SLEDGE,  a  car- 
riage without  wheels,  chiefly  ufed 
to  convey  loads  when  the  ground 
is  covered  with  fnow.  Plank 
fleds,  and  framed  fleds,  are  both 
ufed.  The  latter  for  lightncfs 
are  rather  preferable.  But  plank 
fleds  are  more  ufed  for  the  hcav- 
iefl  loads,  as  maflsand  mill  logs. 
The  common  length  ot  a  fled  is 
eight  or  nine  feet;  but  longer 
ones  are  better  for  carrying 
boards,   and    long  timber. 

SLIPS,  twigs  torn  from  a  tree, 
or  thrub,  to  propagate  by  plant- 
ing them  in  a  moill  foil. 

More  than  half,  or  even  two 
thirds  of  their  length,  fhould  be 
buried  in  the  foil.  They  flrike 
root  more  eafily  than  cuttings. 
Early  in  the  fpring  is  the  right 
feafon  to  perform  it.  I  h?ve  the 
beflfuccefs  when  I  doit  as  fooa 
as  the  ground  is  thawed  in  the 
fpring. 

The  flips  fiiould  either  be 
planted  immediately  after  they 
are  taken  from  the  trees  ;  or  the 
lower  ends  ihould'b'eenclofed  in 
wet  clay  till  they  are  fet  in  the 
ground.  This  lail:  will  be  necef- 
fary  when  the  flips  muft  be  carri- 
ed to  any  confiderabie  dilfance. 
And  in  this  cafe,  they  fhould  lie 
for  a  while  in  water  before  they 
are  put  into  the  ground. 

It  is  neceifary  to  place  them  in 

moift  earth,  rich,  and  finely  pul- 

verifed  | 


S  1.  u 

.••rifril;  n'i^  i1h\  Ihoiihi  be  fte- 
i]ucmiy  i\  •  a  litlle  wa. 
tcriiig,  ui::~ lion  be  wet. 

Bin  it  is  the  (uiL'll  nieihod  to 
plant  (lips  ill  p»>ts,  cipccially  o\ 
tbofc  ki.iiis  wliicli  arc  Joall  apt  to 
lliike  rtH)t.  In  this  cafe, it  will 
not  beai<4ll  (li^Iiiitlttogive  tlicin 
continually  the  right  qvtantity  ot 
moillurc.  Sltpi  from  almoil  any 
kinds  oi  trees  and  fliru'js  may  be 
thus  made  to  grow  ;  but  they 
will  never  make  fo  large  trees 
as  thofe  wliich  come  from  the 
feeds.  'I'hty  will  be  the  more 
fit,  however,  for  the  borders  ol 
gardens. 

SLOUGH,  a  deep  muddy 
fpot  of  earth. 

Soft  and  hollow  places  in  roads, 
■where  piKllI.  .  of  water  ftatul  af- 
ter rain,  by  i.i-  .iiisof  the  frequent 
pafTmg  of  loH  kd  whei'l  car- 
riages, ofijti  I'liomc  deep  and 
troubl..'  Miie  floughs.  The  way 
to  prevent  their  exigence,  is  to 
make  a  channel,  or  a  covered 
drain,  where  the  fliape  of  the 
ground  admits  of  it,  to  lead  away 
the  fuperfliious  water.  For  the 
ground  will  thus  be  permitted  to 
*lry  and  har-len^  fa  as  to  prevent 
the  finking  of  wheels  into  it. 

To  cure  a  (lough  in  a  road, 
fink,  pebbles,  or  any  kind  of 
flones  into  the  bottom,  and  cover 
them  with  a  thick  coat  of  coarfe 
gravel,  or  with  cinder  from  a 
Imith's  forge,  or  with  rubbifh 
from  a  brick  kiln.  But  this 
fhould  be  «l<)ne   in  a  dry  feafon.' 

SLUICE,  a  frame  of  timber, 
ferving  to  i>h{lrutl  and  r^ifc  the 
water  of  the  fen,  or  of  a  river,  and 
to  let  it  pafs  as  there  may  be  oc- 
cufiori  for  it. 

Si'.iiccs  arc  required  for  mills, 
and  for  locks  to  carry  on  inland 
navigation.  Hut  I  (hall  only 
confider  thnfe  lluiccs  which  tlie 
hulbandman  may  find  ufctid  in  j 
flooding  oflow  U;«ds,or  watering; ;: 


S  L  U  299 

dry  foil  with  the Perlian  wheel,  or 
in  reclaiming  of  m.irlhcs. 

For  the  hrll  and  fecond  of 
thefe  purpofes,  lluiees  with  gales 
10  rjile  and  letdown  are  proper. 
But  for  the  lad  gates  arc  not 
needed  wIkmi  the  llream  is  large. 

Ihe  I'erlian  wheel  has  floats 
made  hollow,  and  of  fuch  a  con- 
(IruHion,  as  to  raile  ihe  watei 
from  a  lluicc,  to  the  height  ot  two 
thirds  the  diamet(  r  of  the  wheel ; 
where  the  floats  dilchaige  the  wa- 
ter into  a  trough ;  whenci-  it  iseoii- 
veycd  away  in  fuch  a  manner  as 
to  water  the  neighbouring  lands. 
For  a  particular  .»ccount  of  the 
machine,  fee  Mills\Duhamc!. 

For  rcclaim.it'.g  of  marlhes, 
bo.\es  with  Ihutters  are  ufed,  ef- 
pccially  when  but  a  fmall  quan- 
tity of  fiefli  water  will  need  to  pafs 
out  through  the  fluices.  A  box 
may  be  made  of  four  pretty  wide 
and  rtrong  planks.either  nailed  or 
pegged  together.  The  length 
of  the  box  mull  be  equal  to  the 
thicknefs  of  the  bottom  ©t  tlic 
dyke  ;  and  rather  project  a  httle 
at  each  end,  that  the  pallagcs 
may  not  be  obdrudcd  by  dirt  or 
fods  falling  from  the  dyke. 
Thefe  boxes  (liOidd  be  placed  in 
the  lowed  hollows  of  the  mar(h, 
or  in  the  creeks,  and  the  ground 
well  hardened  beneath  them,  and 
on  their  (ides.  It  is  better  to 
place  two  or  three  boxes  (ide  by 
fide,  if  needful,  than  go  to  t'ac 
expenfe  ol  buiidit'g  a  more  colU 
ly  kind  of  Huice.  And  each 
hollow  or  creek,  through  which 
a  dyke  palfes,  and  wherever 
there  is  liKely  ever  to  be  frelh  xva- 
tcr  to  convey  away,  (hould  ha\  e 
oncor  moreof  thi-le  little  (liiiets. 

Each  box  IhouM  have  a  clap- 
per, or  (butter.  I  he  Ihutter  is 
to  be  fal^cned  to  the  mouth  of 
the  box,  at  the  end  towauls  the 
fea,  with  hinges  made  of  iron  01 
wood.  The nCng  tide  prcllcs  tlir 
Uimier 


■goo 


S  M  U 


ihutter  clofe  to  the  mouth  of  the 
box,  fo  that  no  water  can  enter  ; 
and  a,t  ebb  tide  the  frefti  water, 
when  there  is  any,  opens  it  by  its 
prefTare,  and  paffes  out. 

When  it  is  found  neceffary  to 
build  larger  kinds  of  lluices,  Bel- 
■zdors  Architcdure  Hydrauhque, 
and  MulUr,  Ihould  be  confulted. 

SMUT,  a  diftemper  in  grain, 
which  diffolves  the  fubftance  of 
the  kernel,  turns  it  toablackduft, 
and  burRs  the  coats  of  the  kernels, 

M.  Duhamel  diftinguifhes  it 
by  its  entirely  deltroying  the 
germ  and  fubftance  of  the  grain; 
by  its  affefting  not  only  the  ear, 
but  the  whole  plant,  and  extend- 
ing itfelf?Bolt  commonly  to  all  the 
ears  which  arife  from  the  fame 
root.  He  fays  he  has  found  it 
as  early  as  in  April,  by  opening 
a  plant,  and  taking  out  a  young 
ear,  not  more  than  the  fixth  ot 
an  inch  long  ;  that  a  uillemper- 
ed  ear,  when  it  comes  out  of  its 
hofe,  looks  lank  and  meagre,  and 
that  the  black  powder  may  be 
fcen  through  the  thin  coat  of  the 
grain  ;  that  the  po.wdcr  has  a  fe- 
tid fmcll,  and  no  confiltcncy  ; 
that  it  is  eafily  blown  away  by 
wind,  or  wafhed  away  by  rain  ; 
and  that  he  has  never  found  itto 
be  contagious,  like  the  powder 
of  burnt  grain. 

M.  Tillet  obferved  that  the 
upper  part  of  the  Italk  of  a  fmutty 
plant  is  not  commonly  ftraight, 
from  about  half  an  inch  below 
the  ear  ;  and  that  in  that  part  it 
is  ftiff  and  hard,  and  is  almoit  en- 
tirely filled  with  pith,  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  flems  of  healthy 
plants  ;  whence  he  concludes, 
tiiat  the  afcent  of  the  fap  is  ob- 
ilrutfed  in  the  flems  of  fmutty 
plants. 

The  real  caufe  of  fmut  has  ^f- 
caped  the  refearches  of  many  phi- 
lofophers.  M.  Duhamel  juftly 
(sbferves,    that   it  cannot  be  a 


S  M  U 

want  ol  fecundation,  as  it  de- 
ffroys  both  the  male  and  female 
organs,  long  before  the  time  of 
fecundation. 

He  confutes  the  conjeBuresdf 
its  being  caufed  by  wet  upon  the 
ears,  or  the  violent  heat  of  the 
fun,  by  obferving  that  the  ears 
are  fmutty  before  they  ceafe  to 
be  covered  by  the  blades.  And 
if  it  were  owing  to  the  moiflure 
of  the  earth,  he  obferves,  that 
there  would  be  more  fmutty 
plants  in  the  low  and  wet,  than 
in  the  high  and  dry  parts  of  a 
field,  which  is  not  faft. 

He  adds,  that  he  never  could 
make  it  appear  that  the  diftem- 
per is  caufed  by  infefts,  though 
he  had  been  of  that  opinion  ;  and 
that  Dr.  Hales  has  proved  by  ex- 
periment that  it  cannot  proceed 
from  the  feeds  being  bruifed  by 
the  flail,  by  bruifmg  a  number  of 
grains  with  a  hammer,  which 
grew  well  afterwards,  and  bore 
found  ears.  The  fame  expel  lent 
reafoner  refutes  the  opinion  oi 
thofe,  who  impute  fmut  to  dung 
of  fheep  or  pigeons. 

M.  Aimen,  M.  D.  has  very 
judicioufly  obferved,  "  that  the 
fmut  of  corn  cannot  derive  its  ori- 
gin from  adefeH  in  the  fap,  as  all 
the  parts  of  the  plant,  except  the 
ear,  look  healtliy,  and  there  are 
plants  whofe  roots  are  perennial, 
which  appear  vigorous,  though 
their  feeds  are  fmutty  every 
year.  He  is  of  opinion,  that 
whatever  weakens  the  plant,  is 
apt  to  bring  on  the  fmut,  and  in- 
flances,  as  a  proof  of  this,  that  it 
is  a  frequent  cuflom  in  his  coun- 
try,  to  cut  rye,  as  foon  as  it  fpin- 
dles,  for  food  for  their  cattle  ; 
and  that  this  rye  generally  pro- 
duces other  ears,  which  feldom 
contain  any  but  diftempered 
grain :  To  which  he  adds,  that 
feed  corn  which  has  been  prick- 
ed, or  run  through  with  a  needle ; 


S  M  U 

or  which  is  not  t^-" — '  'y  npr, 
and  that  which  i  lateral 

or  fccond  ears,  is  mojcci  to  the 
fmut." 

He  holds  "  that  the  diftemper 
proceeds  from  an  ulcer  which 
attacks  firft  the  parts  which  ful- 
tain  the  Iccds,  and  afterwards 
Tpreads  to  the  reil  of  the  flower. 
But  Ionic  will  lay,  what  is  the  pri- 
mary caiilf  of  that  nicer  ?  In  or- 
der todifcovcr  it,  M.  Aimen  ex- 
amined Icveral  grains  of  barley 
with  a  raicrolcopc  :  Some  of 
them  were  bigger  than  others  : 
Some  were  very  hard  ;  and  oth- 
ers yielded  to  the  prellure  ot  his 
nail  :  Some  were  of  a  deeper, 
and  others  of  a  lighter  colour  ; 
fome  longer  and  others  roiindcr, 
than  they  ought  to  have  been  : 
Their  rind  was  fomewhat  wrink- 
led in  feveral  places,  whereas  in 
its  natural  ilaie  it  is  fmooth  : 
And  laftly,  he  perceived  upon 
fome  of  them  black  fpots,  which, 
when  examined  with  a  magni- 
iying  glafs,  appeared  to  be  cov- 
ered with  mould.  Thefe grains 
were  feparatcd  caretulK-,  accord- 
ing to  their  feveral  conditions, 
and  fown  apart,  though  in  the 
fame  ground.  All  th/'  mouldy 
grains  producfd  fmutty  ears  ; 
the  (hrivclcd  and  parched,  and 
thofe  that  were  attacked  by 
infcfts,  either  did  nt)t  grow  at 
ail,  or  did  not  produce  any 
fmut. 

"  He  then  finglcd  out  a  par- 
cel of  found  grains,  fowed  them, 
and  fome  time  alter  took  them 
up,  in  order  to  examine  thcni 
aeain  with  a  magniiying  glafs. 
He  found  fomeof  them  mouldy, 
replanted  them  all,  and  obfer\'ed 
that  the  mouldy  grains  produced 
fmutty  ears. 

'*  M.  Aimen,  without  pre- 
tending that  this  is  the  only 
caufe  of  the  finut  of  corn,  con- 
ciudes,  from  tbc^jp  experiments, 


S  M  U  301 

rliat  mouldinefs  is  a  cauib  of  this 
dillemper." 

I  hat  this  philofopher  has  hit 
upon  the  true  cauie  of  fmut, 
fecnis  rather  probable,  when  it  is 
confidered  that  mould  is  a  kind 
of  minute  mofs,  and  th^t  the 
things  which  mf)ll  eflvHually 
kill  mols  upon  land,  fuch  as 
lime,  &c.  have  hitherto  proved 
the  beA  antidotes  to  this  dillem- 
per. 

'1  he  metliods  of  preventing  it, 
recommended  by  diflercnt  writ- 
ers, are  various. 

The  lafl  mentioned  writer 
thinks,  "  that  the  beft  and  ripefl 
corn  fhoidd  be  chofcn  for  feed, 
threlhed  as  foon  as  pofTible, 
and  limed  immediately  alter  ;  as 
well  to  keep  it  tioni  growing 
mouldy,  as  to  deflroy  the  mould 
already  formed,  if  there  be  any  : 
Adding,  that  every  method  he 
has  tried  to  make  corn  fo  pre- 
pared grow  mouldy,  has  been 
inefFe£rual,  and  that  lie  has  nev- 
er known  it  produce  fmutty 
ears." 

"  As  weak  plants  arc  found  to 
be  moft  fubjcci  to  frnut,  he  alfo 
recommends  good  tillage,  as  a 
fure  meani  of  giving  them 
llrength  and  vigour.  And  he  ob- 
lerves,  that  the  lies  made  ufe  of, 
prcferve  tlu:  plants  from  mouldi- 
nefs, and  of  all  of  them  lime 
feetns  to  him  to  be  the  moft  ef- 
teZ-iual.- 

i  hough  liming  at  the  time  of 
fowing,  as  is  the  practice  in  this 
country,  dtes  not  always  pre- 
vent fmut,  I  would  recommend 
it  to  farmers,  to  do  it  in  t^ie 
methcki  that  M.  Aimen  mentions 
as  fuccefiful.  The  lime  will 
probably  have  a  greater  effett, 
when  ufed  foearly.than  when  the 
mouldinefs  on  the  kernels  is  be- 
come older  and  more  deeply 
looted.  The  fubjett  lamupon, 
u  ot  fo  great  conicqucnce  to  the 
tuiiDLr, 


302  S  M  U 

farmer,  and  to  thepublick,  that  I 
Ihall  make  noapology  tothcread- 
cr,  for  proceeding  to  lay  before 
him  the  opinions  oi  other  writ- 
ers ;  ahliough  1  Ihall  run  out 
this- article  to  what  fome  readers 
piay  call  a  tedious  length. 

M.  de  Lignerolle  fays,  "That 
the  fureif  means  of  avoiding 
fmut,  and  that  which  he  has  prac- 
tifed  with  fuccefs  ever  fince  the 
year  1739,  on  upwards  of  three 
hundred  acres  of  land,  is,  to 
change  the  feed  every  year,  to 
be  very  careiul  that  the  feed 
corn  be  well  dried,  and  thor^ 
oughly  ripe,  and  that  it  be  not 
fmutty,  nor  have  any  fmutty 
powder  fticklng  to  it.  He  then 
pours  boiling  water  on  qulcli 
lime,  in  a  large  tub  ;  and  after 
the  ebullition  is  over,  as  much 
cold  water  as  there  v/as  hot,  and 
llirs  it  all  flrongly  together,  in 
order  to  diffolve  and  thoroughly 
mix  the  lime.  The  quantity  ot 
wheat  intended  to  be  fowed,  is 
fprinkled  with  this  lie.  and  then 
well  ftirred  with  a  fhovel.  and 
laid  in  as  high  aheap  as  poiTible. 
It  is  heft  to  keep  the  grain  tor  a 
week  after  this  preparation, 
turning  it  every  day  ;  forother- 
"wife  it  would  heat  fo  as  to  deilroy 
■the  germ.  By  thefe  means  he 
has  not  had  any  fmut,  when  the 
iields  around  him  have  been  in- 
fected with  that  dillemper." 

"  M.  Donat,  near  Rochelle, 
thinking  the  ingredients  com- 
monly employed  in  the  fleeps 
too  dear  for  the  ufe  of  farmers, 
fludied  for  fome  years  to  find 
out  fomething  cheaper,  eafy  to 
be  had  every  where,  and  there- 
fore better  calculated  to  be  of 
general  ufe.  I  hav^e  had  the  good 
fortune,  fays  he,  in  a  letter  toM. 
Duhamel,  to  accomplifli  what  I 
wilhed  ;  fori  now  ufe  only  pig- 
eons' dung,  quick  lime,  alhes, 
and  fea  fait,  where  this  laft  caa 


S  M  U 

be  conveniently  had.  I  have 
fometimes  made  with  thefe  in- 
gredients, fteeped  in  water,  fo 
ftrong  a  liquor,  that  it  has  evert 
deflroyed  the  germ  of  the  grain. 
But  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
that,  if  care  is  taken  to  obferye 
the  following  direftions,  which 
are  the  refult  of  feven  years'  fuc- 
cefsful  experience,  even  at  times 
when  farmers  who  have  negleft- 
ed  to  follow  my  example,  have 
had  fuch  wretched  crops,  as  have 
not  paid  the  charge  ot  reaping. 
"  Take  quick  lime  and  pig- 
eons" dung,  of  each  twenty  five 
pounds,  forty  pounds  of  wood 
alhes,  and  twenty  five  pounds  of 
fea  fait,  or  fait  petre.  Put  all 
thefe  into  a  tub,  large  enough  to 
hold  half  a  hogfhead  of  common 
water  added  to  them.  Stir  them 
ail  well  with  a  flick,  till  the  lime 
is  quite  diffolved.  This  lie  will 
keep  fome  time  without  fpoiling. 
Tl  muft  be  ftirred  again  jufl  be- 
fore the  corn  is  fteeped  in  it. 
The  grain  is  then  put  into  a  baf- 
ket,  and  plunged  in  the  lie, 
where  it  remains  till  it  has  thor- 
oughly imbibed  it  ;  alter  which 
it  is  taken  out,  and  laid  in  aheap, 
till  it  is  quite  drained  of  all  its 
moifture  :  Or,  which  is  a  ftill 
better  way,  take  a  mafhing  tub, 
fill  it  with  grain  to  within  four 
inches  of  the  brim,  and  thca 
pour  in  the  lie  well  ftirred  be- 
forehand. When  the  tub  is  full, 
let  the  lie  run  out  at  the  bottom, 
into  fome  other  veffel,  in  order 
to  ufe  it  again  tor  more  corn. 
Let  the  grain  be  then  taken  out, 
and  laid  in  a  heap  to  drain  ; 
and  continue  in  this  manner 
to  flecp  all  your  feed  corn. 
The  wheat  thus  prepared,  may 
be  fowed  the  next  day,  and 
muff  not  be  kept  above  five  or 
fix  days,  for  fear  of  its  heating. 
This  I  fay  from  experience. 
The  quaaiity  of  lie  above  pre- 
fcribed, 


S  M  U 

fcribed,  will  fcrvc  t-)  orepare 
more  than  twenty  buincis  of 
wheat." 

Mr.  Tull  obferves.  "  that  brin- 
ing and  chansin^  the  feed  arr 
the  general  remedies  for  fmiit. 
The  tonner  of  thefc  he  hid 
heard,  vcred  about  fcv- 

enty  \\  iie  wrote,by  fow- 

ing  foni?  wluMt  which  had  been 
funk  in  the  (oa,  and  which  pro- 
duced clean  corn,  w'.-rn  it  was  a 
remarkable  year  for  fmut  all 
over  England  :  But  he  alter- 
wards  doubts  whether  this  might 
not  happen  by  its  being  torcign 
feed,  and  therefore  a  proper 
change  for  our  foil.  He  tells 
us,  that  tWT  farmers,  whofc  lands 
lay  intermixed,  ufcd  feed  ol  the 
fame  growth,  from  a  good  change 
of  land,  and  that  the  one  who 
brined  hisfeedhad  iioiariy  fmut,  j 
whild  the  other,  who  nogloctcd 
that  precau;ion,  had  a  very  l:nut- 
ty  crop.  But  again  he  doubts 
whether  this  feed  might  not  have 
been  changed  the  year  before, 
and  fo  might  not  be  greatly  in- 
fcclcd  :  Or  at  leaft  not  more 
tlian  the  brine  and  lime  might 
cure.  He  adds,  that  fmutty  feed 
wlicat,  though  brined,  will  pro- 
duce a  fmutty  crop,  unlefs  the 
year  prove  very  lavourable  ;  tor 
that  favourable  years  will  cure 
fmut.  as  unkind  oms  will  caufc 
it  :  Hut,  above  all.  he  affuics  us 
that  tlie  drill  hiiib-indry  is  the 
inoft  effe^lual  cure    ' 

A  writer  in  the  Mufium  Ruf- 
tirum,  fays,  "  having  ohlerved  a- 
rtiongft  wheat  while  green,; 
though  (hot  up  into  i^pindle.  fev- 
eral  black,  blighted  ears,  I  ex- 
amined them,  and  found  theie 
wcreears  in  which,  by  feme  ac- 
cident, the  intention  oi  nature 
WM  pre^'cnted.  I  fuppofc,  by 
being  detained  too  l'""j  •"  'he 
hofc,  and  by  tiie  nan  li- 

ly of  the  plaiit,  a  tc..iiv....a.iua 


S  M  U  303 

was  promoted  in  its  ear,  deftroy- 
ing  the  fmall  vc-ncls  thruiii^h 
which  the  corii<;  wore  to  receive 
nourilhment  ;  hv  wlii'.h  means 
their  contents  hec.iinc  black.  di\\ 
and  dully.  1  heir  ears  growing 
up  w.ih  the  others,  imbibe 
moifture  fufficient  to  cuife  the 
dully  particles  in  thf  ^nins  in 
them  to  expand, 
fine  (kin  which  i'. 
Being  thus  fet  at  liucriy,  the  .;!i, 
it  it  happen  to  be  a  dry  icaic  u, 
dries  them  again  ;  by  which 
means  they  become  light  enouch 
to  float  therein,  when  fepai  1  A 
from  the  fkin  wliich  held  tlicni. 
If  this  happens  when  the  wheat 
is  in  the  blofTom,  which  it  often 
does,  part  of  the  dull  enters  the 
lUgma  of  healthy  corns,  and 
thereby  infefts  them  :  The  pulp 
in  thole  becoming  black,  a  ler- 
mcntation  is  raifcd  therein, 
which  dcftroys  the  life  of  the 
grain  thus  impregnated.  Hence 
thcdifagrecable  fmellis  acquired 
peculiar  to  this  difeafc  (the  fmell 
in  a  grain  of  fmut  being  the  fame 
as  in  a  black  blighted  ear.") 

By  the  black  blight,  this  au- 
thor feems  to  mean  the  fame  ai 
burnt  grain,  burnt  ear,  or  uftila- 
go.  in  which  diflcmper  the  ker- 
nels do  not  buril.  but  are  con- 
verted to  a  dr\'  black  powder. 
If  his  h>  -  jaft,  as  it  i& 

certainly.  .  it.  will  follow, 

that  there  is  no  more  ditferencc 
between  fmutty  an  !  H  -.rnt  c^min, 
tha!il)etwccnaclo;  :i 

kernel  ot  wheal  :  .  y 

are  in  fafcl  tla^  very  fame  dillcm- 
per,  as  indcctl  map.v  wriicri  have 
confidcred  them,  :  >  dif- 

tindion.     The  an  r  the 

one,  are  certainly  r  the 

othe..    Forrx-'-''  :iown 

in  many  inil..  pro- 

vents  the  one  ^  ;>  >    ..v>  t.iv    •' 

The  remedy  this  writei 
fcribcs,  appcaas  to  be  a  ptui.' .   .c 

»,':ie 


304         S  M  U 

one.  "  When  the  corn  is  (hot 
into  fpindle,  and  the  ears  be- 
gin to  appear,  let  fomc  perfons 
go  along  each  furro^A'  in  the  field, 
and  carefully  break  off  all  ears  of 
the  black  kind  ;  and  when  broke 
oft",  put  them  into  a  bag,  and  car- 
ry them  away.  As  it  is  poflible 
there  may  be  fome  of  thefe  dif- 
cafed  ears  which  are  not  bnrften, 
and  therefore  may  efcape  being 
gathered,  thefe  may  be  known 
by  the  ftalk  at  the  neck  being 
crooked  backward  and  forward 
five  or  fix  bends,  and  the  hofe 
nearer  to  the  head  ot  fuch,  than 
in  the  ears  which  are  good." 

Another  writer  in  the  Mufe- 
um  Rufticum,  fays,  "  I  have  for 
many  years  paft  efcaped  having 
fmutty  crops,  by  a  proper  care  of 
the  feed  wheat  before  it  is  put  in- 
to the  ground  ;  and  the  method 
I  purfue,  though  efficacious,  is 
in  itfelffimple  and  cheap.  I  take 
four  bufliels  of  pigeons'  dung, 
which  I  put  into  a  large  tub  :  On 
this  I  pour  a  fufficient  quantity 
of  boiling  water,  and  mixing 
them  well  together,  let  them 
fland  fix  hours,  until  a  kind  of  a 
ftrong  lie  is  made,  which,  at  the 
end  of  that  time,  the  grofier  parts 
l>eing  fubfided,  I  caufe  to  be 
carefully  drained  off,  and  put  in- 
to a  large  keevc,  or  tub,  for  ufe. 
This  quantity  rs  fufficient  for 
eighty  bulhels  of  feed  wheat." 

"  My  next  care  is  to  fhoot  in- 
to this  fteep  a  managtrable  quan- 
tity of  my  feed,  which  is  imme- 
diately to  be  violently  agitated, 
■with  either  birchen  brooms,  or 
the  rudders  that  are  made  ule  of 
in  ftirring  the  malt  in  the  malh 
tub,  in  a  brewing  office.  As  the 
light  grains  rife,  they  muff  be 
diligently  fkimmedoff ;  and  af- 
ter the  feed  has  been  agitated  in 
this  manner,  for  the  fpace  of  per- 
haps half  an  hour,  it  may  be  tak- 
en out  of  the  flecp,  and  fow.n  out 


of  hand  with  great  fafety  :  Atirf 
I  can  venture  to  fay,  that  if  the 
land  is  in  good  heart,  and  has 
been  properly  tilled,  if  will  not, 
when  fown  with  thefe  precau- 
tions, produce  a  fmutty  crop." 

Another  gentleman,  who  figns 
himfelf  A  Norfolk  Farmer,  "de- 
clares, he  has  obferved,  that  it 
the  feed  was  only  well  wafhed, 
it  never  failed  :  That  he  waffied 
fome  feed  ^hich  he  knew  to  be 
fmutty,  in  a  large  tab,  filled  with 
plain,  fimple  water,  ftirring  it 
violently  with  birchen  brooms, 
taking  care  from  time  to  time  to 
fkim  off  the  light.  This  anfwer- 
cd  very  well,  and  he  has  ever 
fincc  continued  the  praftice." 
The  fame  praffice  of  wafhing  the 
feed,  is  recommended  by  Monf. 
de  Gonfreville,  of  Normandy,  in 
the  Foreign  EJJ'ays  on  Agriculture. 

It  appears  very  probable,  that 
wafhing  the  feed  very  clean  in 
feveral  waters,  may  be  the  bell 
method  of  preventing  both  fmut- 
ty and  burnt  ears.  The  burlling 
of  fmutty  ears  in  a  field  at  the 
time  of  bloffoming,  may  infecl 
the  grains  in  the  found  ears  ; 
which, may  produce  a  mouldinefs, 
which,  if  not  taken  off,  may  caufe 
the  next  crop  to  be  diminifhed 
and  corrupted  by  one  or  bdth  ot 
thefe  black  diftcmpcrs. 

But  a  Mr.  Powell,  in  England, 
writes  to  the  compilers  of  the 
Complete  Farmer^  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  ufual  brining  and  lim- 
ing of  feed  wheat,  if  one  pound 
and  a  halt  of  red  lead  were  fitt- 
ed through  a  cullender  upon  one 
bufhel,  ftirring  the  corn  with  a 
fliovel,  fo  that  every  grain  may 
have  a  fpot  or  two  of  the  lead 
adhering  to  it,  it  will  effe£fually 
prevent  fmut  :  And  that  fowls 
will  not  lie  upon  it.  He  is  con- 
fident, that  even  fmutty  feed,  {o 
prepared,  w^ill  produce  a  found 
crop. 

A 


S  N  O 

A  Mr.  Marfhall,  a  lite  Brltlfh 
Ml  iter  on  agriculture;,  fays  he  was 
informed  by  a  Yoi  klliire  f.trmcr, 
that  he  had  miilc  ulcot  a  fi)hiiion 
ofarfenickasa  prcvc-niivcotfrnut, 
and  For  twenty  years  it  had  prov- 
Cil  effectual,  i'he  preparatiDii  is 
AiaiJe  hy  pounding  the  arfenick 
very  fine,  boiling  it  in  water,  and 
drenching  the  lee*!  with  the  de- 
cottion.  The  mcthml  is  to  boi) 
one  ounce  in  a  gallon  ot  water, 
IroMi  one  to  two  hours.  Then 
add  as  much  water  or  urine  as 
will  increafe  the  liquor  to  two 
gallons.  This  will  anfwer  tor 
two  bulhels  ot  wheat.  It  may  be 
fowed  without  drying,  or  coating 
with  lime.  It  this  will  prove  aii 
elFettuil  antidote  a^ainit  Imut  ; 
it  may  be  Further  faid  in  recoin-  i 
niendaiion  ot  it,  that  it  will  equal- 
ly lecurc  the  feed  againll  birds, 
and  againR  every  kindot  infetls. 
Nor  need  any  one  be  apprehcn- 
fi'c  that  a  poifonou';  taint  will  be 

immunicated  to  the  crop. 

SNE.\D,  or  SNATHE,  the 
Itdfi",  or  hanille  ot  a  lithe.  The 
right  timber  for  fncads,  is  white 
alh  that  grows  on  upland,  it  be- 
ing light  and  ilifT,  which  are  two 
very  necell  iry  qualities  :  For  it 
A  fncad  be  heavy,  it  will  help  to 
tire  the  mower ;  and  if  it  be  lim- 
ber and  eify  to  bend,  it  will  caule 
the  fithe  to  tremble,  which  will 
hinder,  in  fome  degree,  its  cut- 
tiag  ;  and  render  the  labour  of 
the  mower  n;orc  dilUcult  and  fa- 
tiguing. It  mull  be  naturally  of 
the  nght  cri»ok,  .irul  not  cut  a-  I 
crofs  the  grain  ot  the  wood.  { 

SNC>W.  a  congealed  vapmir  , 
nt  falls   in  little  tk'cces  to  tlie 
cartli. 

Snow   lies   upon   the   ground  ' 
commonly,  in  this  country,  iiitlie 
winter  months,  and  in   March. 
Snows  fomctimes  fall  in  No\em- 
bcr  and  in  April  ;  but  they  foon  ! 
melt,  aad  do  uut  rcmaia  on  the  \ 


SOI  26$ 

ground  unlcfs  it  be  in  the  thick 
woods.  In  fome  parts  of  thcf 
wildernefs,  it  is  not  all  thawed 
till  July  ;  as  on  tlic  northern 
fides  of  high  mountains,  where 
the  trees  torm  a  deep  Hiade. 

Snow  isbencticialtothcground 
in  winter,  as  it  prevents  its  freez- 
ing fo  folid,  orto  fo  great  a  depth 
as  it  othcrwife  would.  It  guards 
the  winter  grain  and  other  vege- 
tables, in  a  coiifiderable  degree, 
from  the  violence  of  fuddcn  frofts^ 
and  trom  piercing  and  drying 
winds. 

The  later  fnow  lies  ort  the; 
ground  in  fpring,  the  more  ad- 
vantage do  gralfes  and  other 
plants  receive  from  it.  Where 
a  bank  of  Inow  has  lain  very  late, 
the  grafs  will  fprout,  and  look 
green  earlier,  than  in  parts  ot  the 
fame  field  which  were  (ooner  bare- 

A  fmall  Anrw,  that  falls  level, 
pretty  late  in  thcfpring,  is  better 
tor  the  foil  than  rain.  As  it 
thaws  gradually,  it  does  not  run 
oft,  but  iodks  diretlly  into  the 
ground,  moittcning  every  part  e- 
qually,  foltcring  the  roots  of  grafs, 
and  other  vcgetatilcs.  And  till 
it  is  thawed,  ilie  growing  plants 
are  guarded  againft  the  attacks 
of  froUs  and  winds.  If  a  fnow 
happeir  to  tall  alter  fpring  grain 
is  fown,  it  does  not  injure  it  at 
all ;  but  rather  anilts  its  vegetating. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  New- 
england,  the  ground  in  fome 
years  is  covered  with  fnow  for 
lour  months,  c'"cn  in  the  culti- 
vated fields.  This  is  not  regret- 
ted by  the  inhabitants,  as  they 
find  it  is  a  great  advantage  tor 
drawing  malts,  logs,  lumber,  and 
wood,  upon  fleds,  wiiich  is  much 
cafter  than  carting  them.  The 
roads  are  alfo  tar  better,  when 
the  rirts  and  Houghs  are  filled, 
and  every  part  paved  with  ice, 
or  condenfcd  fnow.  The  win- 
ters, tedious  as  iliey  are,fccni  too 

ihoic 


fo6        '■SOI 

fliort  for  'he  teamfters  to   finifh 
their  winter  bufmefs. 

Meat  that  is  killed  in  Decem- 
ber, may  be  kept  m  perfe6iion, 
if  buried  in  fnow,  until  fpring. 
This  is  an  excellent  method  ot 
preferving  frefh  and  good  thecar- 
calles  of  turkies  and  other  fowls. 

Set  an  open  cafk  in  a  cold 
place  ;  put  fnow  and  pieces  of 
meat  alternately  :  Let  not  the 
pieces  touch  each  o*her,  nor  the 
fides  of  the  cafk.  The  meat  will 
reither  freeze,  grow  dry,  nor  be 
difcoloured ;  but  be  as  good  in 
all  refpefts  at  the  lafl  of  March, 
as  when  it  was  firft  put  in.  The 
furfaces  of  the  pieces  fhould  be 
a  little  frozen,  before  they  are 
put  into  the  fnow,  that  the  juice 
of  the  meat  may  not  diflblve  the 
fnow.  The  caik  fhould  be  placed 
in  the  coldefl  part  of  the  houfe  ; 
or  in  an  out  houfe. 

SOIL,  that  part  of  the  earth 
which  lies  upon  the  hard  under 
ilratum,  over  which  there  is  com- 
monly a  cover  of  rich  mould, 
•vvhich  forms  the  furface,  unlefs 
deflroyed  by  fevere  burning,  or 
waflied  off  by  violent  rains,  or 
blown  away  by,  driving  winds. 

The  original  or  unmixed  foils, 
in  this  country,  are  but  few. 
Clay,  loam,  fand,  gravel,  and 
till,  or  moor  earth,  are  perhaps 
all  that  ought  to  be  reckoned  as 
iitfor  cultivation.  But  they  are 
commonly  more  or  lefs  blended 
together.  In  places  where  they 
are  unmixed,  it  would  be  a  piece 
of  excellent  hufbandry  to  mix 
them,  efpccially  whci'e  they  are 
contiguous,  applying  gravel  to 
moor  eaith,  and  moor  earth  to 
gravel  ;  fand  to^  clay,  and  clay 
to  fand.  And  land  upon  loam 
would  be  an  improvement. 

.  A  chalky  foil  is  but  feldom 
found  in  this  country.  A-Iarle  is  u- 
fually  at  too  great  a  depth  to  come 
ender  the  denomination  of  foil, 


SOI 

and  the  fame  may  be  faid  of  pest^ 
This  lafl  cannot  eafily  be  reduc- 
ed to  a  condition  fit  for  tillage. 
It  is  beff  to  deftroy  it,  by  digging 
It  wholly  out  for  ufe,  or  by  drain- 
ing the  land,  and  burning  the 
peat  on  the  ground.  A  chalky- 
foil  fhould  have  fand  and  hot  ma- 
nures applied  to  it. 

I  do  not  confider  a  ffony  foil 
as  diftinft  from  the  refl,  as  re- 
moving the  ftones  would  bring 
it  under  fome  other  denomina- 
tion. And  this  ought  to  be  done, 
when  land  is  to  be  ufed  in  til- 
lage, that  its  operations  may  be 
facilitated. 

Soils  are  commonly  diflin- 
guiflied  into  fhallow  and  deep, 
the  latter  of  which  is  preferred, 
as  the  under  ffratum  comes  not 
fo  near  to  the  furface,  but  that 
the  ground  may  be  ffirred  to  a 
great  depth  ;  and  as  it  is  fitted 
for  the  grovv-ing  of  long  tap  root- 
ed plants,  trees,  &c. 

Bin  the  mofl  common  diflinc- 
tion  of  foils  is  into  rich  and 
poor.  This  difference,  which  is 
certainly  very  great,  is  not  per- 
haps natural.  Richnefs,  I  imag- 
ine, is  rather  to  be  confidered  as 
fuperinduced.  All  foils  have, 
fince  the  creation,  received  large 
quantities  of  fertilizing  fubflances 
which  were  adapted  to  improve 
them  ;  and  by  which,  in  mod 
places,  they  have  been  greatly 
mended.  Not  only  vegetable 
fubflances,  fallen  upon  the  fur- 
face, and  changed  by  putrefac- 
tion, have  blended  their  faks  and 
oils  in  the  foil  :  But  the  foil  has 
been  drinking  in  vegetable  food 
by  the  dews  and  rains,  and  from 
the  air  itfelf,  which  is  loaded 
with  fertilizing  particles.  But 
fome  fpots  have  retained  the  add- 
ed richnefs  better  than  others. 

As  to   land    which   has   beea 

long  tilled,  and  often  pleqtifully 

manured,  it  is  not  eafy  always  to 

diilinguiiil 


S  O  I 

'^ifllngulfh  what  was  its  origliul 
ii)il  ;  nor  how  rich  (»r  poor  it  was 
m  its  natuul  fl.itc. 

It  Hoes  not  tollow,  that  all  un- 
cultivated (oils  ou£»ht  to  be  equal- 
ly rich,  hy  means  ol  the  general 
advantage!;  mentioned  ahove  ; 
becaufc  lonie  (oils  are  better  cal- 
culated than  others  to  retain  the 
food  of  vegetables.  Some  arc 
diditnte  ol  a  compact  imdcr  (Ira- 
tum  ;  and  it  is  no  matter  ol  w«)n- 
der  that  fuch  Ihould  appear  hun- 
gry and  barren  ;  lor  whatever 
richnefs  they  receive,  is  walhed 
by  rains  into  the  bowels  ol  the 
earth.  Some  foils  are  too  coarfe, 
or  loo  porous,  to  l>o  a  proper 
matrix  lor  terti!i/.ing  fubftanccs. 
Some  are  too  ftcep  to  retain 
them,  fo  that  they  are  wafli^d  in- 
to the  hollows  below.  Some 
are  fo  wet  as  to  four  and  corrupt 
them  ;  and  in  f ome,  there  are 
cither  mineral  waters,  or  fleams 
of  thofe  kinds,  which  are  unU- 
vourable  to  vegetation. 

In  tillage,  t'ae  (nrlace  mould 
and  the  foil  beneath  arc  nuxed, 
and  the  more  foihe  better,  as  the 
furface  mould  is  mado  up  as  it 
were  ol  the  elFcnres  of  vegeuiMt-.;. 

SOILING, or  ASSOILING, 
feeding  animals  with  new  mown 
gra{s,or  gra(s  not  dried,  in  racks, 
or  otherwife. 

This  is  commonly  praHifed  in 
fomc  coflntries,  where  they  put 
it  in  racks,  cither  under  c<jveror 
in  yards,  i'hick  grafs  will  go 
much  tuitherin  this  way,  than  if 
the  cattle  were  turned  in  upon  it 
to  leed  it  ofT  ;  as  they  would  dcf- 
troy  and  corrupt  more  by  half 
with  their  feet  and  cxcreincnls, 
than  they  would  eat.  But  when'- 
it  is  given  thirm  in  racks,  they 
will  eat  it  up»  .eaii,  without  waft- 
ing any  ol  it.  An  acre  of  rich 
land,  ufed  in  this  way,  will  fum- 
mcr  a  niunber  of  cows,  iiy  the 
(ime  that  it  has  been  once  cut 


s  o  o 


307 


over  as  it  is  wanted,  the  firft  part 
will  be  fit  to  cut  again.  And  the 
labour  of  doing  it  is  not  to  be 
leckoned  as  any  thing,  as  the 
trouble  of  driving  the  cows  to 
padurewill  be  laved.  This  will 
he  nioie  than  a  balance  tor  the 
labour  of  foiling,  if  cattle  muil 
be  otherwife  driven  to  any  con- 
(iderahle  dilKince.  And  it  great- 
ly rccommeiuU  this  prattice,  that 
a  prodigious  quatuity  of  minurii 
may  be  collected  by  it,  which 
otherwife  would  he  little  better 
than  loll,  the  dung  being  fcaiter- 
cd  in  pallurcs,  where  it  evapo- 
rates in  the  air. 

SOOT,  condenfcd  fmoke, 
which  adheres  to  the  lunnels  of 
chimneys.  It  is  replete  with  the 
oil  and  volatile  falls  which  were 
con  taiiieil  in  the  leuel, and  is  there- 
fore an  excellent  manure,  much 
fupcriour  toalhes  ot  any  kitnl. 

Both  wood  foot  and  coal  loot 
(hould  be  carefully  laved,  and 
kept  from  the  weather,  to  be 
ufed  as  top  drefTmgs. 

Mr.  Worlidge  fcems  to  think 
wood  foot  the  belt  ;  but  Mr. 
Mortimer  give  the  preference  to 
that  which  comes  Irom  pit  coal, 
of  which  fortv  bulhch  are  allow- 
ed to  be  a  lufticient  drefTing  tor 
an  acre.  But  of  this  kind  our 
farmers  can  obtain  but  little  ;  nor 
indeed  idcnty  ol  -jitljcr,  unlcfs  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  populous 
towns,  where  much  ot  it  may  be 
colletied  for  ule  hy  thofe  wliofe 
bufinels  it  is  to  clean  chimneys. 
Both  kinds  are  to  he  ufed  only 
as  top  dicflings.  The  coal  foot 
is  particularly  good  for  low 
meadows,  or  grafs  lands,  whick 
are  four  and  molfy; 

Soot  is  a  good  cop  drefTing  for 
winter  gran.  But  it  Ihould  be 
applied  early  in  the  fpring.  Not 
in  autumn,  left  it  (hould  caufe  it 
to  grow  too  fall,  by  means  ol' 
which  ic  ^vill  bv  the  more  liable 


<'c8 


s  o  w 


to  be  deftroyed  by  the  frofl;  of 
winter.  Neither  fhould  it  be 
afpplied  late  in  the  fpring  ;  be- 
caufe  in  cafe  of  a  drought  foon  af- 
ter, it  will  be  apt  to  burn  too  much. 

Mr.  Ellis  lecommends  Towing 
foot  over  turnips,  as  foon  as  they 
?ire  up.  This  will  tend  to  pre- 
vent flies  from  attacking  them. 
But  that  it  may  have  this  effect,  it 
ihould  be  finely  pulverififd ; 
fowed  early  in  a  morning  before 
the  dew  is  off;  and  in  a  mode- 
rate quantity,  left  its  heat  fhould 
injure  the  tender  plants,  to  which 
it  will  adhere  and  repel  the  in- 
{eSis  Sifting  istjie  belt  w-ay  of 
applying  it. 

SOW,  a  female  hog.  See 
Smine. 

SOWING,  committing  feeds 
to  the  earth,  for  the  purpofe  oi 
obtaining  a  prop. 

There  are  three  ways  d  feedmg 
the  ground  :  i.  In  hills  as  it  is 
called,  or  in  fquares  :  2.  In  drills, 
or  continued  rows  :  And  3.  In 
the  broad  caft  method,  or  at  ran- 
dom with  a  caft  ot  the  hand  ; 
vhich  laft  method  is  always  term- 
ed fo'A'in^.  The  firft  requires 
the  lead  quantity  of  feed,  the  laft 
thegreateft.  But  the  crops  will 
not  be  in  proportion  to  the  dif- 
ferent quantities  ot  feed. 

With  regard  to  fowmg,  fever- 
al  things  ought  lo  be  attended  to  ; 
the  quality  or  goodnefs  ot  the 
feeds  ;  the  time  of  fowing  them  ; 
the  depth  that  is  bell  for  them  ; 
and  the  quantity,  or  proportiori 
of  feed  to  the  ground. 

The  quality  of  feed  fhould  be 
afcertained,  In  order  to  determine 
the  quantity  that  is  proper  to  be 
iown;  for  if  one  tenth  part  of  the 
feeds,  for  inftance,  fhould  be  def- 
titute  of  a  vegetative  power,  a 
tenth  part  more  of  fuch  feeds 
ffiould  be  fowu  than  the  ufual 
quantity,  fuppofing  the  feeds  to 
^z  in  perfc6ticn.- 


s  o  w 

In  order  to  determine  the  good- 
nefs  of  the  feed  to  be  fown, 
you  fhould  previoufly  take  fifty 
grains  at  random  from  the  par- 
cel ;  fow  them  in  good  mould, 
at  a  proper  depth,  and  carefully 
obferve  how  great  a  proportion 
fail  of  coming  up.  They  may 
be  fown  in  a  pot,  and  kept  in  a 
vvarm  part  of  the  houfe,  or  in  a 
hot  bed,  that  the  farmer  may  have 
timely  notice  of  the  quality  of 
his  feeds,  when  it  is  too  early  in 
the  fpring  to  do  it  in  the  open 
groufid.  Many  have  miffed  of 
a  crop,  by  not  taking  this  precau- 
tion. W^hen  feeds  are  fuipefied 
of  being  too  old  to  vegetate,  this 
previous  trial  fhould  by  no  means 
be  neglected. 

But  if  we  wifh  to  have  feeds 
in  the  bell  condition  for  fowing, 
they  fhould  be  well  ripened  on 
their  plants  before  they  are  gath- 
ered in  ;  afterwards  ihey  Ihould 
be  kept  perfectly  dry,  that  they 
may  not  contract  the  lealt 
mouldinefs  ;  and  never  be  fe- 
ci uded  from  the  air, 

Mr.  Miller  found  that  air  was 
abfolutely  neceffary  to  maintain 
the  principle  of  vegetation  in 
feeds.  Having  faved  a  parcel  of 
frefli  feeds  of  feveral  kinds,  he 
took  fome  of  each,  and  fealed 
them  up  in  glafs  phials :  the  oth- 
er parts  of  the  fame  feeds  he  put 
into  b^:^?,  and  hung  them  up  in 
a  dry  place,  in  a  free  air.  After 
a  year  had  paffed,  he  took  fome 
of  the  feeds  from  each  phial, 
and  each  bag,  and  fowed  them 
at  the  fame  time,  and  on  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  fame  bed. 
The  refalt  was,  that  almofl  all 
the  feeds  he  took  out  ot  the  bags 
grew  well  ;  but,  of  thofe  which 
had  been  kep;  in  th^.phials,  not 
one  came  up.  This  difcovery 
was  further  confirmed  by  exper- 
iments afterwards.  How  care- 
ful then  Ihould  both  farmers  and 
gardeners 


S  O  W  S  O  W  309 

troO,  b*  fo  early    fo-.vrd  a»  to  he 

up  till  the  fpriiiR  f.'olU  are  palt. 

I  may  add,  a  fpot  which  1ms 

a    foiithern    cxpolurc     may    be 

rc<*iicd  rather  earlier  tiiaii    land 

which   dcfcen«ls   to   tlie    norih- 

warH,  or  than  land  which  is  level. 

If  feeds  are  lnwn  too  early,  or 

Tome  of  the  bed    when  the  ground  i$  too  wet  or 

nd  the  lying  of  I  cold  for  them,  they  will  either 

perilh,  and  fiil   of  coming   up  ; 


rardcnrrs  be,  that  nn  fee!*;  ae- 
li^ne  I  for  fowuit^  W-  kept  total- 
ly ferluded  fronn  the  air  ' 

All  kinds  of  feeds  are  beft 
kept  in  their  p<»  Is,  or  hulks.  Ef- 
pecially  ihov  fh.:i;!>i  he  fo  kept, 
when  thov  a-c  deliRned  to  be 
tranfp  ■>-:  •  i  ♦      i-Jlant  countries. 


feed  whea:  m  the  Iheaf  to  the  ti  me 
ot  fowinp.  And,  that  none  but 
the  l>eft  ot  the  grain  may  be  fown, 
in  Head  of  threlljing,  it  is  advifa- 
ble  to  ftrike  a  handiul  at  a  time 
gently  againll  a  poll,  and  colle/-l 
what  falls  out  ;  becaufe  the 
heavieft  and  beil  grain  is  always 
the  mod  eafily  detached  from 
the  car.  , 

Being  fumifhed  with  good  feeds,  ' 
the  time   tor  committing   them 
to  the  earth  mull  in  great  inea-  , 
fure  be  determined  by  the  judg-  | 
ment  of  the  experienced  hulband-  | 
man  ;  bocaufe,  trom  various  cir-  I 
cii:n dances,    it    comes   to    pafs,  | 
tJiat  the  true  time  admits  ot  fome  I 
latitude.     The   time    tor   fpring 
fowing  will   vary  according    t<^» 
the  variation  ot  the  forward nefs  ! 
of  the  feafoi  ;    which  may    be  i 
bod  determint-d  by  the   relpec-  j 
tive   forwardnefs    ot    tlfees   and  ; 
Ihrubs.     See  the  article  KaUn- 
dar. 

But  there    are  other  circum- 
fLmces  to  hi  taken  into  the  ac- 


count, whicli  m.«y  further  vary  }  above    the   furtace    in    vegetat 
the  fcafon  for  fpring  fowing.    A 

]  -I. 


or  if  they  come  up,  it  is  flowly, 
fo  that  the  plants  become  dint- 
ed in  their  growth,  and  neverar- 
rive  to  a  full  fize. 

If  the  right  feafon  for  fowing 
ftiould  clapfe,  the  hud)andman, 
being  convinced  of  it,  mar  ac- 
celerate vcgatation  by  deeping 
the  feeds  in  a  he  ot  wckkI  alhc!, 
or  any  other  proper  mendruum, 
{o  that  they  may  overtake  in 
their  growth  thofe  which  were 
fown  in  the  right  feafon. 

The  depth  at  which,  different 
feeds  (houKi  be  buried  in  the 
foil  is  various,  according  to  the 
difference  ol  feeds  and  foils.  M. 
Duhamel  found  by  experiment, 
that  but  few  {^ftA^  will  come  up 
at  all,  when  buried  deeper  than 
nine  inches  ;  that  fome  ' 
rife  very  well  from  the  dep 
fix  inches;  and  that  other  lecd>«lo 
not  rife  at  all  when  they  arc 
more  than  two  inches  under  the 
furfaee.  And  in  general  thole 
feed^, the  body  of  wtiich  is  thrown 


f  warm  foil  may  receive  the 
-  earlier  than  one  that  is 
ii.  'i;;  and  moid.  The  former 
Will  arrive  to  the  right  ilegree  of 
dry  nefs  fooner  than  the  latter, 
and  is  earlier  fit  for  the  opera- 
tions of  tillage.  And  this  is 
certain,  that  feeds  that  require 
the        '  ^,  mud  not  be 

fo\% 


ing.  fhould  have  the  Icfs  quantity 
of  foil  above  them,  that  ttiey  itmv 
not  meet  with  too  much  refin- 
ance in  rifing  ;  fuch  as  kidney 
beans  and  many  other  forts.  Al- 
fo  the  fame  fee  lsmay,an«loug;ii 
to  be  buried  deeper  in  a  hglit 
tnd  dry,  than  in  a  heavy  and 
moid  fo'l.     When  the  ground  is 

rolled  after   fowing.    the   feeds, 

eirth  r:»n  b^  I  will   vegetate  the    nearer  to  the 

;    and     therefore     tlicy 

nccd   to   be    fowcd  f»j 

deep, 


310  S  O  W 

deep,  as  when  the  rolling  is  omit- 
ted. ' 

To  determine  what  is  the 
right  depth,  in  a  doubtful  cafe, 
Air.  Tull  has  fuggefted  an  ex- 
cellentmethod.  "  Take  a  dozen 
of  flicks  for  gauges  ;  mark  the 
firft  at  half  an  inch  trom  the  end  ; 
the  next  at  an  inch  ;  and  fo  on, 
increafing  half  an  inch  to  each. 
Then,  in  the  fort  of  ground  you 
intend  to  fow,  make  a  row  of 
twenty  holes,  with  the  half  inch 
gauge  ;  put  in  twenty  good 
leeds  and  cover  them,  and  liick 
tip  the  guage  at  the  end  of  the 
row.  Then  do  the  Hke  with  the 
relt  of  the  flicks.  Obferve  how 
the  feeds  profper  in  the  different 
rows,  and  you  will  dilcover  at 
what  depth  that  kind  of  feed 
Jhould  be  buried." 

Ho\»xver  ufeful  this  experi- 
3Tient  may  be,  it  can  be  of  little 
or  no  ufe  in  the  old  field  huf- 
bandry  .;  for,  in  the  broad  cafl 
way  of  /owing,  the  feeds  will  be 
differently  covered.  But  fow- 
ing  fields  with  the  drill,  in  equi- 
diflant  rows,  when  horfe  hoeing  is 
not  intended,  cannot  be  too  much 
commended.  It  is  worth  while 
to  do  it  it  it  were  only  on  account 
of  the  feed  that  may  be  faved  by 
it.  Much  feed  is  wafled  in  the 
common  way  of  fowing  ;  for 
Jome  of  the  feeds,  will  be  fo 
deeply  covered,  that  they  will 
not  vegetate  :  Some  will  be  left 
on  the  furface,  which  is  a  prey 
for  birds,  and  perhaps  leads 
them  to  fcratch  up  fome  of  the 
reft  :  Some  will  lie  fo  near  the 
furface  as  to  be  deftroyed  by  va- 
riation of  weather,  being  alter- 
nately wetted  and  fcorched. 
And  of  thofe  feeds  that  grow, 
fome  rife  earlier,  and  fome  later, 
fo  that  the  crop  does  not  ripen 
equally.  The  feeds  will  fall 
from  the  hand  of  the  fower,  too 
thick    in  fome  fpots,  and   too 


s  o  ^V 

thin  in  others.by  means  of  the  urt^ 
evennefs  of  the  furface  ;  and 
the  harrowing  perhaps  will  in- 
creafe  the  inequality  ;  fo  that  ma- 
ny will  be  fo  crowded  as  to  be  un- 
fruitful, while  the  reft  have  more 
room  than  is  necelfary. 

But  when  the  feeds  are  put  in 
with  the  drill,  they  will  all  rife 
nearly  together  ;  not  fo  much  as 
one  feed  will  be  wafted,  or  loft, 
fuppofmg  them  fown  at  the  right 
diftance  ;  each  one  may  have  fo 
much  room  as  is  moft  condu- 
cive to  its  growth  ;  no  ftarved 
heads  will  appear,  and  the  v.'hole 
will  ripen  together.  Haifa  bufhel 
of  wheat,  or  even  a  lefs  quantity, 
in  this  way,  will  feed  an  acre 
fufliciently.  How  great  muft 
be  this  advantage  at  a  time  oi 
great  fcarcity  of  feed  ! 

It  is.^difficult  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  feed,  that  is  heft  to 
be  fown  in  the  broad  caft  way. 
Doubtlefs  it  fhould  vary  accord- 
ing to  circum fiances. 

When  feed  is  very  large,  and 
full  grown,  two  bufhels  may  not 
be  more  than  equal  to  one  that 
is  fmall  and  pinched,  fuppofing 
the  feeds  equally  difpofed  to  veg- 
etate, which  is  often  the  cafe. 
For  the  true  quantity  ftould  be  ef- 
timated,  rather  by  the  number 
of  grains,  than  by  meafure  or 
weight.  Not  that  I  would  re- 
commend the  fowing  of  pinched 
grain,  excepting  in  cafe  of  ne- 
ceffity.  For  it  is  to  be  expefted, 
in  general,  that  the  moft  per- 
feft  feeds  will  produce  the  bell 
plants. 

Rich  land  will  afford  nourifh- 
ment  to  a  greater  number  of 
plants  than  that  v,'hich  is  poor. 
It  has  been  held  by  many  farm- 
ers that  the  poorer  the  land  is, 
thegreater  quantity  of  feed  fhould 
be  fown  in  it.  But  Mr.  Miller 
fays,  "  This  is  one  of  the  greatefl 
fallacies  that  can  be  imagined  ; 

for 


sow 

tor  to  Tuppofe  that  poor  land  can 
iiotirifli  more  than  twice  the 
number  of  roots  in  the  fame 
fpace,  as  rich  land,  isfuch  an  ab- 
furdiiy  as  one  couM  hardly  liip- 
pofc  any  pcrfon  ot  common  iin- 
derftandiiijT  Ruilty  ot.  Wiierc 
the  roots  llaiui  ciofe  they  will 
deprive  each  other  of  noiirilh- 
mcnt,  winch  any  pcrfon  may  at 
firrt  fi<;ht  ohferve,  in  any  part  ol 
the  Hflds  where  the  corn  hap- 
pens to  fcaiter  when  they  arc 
lowing  it  ;  or  in  places  where, 
by  harrowinjT,  the  feed  is  drawn 
in  heaps,thofe  patches  will  llarve, 
and  never  grow  to  a  third  part 
of  the  fi'/e  as  the  other  parts  of 
the  fame  field  ;  and  yet,  com- 
mon as  this  is,  it  is  litile  noticed 
by  farmers  ;  otherwife,  they 
furely  would  not  continue  their 
old  ciiflom  oi  lowing." 

The  pratlice  of  tarmers  has 
been  various,  as  to  the  quantity 
otfccd.  InFnglandthey  low  from 
two  or  three  to  lourorfivebufhels 
of  wheat  on  an  acre  ;  fix  bulhcls 
of  oats,  and  tour  of  barley.  But 
the  above  quoted  author  is  very 
pofitive  that  a  third  part  of  the 
ufual  quantities  would  be  better. 

The  ufual  quantities  in  this 
country  are  not  greater  than  five 
or  fix  pecks  of  wheat  or  rye, 
three  bulhelsof  oats,  and  two  of 
barl<*y.  for  an  acre.  And  from 
thclcquantitics.in  (bmc  inlbnces, 
large  crops  have  been  produced. 
Though,  in  old  countries,  the 
crops  arc  ufually  larger  than 
ours,  I  apprehend  it  is  not  owing 
to  higher  feeding,  hut  to  deeper 
and  more  perfect  tillage,  better 
manuring,  and  frequent  chaiig- 
infj  of  feed,  with  a  judicious  ro- 
tation ol  crops. 

The  fowing  of  winter  grain  is 
perhaps  a  more  difficult  m.uter 
to  manage  rightly,  than  vernal 
feeding.  Fanneis  certainly  mif- 
ukc  their  intcrcft,  when  tlicy  pcr- 


S  O  W  371 

fift  in  fowing  winter  grain  at  a 
certain  time  of  the  year,  let  the 
weather  be  ever  fo  hot,  and  t!u: 
ground  ever  (o  dry.  By  heat 
and  drynefs,  the  feeds  will  fonie« 
times  he  fo  fcorched  in  the  foil, 
that  inn  a  fourth  part  of  them 
will  ever  come  up.  Therefore, 
if  a  drought  happen  at  the  ufual 
fowing  fcalon,  it  will  he  needful 
to  deter  lowing  till  fome  rain 
has  fallen,  and  the  foil  has  got  a 
due  degree  of  inoillure.  Howr 
long  it  may  be  bcfl  to  wait  for* 
fuch  a  favourable  opportunity,  I 
will  leave  to  the  judgment  of  the 
experienced  farmer. 

Alio,  a  fpot  that  has  been  new- 
ly cleared  by  burning,  may  be 
fowed  later  in  autumn  than  oth- 
er land.  It  ought  to  be  fowed 
later,  it  the  growth  before  win- 
ter be  wilhcd  to  be  only  equally 
forward  ;  for  the  afhes  will  fo 
quicken  the  vegetation,  that  if  it: 
be  feeded  early,  it  will  attain  to 
too  large  a  growth  before  winter, 
and  ke  the  more  in  danger  of 
being  killed  by  frolt. 

Pliny  points  out  the  falling  of 
the  leaves  of  deciduous  trees 
in  autumn,  as  an  index  ot  the 
right  feafon  for  lowing.  Hcob- 
ferves,  that  "  this  circumftance 
will  indicate  the  temperature  ot 
the  air  in  every  climate,  and 
fhew  whether  the  feafon  he  ear- 
ly or  late  :  That  it  ronllitutes  a 
univerfal  rule  lor  the  world  ;  be- 
caufc  trees  ihcd  their  leaves  in 
every  countiy,  according  to  the 
difference  of  the  Icalons.  TI;i<; 
gives  a  general  lignal  for  fowing ; 
nature  declaring,  that  Ihc  has 
then  covered  the  earth  again  ft 
the  inclemency  of  the  winter, 
and  cnriclie<l  it  with  this  ma- 
nure." 

It  is  doubtlcfs  much  better  to 

fow  winter   grain    rather   early 

than    very    late  ;    becaufc   that 

which  is  ibwcd  late,  will  not  he 

iurnilhcd 


312  SPA 

farniOicd  with  flrong  ix^ots  be- 
fore winter,  and  therefore  will  not 
generally  fo  well  bear  the  frofl. 
Though  grain  (own  in  December 
lias  ionietinics  profpered  well,  it 
ought  not  to  encourage  the  farm- 
er in  fowing  fo  late  ;  bccaufethe 
in  {lances  in  which  it  has  fuc- 
ceeded  have  been  but  few.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  Ihould  not  be 
fown  fo  early  as  to  give  time  fcr 
the  ilalks  to  Ihoot  up  before 
winter.  But  perhaps  it  will  be 
found  to  be  a  good  rule,  to  fow 
grain  the  earlier  in  proportion  as 
the  winters  are  longer  and  cokU 
er.  And  yet,  confining  the  true 
time  to  certain  days  or  weeks, 
would  be  ridiculous. 

M.  de  Chateauvieux,  from 
many  experiments,  and  long 
practice,  concludes,  "  that  the 
bell  time  for  fowing  in  fuch  a 
climate  as  Geneva,  is  from  the 
20th  of  Auguft,  to  the  end  of 
September."  And  he  thinks 
the  firft  fortnightin  October  may 
anfwer,  ii  the  fowing  cannot  be 
done  fooncr. 

But  as  the  experience  of  per- 
fons  in  other  countries  may  mif- 
lead  us,  it  is  greatly  to  be  wilhed 
that  a  fet  ot  the  moft  accuiate 
experiments  were  made  by  fome 
judicious  perfon  in  this  coimtry, 
in  order  to  afcertain  the  belt  ti/iie 
lor  autmnnal  fowing. 

SPx\DE,  an  inllrument  ufed 
in  digging.  Spades  differ  in 
their  ihape  and  confrrucilon, 
according  to  the  different  opera- 
tions in  whicli  they  are  to  be 
ufed. 

SPAVIN,  adifeafeof  horfcs, 
being  a  tumcfafcfion  about  the 
joints,  caufing  lamencfs. 

"  There  arc  two  kinds  of  fpav- 
in,  a  blood  fpavin,  and  a  bog 
fpavin. 

"  A  blood  fpavin  is  afwelliag 
and  dilatation  of  the  vein  that 
runs  along  thcinIideoftheh(ac}:, 


SPA 

forming  a  little  foft  fwelling  ir 
the  hollow  part,  and  is  often  at 
tended    with    a    wcakncfs    and 
lamcnefs  of  the  hock. 

"  The  cure  fhould  be  firfl  at- 
ternpted  with  reftringents  and 
bandage,  which  will  contribute 
greatly  to  ffrengthen  all  weak- 
nefles  of  the  joints,  and  frequent- 
ly will  remove  this  diforder,  if 
early  applied.  But  if,. by  thefe 
means,the  vein  isHot  reduced  to  its 
ufual  dimenfions,  tlie  fkin  fliould 
be  opened,  and  the  vein  tied 
with  a  crooked  needle  and  wax 
thread  pa  (fed  underneath  it,  both 
above  and  below  the  1  welling, 
and  the  turgid  part  fuffered  to 
digefi  away  with  the  ligatures. 
For  this  purpofe,the  wound  may 
be  daily  drefled  with  turpentine, 
honey,  and  fjnrit  of  wine  incor- 
porated together. 

"  A  bog  fpavin  is  an  encyfled 
tumour  on  the  infide  of  the 
hough,  or  according  to  Dr.  Brak- 
en,  a  colleftion  of  brownifh  gela- 
tinous matter,  contained  in  a  bag^ 
or  cyfl,  which  he  thinks  to  be  the 
lubricating  matter  of  the  joint  al- 
tered, the  common  membrane 
that  enciofes  it  forming  the  cyft. 
This  caie  he  has  taken  the  pains 
to  illuftrate  in  a  young  colt  of  his 
own,  where,  he  fays,  when  the 
fpavin  was  preffed  hard  on  the 
infide  of  the  hough,  there  was  a 
fmall  ti'.moiu-  on  the  outfide, 
which  convinced  him  the  fluid 
was  within  fide  the  joint..-  He 
accordingly  cut  into  it,  discharg- 
ed a  large  quantity  of  this  gelati- 
nous matter,  dreffed  the  fore  w-th 
doffils  dipped  in  oil  of  turpentine, 
putting  into  it,  once  in  three  or 
four  days,  a  powder  made  of  cal- 
cined vitriol,  alum,  and  bole. 
By  this  method  of  drelfing,  the 
bag  floughcd  off,  and  came 
away,  and  the  cure  was  fuccefs- 
fully  completed  without  any  vif- 
ible  fear, 

"  Tha^ 


5  r  I 

'*  This  diforHer,  accoHinij  to 
T-       '  '  .'I  karcc- 

',  method, 

r  \v:!:;i     the   cyft 

I-  -.ctrateH  to  make 

]•  '  It  in  all  (■' 

^'    c  rcHlled  t 

mctho.i.,  iiwiii  the  cure  ul  this, 
and  the  Iwoliings  calJtd  wind 
galls,  (hould,  I  think,  be  attempt- 
ed after  this  manner.  If, 
t  he  pain  attending  the 
c;  or  dreflinKS,  the  joint 
fiiu;:id  Iwell  and  inflame,  foment 
it  t\\  :cc  a  day,  an.l  ai'-jly  a  poul- 
•  cr  the  .  till  it  is 
ed."     C. -  -:rmer. 

SPAYING,  the  cattration  of 
female  animals,  to  prevent  con- 
ception, and  promote  their  fat- 
tening. It  is  faid,  that  fpayed 
lows  will  !iavc  a  greater  quanti- 
ty of  fat  upon  their  inw^' '  *  " 
barrows,  and  that  the\ 
the  ^%'^.l.>^c,  more  pi 

Sl'i:Ll",a  fpccK 
femblir.g  wlic^i:.  b.r,  ..v.-\.Wi,  zwA 
darkc"  colourtJ,  !  ea:ded,  with 
only  two  row  son  an  car.  Itisufed 
in  Germany  tor  bread,  and  will 
make  malt.  0\  this  grain  the 
ancients  are  faid  to  have  made 
their  frum.enty,  of  which  they 
were  very  fond.  It  may  be 
fowcd  in  autumn  or  fpring,  and 
dtlijjhts  in  a  drv  foil, 

SPIKY  ROLLER,  a  wood- 
en roller,  armed  with  fpikes,  of 
important  ufe  in  hufoandry. 

This  inflrament  was  formerly 
juft  menti'~incd  by  Mr.  Ellis ;  but 
has  been  ol  late  brought  into  tifc 
by  the  ingenious  Mr.  Randall, 
ot  York,  m  England  :  Who  rc- 
coTiTiends,  that  the  roller  be  a 
cyiii.ler  of  the  '  :  uak,  iev- 

en  tec:  lor.c.  a  ^-n  int'.i- 

ci  di..  .  ::ii  a   Un>ng  hand 

of  ir.  U  end.      Tftn  <>r 

t  :i,  leven 

::  three  in 

wu«^,  ai^i  foujr  iDcuc«  ap<iH,  m 


sri        3.3 

the  quincunx  order,  over  the 
whole  convex  furtace.  The  out- 
er points  mufl  be  pretty  Iharp  ; 
and  the  ends  which  go  into  the 
r.Wler  Ihould  be  racked  at  the 
corner^.  »g 

out,       '1  DC 

quite  fo  il:ong  as   i..  -a 

harrow.     The  whole  nt 

will  weigh  near  a  ton  ;  and  a 
frame  is  to  he  annexed  to  it,  for 
the  team  to  draw  by  ;  to  which 
a  box  may  be  added  for  the  driv- 
er to  fit  on.  But  beware  of  put- 
ting a  wild, refliflfor  unmanageable 
team  to  this  fearful  inftrument. 
The  flrength  of  four  'oxen  or 
three  horfes,  will  be  neceflaiy 
to  draw  it. 

The  ufes  to  which  the  fpiky 
roller  is  tabe  applied,  are, in  the 
firft  plac^o  reduce  a  llitt,  ftub- 
born,  and  clotty  foil,  to  a  fine  tilth 
for  fcwing.  This  it  will  perform 
■  '  - '.-nirablccv  '  .  byon- 
'^^forwar  k  again 

v.\\:\z :,.:.  '  -  It  even 

to  a  per;  And, 

which  grca:.y  :\:Cw:;.:;:^nds  it,  it 
is  ufed  to  advantage  when  the 
ground  is  too  dry  for  ploughing; 
by  means  of  which,  there  need 
not  be  any  delay  in  preparing 
land  for  fowir.g. 

"It  is  certainly  an  inftrument,'* 

fay  the   compilers   of  the  Com" 

p'::f    F.:r':-'r,    "  that  no  farm, 

wi:cre  the  land  is  ftiff,  or  the  leafl 

liable  to  clot,  ihould  want.    For, 

befiJes   the    conllant  advantage 

of  faving  laht^ur,   and   bringing 

land  to   a  better   condition  for 

aiiy   kind   offowing,  than   the 

••-';  and  harrow,  with  any  af- 

ufthe  work  of  hands  can 

i:.i;.L'  u  ;  in  favourable  feafons, 

and  under  fuchcircumftances  as 

Mr.  Randilt  lias  mentioned,  the 

lof«  ot   thr  uim!.'    crop,    by  an 

e  delay  be- 

lay  be  Willi 

caruuiuy  iircvcuuJ.' 

p  Aaoiber 


gt4  S  P  R 

Another  important  ufe  of  this 
inftrument,  is*  to  renew  the  fruit- 
i^ulnefs  of  grafs  land,  when  it  is 
fo  bound  as  to  be  alniofl  barren, 
or  overrun  with  mofs  and  bad 
gralTes.  Mr.  Randall  direfts, 
that  a  good  com  poll  be  prepared  : 
And,  in  autumn,  when  the 
ground  is  a  little  moift,  that  the 
fpikes  may  enter  the  foil  eafily, 
to  pafs  the  roller  up  and  down 
till  the  furface  is  well  broken  : 
Then  fow  hay  feeds,  and  fpread 
the  compoft  over  them,  to  be  fol- 
lowed with  a  fmooth  roller,  with 
a  bulh  harrow  after  it.  Thus  a 
line  fward  will  be  renewed,  and 
good  crops  of  the  beft  grafs  will 
follow. 

But  it  is  obvious  to  remark, 
that  the  furface  muft  be  pretty 
level,  and  the  land  free  from 
ilones,  to  admit  ot  thefe  opera- 
tions. 

Mr.  Randall  alfo  recommends 
pafTing  this  roller  in  the  fpnng, 
over  winter  grain,  to  loofen  the 
furface,  and  increale  vegetation, 
and  fmoothing  it  afterwards  with 
a  bufh  harrow.  Though  this 
may  feem  to  be  a  bold  experi- 
ment, I  think  it  is  probable  it 
might  have  a  better  effe6i  than 
harrowing,  which  is  much  ap- 
proved by  many,  as  the  tines 
would  penetrate  deeper,  and  as 
the  plants  would  be  lefs  expofed 
to  extirpation,  than  by  the  hori- 
zontal motion  of  the  harrow. 

SPRING,  one-of  the  four  fea- 
fons  of  the  year,  fo  called  from 
the  fpringing  or  fhooting  up  of 
vegetables,  which  in  the  winter 
were  in  a  torpid  ftate. 

This  fcaibn  includes,  accord- 
ing to  common  parlance,  March, 
AprilandMay.  It  isthemoltbufy 
and  hurrying  feafon,  lor  farmers 
in  this  country,  of  any  in  the 
year  ;  partly  owing  to  the  long 
continuance  oi  troft,  which  com- 
monly prevents  all  kinds  of  til- 


S  P  R 

lage  till  near  the  beginning  of"' 
April  ;  and  in  the  northern- 
parts,  till  the  end  of  that  m.onth. 
But  fometimes  it  is  partly  owing- 
alfo  to  what  we  might  order  oth- 
erwife,  to  fowing  a  larger  pro- 
portion than  is  neceflary  of  our 
grain  in  the  fpring,  and  ne- 
glefting  in  autumn  to  cart  out  fo 
much  of  our  manure  as  we 
might,  that  we  complain  of  be- 
ing fo  much  hurried  with  work> 
vin  the  fpring. 

But  befides  tillage  and  feeding, 
which  are  enough  to  iemploy  the 
whole  time,  there  are  other  mat- 
ters to  be  attended  to  at  this  fea- 
fon. The  fences  are  always  to 
be  examined,  and  repaired  :  For 
though  they  were  in  good  or- 
der in  the  fall  preceding,  high' 
winds,  violent  llorms,  and  deep 
fnows,may  overfet,break  or  fettle 
them,  not  to  mention  the  gradu- 
al decay  and  rotting  ot  v/ooden 
fences..  Or  the  violence  of  frofl  , 
may  heave  and  diforder  them. 
Compoft  dunghills  it  will  otten 
be  needful  to  make  at  this  feafon,.,. 
efpecially  if  the  materials  were 
not  all  obtainable  in  the  preced-- 
ing  autumn. 

But  preparing  and  feeding  the 
ground  mull  not  be  neglefted, 
nor  nightly  performed  :  For  as- 
a  man  foweth,  fo  ihall  he  reap. 
Sluggiflinefs  at  the  beginning, 
will  be  followed  with  want  at  the  * 
end  of  the  year. 

SPRINGS,  ftreams,  or  fourcc; 
of  v;ater,  rifing  out  oi  the 
ground. 

The  water  with  which  fprings  / 
are  fupplied,  is  probably  all  im- 
bibed by  mountains,  and  high 
lands,  from  rains,  >dews  and  va- 
pouirs.  For  tlie  more_  uneven  a 
country  is,  the  more  it  abounds 
with  fprings. 

A  fpringy  country  is  .raoft 
convenient  ior  hufbandmen,  on 
account  of  the  need  of  water  for 

their 


S  P  R 

their  ftocks,  and  for  other  im- 
port.mt  piirpoffs. 

Some    fpr-iq^;   rniinft    o\    the 
mort  !     fun  pic  waters. 

Othci  iprc^natcd    with 

mine:.  r  :nattcrs  in  the 

canh,  ,     which  the  waters 

pafi.  Hcncclomc  Iprings  arc  me- 
tallic k  ;  Ibme  iulphurcoiis,  limy, 
marly,  or  ialine.  Some  ot  thefe 
ha\  0  heromc  famous  lor  their 
nci'iiri .!  virtues. 

S:it  Ip  iiigs  arc  found  in  the 
Ohi  >  country,  and  in  other 
places  rcTiotc  from  the  fca. 
The'e  io'licate  the  benevolence 
•ol  the  Creator  to  man  and  other 
animals.  '1  hey  arc  of  clfential 
importance  to  the  inland  farmer, 
as  his  ftock  always  needs  fait  to 
keep  them  in  hcjith,  and  as  the 
waters  may  he  ufed  to  great  ad- 
vantnjTc  Irt  manuring  the  land. 
Some  arc  alfo  ufetul  for  the 
making  of  fait. 

Hot  fprings  have  been  coniid- 
«rcd  as  aflonifliing  phenomena. 
But  if  fulphur  and  iron,  in  large 
quantities,  arc  blended  in  a 
mountain,  the  ferirjentation 
caufed  by  thefe  fuhftanccs  cannot 
fail  of  hcjting  the  waters  that 
pafs  through  them. 

So"vj  ipots  of  ground  arc  nat- 
ural, \  too  fpringy  for  iarming, 
as  u  here  the  water  oozes  out  io 
picntitully  as  to  keq^the  foil  in 
a  miry,  cold  ftate.  Drains  in 
fuch  places  are  neccffiry,  to  car- 
ry off  the  fuperfluous  water.  If 
they  r.^nn'n  be  thus  made  fit  to 
b«-    '  in    tillvqc,    they 

D^  erwiMI  in  grafs. 

Sec  :!.c  aititlc  D'  uttinr. 

SPRING  GRAlX  that 
which  Spring. 

ran:;  think  ihey 

cannot  low  tli  ir  wheat  and  lyc 
too  early.     But  their  hallo  m.iv 


r>o{ribIy  bctoo  great.    It  certain- 
y   is,  if   thfiy  fow    before   the 
ground    it  I'uibcicaiijr    dry    to 


S  P  U  3ii 

crumble,  and  become  light  and 
fine  by  plouj^hing  and  harrowing. 
Tor  \<rorknig  the  ground  when 
It  IS  too  wet,  will  f  lil  of  bring- 
ill!;  on  the  nec'-itul  lermentation, 
and  tend  to  nuke  it  too  clofe  and 
lonipad  to  nourilh  plants.  At 
Icall,  tliefc  operations  may  leave 
the  loil  as  unfit  to  nourilli  plaots 
as  they  found  it. 

It  is  of  no  fniall  importance,  I 
confefs,  that  Ipring  wheat  and 
r^e  be  iorward,  thai  fo  they  may 
not  be  late  in  ripening  :  And  a 
good  merhod  o[  quickening  thefe 
crops,  is  Iteeping  and  liming  the 
feed.  The  fame  end  may  be 
prorhoted  by  top  drcfTings  with 
warm  compods,  aihes,  &c.  But 
land  ilefigned  tor  this  ufe,  Ihould 
be  ploughed  and  laid  rough  in 
autumn.  It  will  be  the  earlier 
in  a  condition  to  receive  the 
feed  in  the  fpring.  And  none 
hut  the  dried  parts  of  a  farm 
fhould  commonly  be  employed 
fur  crops  of  fpring  wheat  or 
fpring  rye.  As  to  barley  and 
oats  they  will  bear  to  be  lowed 
rather  later  :  And  therefore  are 
more  fit  to  occupy  the  lower  and 
wetter  parts  ol  a  farm.  Oatscf- 
pecially  are  often  found  to  pro- 
duce great  crops  in  fuch  fitua- 
tions,  if  they  be  not  fown  too 
early  ;  or  before  the  land  is  fuf- 
ficicntly  dry  for  the  operations 
of  tillage. 

SPRINGE,  a  device  made  of 
twilled  wire  to  catch  birds,  or 
oth^T  fmall  aniinais. 

SPUR,  abaddiftempcr  inryc. 

The  grains  which  arc  affetled, 
arc  thicker  and  loii^^er  than  the 
found  ones,  coiiitnonly  projctl- 
irig  beyond  liicir  hulks,  and 
nioflly  crooked.  They  are  dark 
coloured,  fiave  a  rough  lurface, 
and  appear  furrowed  deeply 
from  end  to  cud.  They  are 
bitter  to  the  taflc  :  will  fwim  in 
water  ut  firll,  and  tlien  fink  to 

ihfi 


,   2l6 


S  P  U 


the  bottom.  Bat  they  are  eafily 
diftinguiihable  by  their  extraor- 
dinary bulk  and  length. 

\'arious  have  been  the  conjec- 
tures concerning  the  caufe  of  this 
diltemper.  Some  think  it  is  oc- 
cafioned  by  the  bite  of  an  infe£l  : 
Others  afcribe  it  to  fogs,  dews, 
rain,  &c.  But  as  I  have  never 
found  any  fuch  diftenipered 
grains,  but  in  r\e  of  a  rank 
growth,  I  rather  incHne  to  af- 
cribe it  to  too  great  a  prefTure  and 
flow  oi  fap  into  the  kernels,  while 
they  are  in  their  moll  tender  llate, 
by  'A-hich  they  are  too  much  dif- 
tended,  and  rendered  incapable  oi 
throwmg  off  the  groffer  particles 
ot  fap  ;  by  which  means.they  be- 
come fungous  and  misfhapen. 

M.  Salerne,  and  others,  have 
given  fad  accounts  of  the  difeafes 
■with  which  numbers  of  people 
have  been  afflicted,  in  fome  years, 
when  they  have  eaten  freely  of 
bread,  in  which  there  was  much 
of  the  fpurred  rye. 

The  peafants  of  Sologne,  it  is 
faid,  fiit  out  thcfe  grains,  when 
corn  is  plenty  :  But  in  a  time  of 
fcarcity,  being  loth  to  lofe  fo 
much  grain,  they  ncgleft  it.  And 
then  they  are  wont  to  be  attacked 
W'.th  a  dry  gangrene,  which  mor- 
tifies ihcextreme  parts  of  the  body, 
fo  that  they  fall  off,  almoll  with- 
out any  pain. 

"  The  Hotel  Dieu,  at  Orleans, 
has  had  many  of  thefe  m.iferable 
objects,  who  had  not  any  thing 
more  remaining,  than  the  bare 
trunk  Oi  the  body,  and  yet  !!\  ed 
in  that  condition  feveral  dajs. 

"  As  it  is  not  ever\'  year  that 
the  fpur  in  rye  produces  thefe 
dreadful  accidents,  Langius  is  of 
opinion,  that  there  may  be  two 
kinds  of  this  diflemper  ;  one 
■which  is  not  hurtful  to  human 
conftitutions,  and  the  other  which 
occafions  the  gangrene.  It  is  how- 
ever probable,  that  there  is  but 


S  T  A 

one  kind  of  fpur,  and  that  it  does 
not  fenfibly  hurt ;  fi;  ft,  when  fuf- 
ficient  care  is  taken  in  flirting  the 
grain  ;  and  feconiUy,  when  only 
a  fraall  part  of  the  corn  is  diflem- 
pered.  It  is  al fo  faid,  that  the 
fpur  lofes  its  bad  quality  after  the 
grain  has  been  keptacertain  time : 
In  which  caie,  the  reafon  why 
fome  peafants  are  attacked  with 
the  gangrene  in  years  of  dearth, 
may  be,  that  they  confume  their 
crop  as  foon  as  their  harveft  is 
over."  Dukamd'&  Culture,  des 
Terres. 

SQUASH,  a  culinary  fruit,  of 
the  gourd  kind  ;  of  which  there 
are  many  varieties.  This  kind 
of  fruit  is  very  apt  to  alter  and 
degenerate.  Thofe  are  account- 
ed beft  for  early  ufe,  which  grow 
on  plants  that  do  not  run  oa  the 
ground. 

STABLE,  a  houfe,  or  lodg- 
ment for  horfes. 

A  liable  fbould  have  an  open 
airy  fuuation,  and  be  as  free  as 
poffible  from  mud  and  wetnefs. 
The  floor  Ihould  be  built  of  pine 
planks,  not  on  a  level,  but  de- 
fcending  backwards,  that  the  ftale 
may  not  remain  under  the  horfes, 
lo  that  they  may  lie  dry  and 
clean. 

As  ahorfe  is  a  cleanly  animal, 
ben  roofis,  hog  flies,  and  neceiTa- 
ly  houfaSj'flioiiId  not  be  too  near 
ta  his  apartment.  Aftablefhould 
have  windows  to  open  and  fhut, 
that  freih  air  may  be  let  in  when 
the  v;eather  is  hot  :  And  it  Jhould 
be  tight  and  warm  in  -^^rinter. 
Otherwife  the  great  viciUitudes of 
heat  and  cold  will  do  much  hurt 
to  the  animals  ;  and  the  more  as, 
being  tied  up,  they  cannot  ufc 
much  motion.  Some  ot  ihe  win- 
dows (hould  be  glafs,  becaufe 
horfes  are  fond  of  light.  And  it 
is  better  for  their  eye";  that  they 
b'e  not  confined  at  all  to  total 
darknefk  in  iLe  day  tim«. 

A 


S  T  A 

A  manger  is  ncccHaryin  a  fta- 

bie,  u>  ■         '      .     '   ' 

Some  ' 

have  i.  ->.     V  ''..:cis 

think  :  into  an  un- 

natural poll;:.  J,  .;>  he  is  ufvd  to 
take  hi5  f.)od  lrv)in  the  ground. 
It  a  rack  he  ulcd.  it  IhouKl  be 
perpen  l-cv!  »r,  not  leaning  to- 
wards t  .  nor  placed  too 
high  :  manger  before  it 
fiiivili  be  two  ieet  wide,  or  more. 
1'Ijc  hinder  part  of  tlic  rack 
fhould  be  made  (helving,  that  as 
the  hiy  fettles  it  may  natural- 
ly prefs  towards  ihc  iiorfe. 

A  box  tor  provender  may  be 
fixed  at  one  end  ol  the  manger, 
in  each  ftall  ;  or  the  manger  may 
be  made  as  tight  as  a  box,  to  pre- 
vent lofsot  grain  Butthefurcll 
wayto  prevent  wafting, is  togivea 
horfe  his  corn  in  a  pjil.  with  a 
flrap  vi  leather  to  flip  over  his 
head,  which  will  prevent  the  lofs 
of  fo  much  as  a  finale  grain.  It 
may  be  put  on  or  oif  in  an  in- 
flant.     See  the  article  Horfe. 

STACK,  a  1  ir:;c  quantity  of 
hav,  erain,  or  ihaw,  }»iled  up, 
pointed  at  the  top.  and  ufually 
covered  with  long  ftiaw,  or 
thatch,  to  keep  out  the  weather. 

Square  and  oblong  ftacks  are 
not  gootl.  Round  ones  have  a 
Icfs  quantity  o\  ('111^.; '•vies  in 
proportion    10  tents  ; 

and    theref<»rc    v. .ve  Icfs 

damage  from  the  weather. 

When  (heaves  of  corn  are 
flacked,  4lie  heads  (hould  be  all 
turned  carcfullv  inward,  liut  if 
defigned  to  ftand  long,  it  (h.>uld 
be  on  a  floor  nK  '       blocks, 

capped  with  fl.r  :  >   pre- 

vent t!ie  entrance  01 

Fann^fN   (hrml-l    n  fe 

the    ftacking  i>t  . ,  ;ii  a 

country  iik'"  "n  titnbcr 

fi)r  bui! 
cheap. 
Ii^t  M  always    i^ii^d    by    lue 


S  T  A         317 

I  weather,  that  they  may  foon  lof* 
(  in  this  way,  than  the  cod 
ham. 
J  ■      '    ■      "lit  liay  in 

m.i:  ,!,  c)n  ac- 

cou!.:  ul  il.j  Jiili^.»d;y  of  remov- 
ing it  l)efote  winter.  Thefe 
flacks  mufl  be  mounted  on  wlut 
is  callcfl  a  (bulie,  coiifillin^  ot 
piles  driven  into  the  giound,  of 
fuch  a  height,  that  the  b.ighelk 
tides  may  not  reach  the  bottoms 
of  the  Hacks. 

STAGGhRS,  a   diforder  to 

which  both  hoifcsand  neat  cattle 

are  liable.     If  the  daggering  and 

tailing  of  a  horfe  be  owing  to 

hard  riding  in  hot  weather,  Gib- 

fon  directs  to  take  without  delay 

a  pint  of  blood  from  his  neck, 

j  and  then  a  quart  Irom  fome  vein 

I  in  his  hinder  pirts,  that  fo  an  ef- 

feciiial  revuKion  may  be  made  : 

I  And  that  he  fhould  alterwards  be 

;  kept  on  a  moderate  and  cleaDfing 

I  diet. 

1  When  the  difeafe  arifes  from 
I  an  apoplv-ctic  diforder,  he  mufl 
:  not  only  be  bled,  as  in  the  for- 
mer cafe,  but  lie  exercifed  every 
day  w  itli  chewing  df.»ianida  and 
favin,  and  the  moll  noifome 
things  that  can  be  got.  which 
will  put  l:im  upon  conflant  ac- 
tion, and  forward  the  circulation 
in  the  final  1  velFcls.  Aftcrw.irds 
recourfe  mull  be  had  to  clyflers 
and  ftrong  purgatives,  rubbing 
an!  exercife. 

\\'hen  the  diforder  arifes  from 
vertigo, or  fwirnmingot  the  head, 
the  animal  reels,  turns  round  and 
falls.  In  this  cafe, take  an  ounce 
of  fenna  boiled  in  five  pints  ol 
water,  with  four  ounces  of  corn- 
run  trcjle,  with  the  ufual  quan- 
tity of  oils,  or  lard,  to  throw  in 
as  a  cl viler.  And  repeat  it  (or 
two  or  thrive  davs.     Aftrr  which 


rue,  rolcuitiry,  tiowcxs  oi  i<t«^.i- 


31^  S  T  A  . 

der,  and  Tlie  like,  have  been  fteep- 
ed.  If  the  difeafe  iliould  contin- 
■\ie  obftinate,  balls  of  cinabar  and 
afafoetida  with  bayberries  will  be 
proper  here,  as  well  as  in  apoplec- 
tick  cafes. 

Some  venture  to  put  ginger, 
and  other  ftimnlating  things,  into 
the  ear,  to  give  the  blood  a  quick- 
er motion.  But  this  praftice, 
though  it  may  chance  to  do  fer- 
vice,  is  dangerous.  See  Qihfons 
Farriery. 

STALE,  the  urine  of  animals. 
1  he  urines  ot  different  animals 
are  faid  to  pofl'efs  the  fame  prop- 
erties as  their  dungs.  They  are 
oi  more  importance  as  manures 
than  farm.ersin  general  are  au-are 
of.  They  may  eafily  convince 
themfelves  of  this,  if  they  %vill 
only  confider  how  much  more  a 
piece  of  ground  is  enriched  by 
folding  than  one  of  the  fame  fize 
would  be,  by  laying  the  fame 
dung,  or  an  equal  quantity,  upon 
it,  that  is  dropped  on  it  by  folding. 

If  the  flale  of  a  farmer's  flock 
were  all  favcd,  and  well  applied, 
it  might  perhaps  be  of  near  as 
much  advantage  as  their  dung. 
Every  pofTible  method  fhouid 
therefore  be  taken  to  prevent  the 
lofs  or  wafting  of  it.  Floors 
where  hearts  are  lodged,,  fhouid 
be  perfeftly  tight  ;  and  they 
fliould  be  conftantly  well  littered 
with  fubftances  that  will  abforb 
and  retain  the  flale  ;  even  with 
common  earth,  when  nothing  elfe 
is  at  hand.  Pens  in  which  beafls 
are  kept  fhouid  have  a  layer  of 
mulch  :  Or  elfe  the  furface  of 
the  ground  fhouid  be  taken  up, 
and  ufed  as  a  manure.  Other- 
wife  the  urine  is  loft. 

Mr.  Hartlib  praifes  the  Dutch 
for  faving  the  urine  of  cattle  as 
carefully  as  the  dung,  to  enrich 
their  lands.  The  older  it  is,  the 
better  it  is  for  this  purpofe. 
Wiien  it  is  deprived  of  its  fiery 


S  T  E 

hot  particles  by  time,  it  will  "be  a 
great  fertilizer  of  every  kind  of 
ioil.  Columella  recommends  old 
urine  as  an  excellent  application 
to  the  roots  of  trees.  But  care 
fliould  be  taken  not  to  apply  too 
much  of  it.  For  treeshave  been 
fometimes  killed  bv  urine. 

STALLION,  a  ftone  horfe. 

One  that  is  kept  for  covering 
fhouid  be  well  ihaped.  See  the 
article  Horfc 

He  fhouid  be  free  from  every 
kind  of  diftcmper  and  natural 
blemifh,  of  a  middle  fize  at  leaft, 
with  a  good  gait,  neither  addift- 
ed  to  ftarting  norftumbling,  and 
of  fuch  a  colour  as  ism.olt  co\et- 
ed.  For  it  may  be  juftly  expecl- 
ed,  that  the  colts  will  inherit  the 
qualities  ot  the  horfe,  let  them  be 
good  or  bad. 

STERCORARY,  a  flore  of 
dung,  or  compoft,  kept  under 
cover  :  Alfo  the  building  ia 
which  it  is  kept. 

In  thefe  places,  if  they  are 
well  conftructed,  the  manure  will 
retain  its  whole  ftrength.  The 
dung  fo  preferved,  if  I  raiftakc 
not,  will  be  of  double  the  value 
ot  that  which  is  managed  in  the 
common  way.  For  it  is  fecur- 
ed  effeftually  from  wafhing 
rains,  and  drying  winds  ;  as 
well  as  fecluded  from  the  direcl 
influence  of  the  fun,  which  aU 
ways  caufes  a  copious  evapora- 
tion  from  uncove  red  dunghills. 

To  make  a  ftercorary,  Mr. 
Evelyn  diretls,  to  dig  ^  iquare 
or  oblong  pit,  of  a  fize  propor- 
tioned to  the  compoft  wanted, 
with  the  fide  towards  the  field 
floping,  fo  as  to  receive  a  cart,  to 
load  or  unload  eafily  :  The  bot- 
tom to  be  well  paved,  and  the 
fides  alfo  made  io  tight  as  to  hold 
water,  the  whole  being  under 
cover.  Then  the  farmer's  care 
muft  be  to  fill  the  pit  with  com- 
poft fuiied  to  the  nature  ot  his  land. 

A 


S  T  E 

A  gocxi  proportion  of  lime  will 
be  proper  in  thefe  coinpoib,  lo 
airul  in  dilFolving  the  vcgtublc 
Aibftances.  It  is  hell  that  the 
layers  of  eae '  '  '  'nice  IhoiilH 
be  thin,  as  >  will  need 

the  lefs  turning  an  J  mixing  after- 
wards. ^ 

Ii  may  be  ver>'  convenient  for 
the  farmer  to  build  a  ftcrcorary 
adjoining  to  the  fule  of  his  barn, 
where  the  cattle  are  houfed,  cov- 
ering it  with  a  continuation  of 
the  roof.  In  this  cafe,  the  dung 
may  be  thrown  directly  through 
the  windowsinto  the  heap;  from 
whence,  through  doors,  it  will 
not  be  difficult  to  Ihovel  it  into 
catrts. 

But,  inftead  of  this  method, 
(bme  gentlemen  farmers  in  this 
country  have  begun  to  fet  the  ex- 
ample of  making  cellars  under  i 
their  barns,  into  apartments  of 
which,  the  dung  is  eafily  pafled 
through  fcuttles  in  the  floors. 
Other  lubllanccs  may  be  eafily 
mixed  with  dung  from  time  to 
time,  as  there  may  he  occafion. 
Or  it  may  be  kept  to  improve  by 
itfelf.  A  cart  way  mull  be  pre- 
pared to  go  through  the  cellar, 
or  one  entrance  at  leaff,  not  fo 
lleep  but  that  a  common  team 
may  draw  out  a  cart  full.  The 
floor  ihould  l)e  well  paved,  and 
the  wall  made  tight  with  monar, 
to  prevent  the  efcapinj?  of  the 
fluid  pans  of  the  manure.  But 
the  floor  overhead  needs  not  to 
be  very  tight  ;  bccaufe  the  flalc 
will  not  be  loft,  if  it  Ihould  pafs 
ihroiiifh  the  fcams. 

Thii  method,  in  our  cold  coun- 
try, may  be  allowed  to  be  prefer- 
able to  building  any  other  ifer- 
corary  ;  cf;         "  "    i  of  the 

cellar  may  .  i  Cor- 

ing   roots,   c^L.  cattle. 

For  it  is  no  fma  ^g«^»  to 

ha»e  the  dung  »;  during 

the  winter,  in  a  ^  ere  no 


5  T   E  519. 

flop  Is  put  to  its  fermentation  bf 
trolf.  Bclides,  it  is  to  be  re- 
nicM)'  '  that  the  freezing 
can!  Jul  evaporation  ot 

the  Uicngtn  of  the  manure, 
which  in  this  way  is  presented. 

It  would  be  well  to  di\ide  the 
parts  of  the  cellar  under  the 
fcuttles  into  pens,  that  the  heaps 
mav  lie  the  more  compatf,  and 
be  Icfs  liable  to  too  much  dry- 
ing. And  as  the  heaps  will  need 
mixing  with  the  Ihovel,  it  will 
be  convenient  to  fhovel  the  ma- 
nure from  pen  to  pen. 

But  in  Head  of  making  fterco- 
raries,  or  dunghills,  in  the  ufual 
modes,  the  Sociefy  of  Improvers^ 
in  Scotland,  prefer  miildcns,  or 
middings  as  they  arc  there  call- 
ed, as  It  faves  labour  and  ex- 
penle  in  the  management  of  ma- 
nures. "  Take,  fay  they,  in  the 
field  intended  to  be  manured,  a^ 
head  ridge  that  is  conveniently 
lituated.  Plough  it  two  or  three 
times,  as  deep  as  can  be  in  the 
cleaving  way,  if  the  ridge  be 
high  gathered,  and  harrow  it 
well  :  Then  lay  thereon  your 
fiimy  clay,  about  a  foot  thick, 
a  part  of  the  earth  uncovered. 
Next  lay  a  thin  layer  of  dung, 
another  of  clay,  and  after  that  a 
layer  of  unllacked  lime,  at  ieafl  a 
foot  thick  :  Then  throw  up  the 
earth  left  uncovered  on  each  fide. 
Alter  this  repeat  another  hyerot 
clay,  then  lime  and  f:nilh  with 
clay  or  fea  wreck,  covered  with 
earth.  The  more  ot  the  (liniy 
clay  the  better  ;  for  though  it 
may  be  cold,  yet  it  will  not  be 
the  worfe  for  a  fandy  hot  ground. 
It  you  examine  the  clay,  wc 
duubt  not  but  you  will  find  it  a 
very  fat  fubllance  ;  being,  as  wc 
conjedture,  nioftly  niulile  and 
other  fhells  mixed  with  eaith, 
brciight  by  the  tide  and  the  river. 

'*  After  th: 
weeks  or  iwe. 


3«o  5  T  E 

rating  and  fermenting,  turn  and 
mix  it.  Yoke  your  p'oiigh,  en- 
ter upon  your  Aercorary  with  a 
cleaving  furrow,  and  continue 
repeating  the  plor.ghings  the 
fame  way,  until  the  very  bottom 
be  ripped  up  ;  tken  harrow  it  ; 
it  is  impofiible  to  overdo  it.  If 
it  is  very  cloddy,  it  (hou'd  be 
harrowed  between  the  plough- 
rfngs.  Begin  then  in  the  middle, 
and  plough  again  and  again  in 
the  gathering  way,  until  it  be 
brought  into  as  narrow  bounds, 
and  be  raifed  as  high  as  poflible. 
Let  all  that  the  plough  has  left 
be  thrown  up  with  ihovelson  the 
top.  Every  fuch  turning  and 
heaping  occafions  a  new  ferment, 
and  improves  the  manure.  If 
the  firft  heat  fhould  go  off  be- 
fore it  is  reduced  to  a  fine  iat 
mould,  it  may  be  turned  over 
again,  and  will  take  a  new  heat. 
About  fifty  or  fixty  cart  loads  of 
this  compofi.  are  ufed  upon  an 
acre  of  ground." 

Any  farmer  may  eafily  follow 
this  example,  and  fuit  his  com- 
port to  his  foil.  It  will  fave 
much  carting,  efpecially  when 
the  land  to  be  manured  with  it 
lies  at  feme  diflance  trom  the 
farm  yard.  At  the  fame  time,  it 
will  reduce  thofe  difagreeable 
ridges  that  gather  in  the  borders 
of  lots  that  are  long  tilled,  which 
are  always  a  richer  foil  than  the 
reft  of  the  field,  and  more  fit  for 
this  ufe. 

An  operation  fimilar  to  the 
above,  was  experienced  by  Mr. 
Eliot.  He  built  a  cow  yard  very 
long  and  narrow,  at  the  fide  ota 
road,  and  once  m  three  or  lour 
days,  he  removed  the  fences 
from  the  ends,  and  gave  it  a  deep 
ploughing.  The  confequence 
^vas,  that  all  the  earth  which 
was  ftirred  with  the  plough  be- 
came, in  his  opinion,  ot  equal 
Talue  as  a  manure,  with  good 


S  T  O 

barn  dung.  The  advantage  of 
this  method  of  increafing  ma- 
nure is  unfpeakably  great.  The 
manure  of  a  yard  may  thus  be 
increafed  to  ten  fold. 

STOCK,  a  term  ufed  by  En- 
gliQi  farmers,  to  exprefs  the 
quantity  of  money  or  wealth  a 
farmer  (hould  have  to  enable 
him  to  hire  and  cultivate  a  farm 
to  advantage. 

The  larger  farm  a  man  hires, 
the  greater  fiock  he  fhould  have 
in  hand.  Writers  onhufbandry 
reckon  the  needful  ftock  is  equal 
to  the  firft  year's  rent,  and  feed  ; 
expenfe  of  horfe  keeping,  clothes 
and  pocket  money  ;  the  coft  of 
cattle  to  be  kept,  and  farming 
utenfils  of  every  kind  ;  befides 
the  labour  thatmuftbe  hired, in- 
cluding fencing  and  draining. 

It  would  not  be  amifs,  it  thofe 
who  hire  farms  in  our  country, 
would  carefully  calculate  thefe 
expenfes,  before  they  take  farms, 
and  confiuer  their  ability.  For 
want  ot  this  needful  precaution, 
they  often  find,  when  it  is  too 
late,  that  they  are  unable  to  car- 
ry on  the  culture  to  advantage, 
and  are  unable  to  pay  their  rent. 
The  confequences  are  unfpeaka- 
bly bad  and  diftreffing.  Both 
the  landlord  and  tenant  are  fuf- 
ferers. 

But  the  word  Jrock,  in  this 
country,  is  commonly  ufed  by 
farmers  to  exprefs  orIv  liveftock, 
or  the  beafts  that  are  kept  upon 
a  farm.  Thefe  Ihould  not  be  all 
of  one  kind,  but  fach  an  afTort- 
ment  as  is  beft  adapted  to  the 
convenience  and  profit  oi  the 
farmer.  The  ftock  fhould  be 
adapted  to  the  nature  and  cir- 
curaftances  of  the  farm. 

Young  ftcck,  in  general,  is 
better  than  old.  The  rp.ore  there 
are  in  a  gro^\•i^g  ftate,  the  great- 
er is  the  profit.  And  very  old 
cattle,  when  turned  off  to  fat,  do 

KOl 


sow 

;  H  anfwer  fo  well  as  thofe  which 
.ire  but  little  part  their  prime,  or 
ttili  vigour.  It  eoiU  more  to 
fatten  them,  and  the  lueai  is  not 
fo  valiMble. 

It  is  bed  to  begin  withaconfid- 
erable  variety  oi  anim-ils  ;  that 
the  fanner,  by  ohfcrviiijjj  the 
profit  he  gets  frcm  each  kinf!, 
nuy  afterwards  vary,  as  he  finds 
to  be  beft.  For  this  cannot  be 
determinrd,  but  by  fotne  experi- 
ence :  Becuilc  fomc  animals 
f)rorpcr  bcft  on  one  tami,  and 
brrw  on  another  ;  fome  bell  un- 
der one  nunager,  and  fome  un- 
der another. 

A  variety  indeed,  for  other  rea- 
fon>,  is  always  bell  :  One  is,  be- 
caufe  ahnofte/ery  t.irni  produces 
a  variety  ot  food,  fome  ot  which 
will  ai»fwer  beft  for  one  animal, 
and  r>mf  for  another.  Kvcn  in 
thtr  fame  pallure,  th»i  which  one 
fppcios  oJ  animals  leave,  another 
\.mII  ieed  unoti. 

Alio,  the  ft.>ck.  Ihould  vary,  in 
fome  proportion  ns  the  lands  ol  u 
farm  do.  .-\s  fome  larms  contain 
a  la! go  proportion  ot  high  and 
dry  ptUiue  grounds,  the  tjreater 
qM.i!itity  of  lhe<;p  lliould  be  kept- 
where  lov/  mc  idow  ihound-s,  the 
kinH  of  ft.ick  lln)uld  be  increaf- 
cd,  which  will  do  bell  on  coarle 
wuer  graJfcb  ;  which  is  well 
kru)wn  to  be  neji  cattle,  that  are 
young  and  growing.  But  it  a 
farm  yield  a  plenty  ol  good  Iwoct 
^rafs.  It  is  the  more  fuiiable  tor  a 
dairy  larm,  and  the  greater  pro- 
pi>rtion  ol  cowi  i>u^ht  to  be 
kept. 

lint  >'>n  nof.irm  fh.»u!il  horfes 
be  i;iiiiii|>lied,  beyond  the  num- 
ber wii.cii  .>re  needed,  or  whul* 
can  be  employed  to  advantage. 
F.V  they  are  threat  caters,  and  re- 
piire  tile  b^ll  ot  the  fodder  and 
^fture.  A  fm  Ul  farmer  can 
fcarcely  afford  tofckeep  one,  un- 
'  .I'i  he  puu  biuicj  the  dra'.i;;iit. 


S  T  O 


321 


\ 


Let  a  farm  be  what  it  will,  it 
Ihould  never  be  overftocked 
This  is  an  eriour  that  too  many 
farmers  in  this  country  arc  guil- 
ty of.  Doubtlefs  it  arifes  from  a 
covetous  diipofition  ;  but  they 
fadly  niifs  their  aim.  Inllcid  of 
gaining,  they  lofe  by  it.  A  half 
ifarvcd  ftock  can  never  be  prof- 
itable. 

A  farm  may  be  faid  with  trutli 
to  be  overIt(»cked,  when  a  great* 
er  number  of  animals  arc  kept, 
than  can  be  well  fed  with  its  pro- 
duce, durinj]j  the  whole  year. 
For  it  is  a  ruinating  practice,  to 
rufTerabe.ifttopineaway.andlofe, 
in  one  part  of  the  year,  the  flelh  he 
gains  in  another.  And  when  the 
farmer  is  conOraincd  topurchafe 
food  for  his  ilock,  he  too  oftJrn  at- 
lonls  them  but  a  fcanty  allowance. 
Sometimes,  it  is  not  in  his  power 
to  obtain  it, 

1  he  ftarvation  of  cattle,  or 
keeping  them  too  fhort  of  food, 
not  only  prevents  their  being 
p^ihtable  to  t!ie  owner,  but  teach- 
es them  to  be  difordcrly,  and 
to  brcik  through,  or  leap  over 
fences  ;  aiiil  many  times  to  be- 
come af)loIutely  ungovTrnablc  ; 
To  that  they  niull  eitlier  bekilled, 
or  fiddoi'f  at  a  low  price  ;  in  either 
of  which  cafes,  there  is  oficn 
much  inconvenience  and  lols. 

It  is  far  better  that  fomc  of  the 
flock  ot  fodvler  ihould  be  left  in 
the  f;ring,  i!i  m  that  it  fhould 
fall  Ihort.  It  is  a  good  rcfcrvc 
agaiull  a  feafon  of  fcarcity  :  An! 
fujh  feafons  otieti  h.ippeti  in  thu 
country  by  drought. 

S  I  OXhS,  well  known  hard 
and  brittle  b.Klies,  which  abound 
in  fome  lands.  Thofe  ot  the  lla- 
tv  kind,  or  which  are  flat  or 
(quarc  cornered,  are  fit  for  build- 
ing wall  fences,  and  Ihould  be  ap- 
plied toth.it  ufe.  And  many  of 
the  pebble  kind  may  go  into  walls 
among  oihcro  of  a  better  ftia;  c  ; 
erj'Cvially 


3*2  S  T  G 

efpeciaily  it  the  wall  is  built ) 
double,  as  it  always  fhould  be  ] 
where  flones  are  plenty.  Where 
there  are  more  ftones  than  are 
needed,  the  walls  may  be  made 
thicker  and  higher  than  is  need- 
ful on  other  accounts  ;  and  lots 
ihould  be  made  the  fmaller  ;  for 
there  are  certain  conveniences 
in  having  fmall  fized  lots,  though 
they  may  not  be  thought  necefla- 
TV,  in  any  other  view  than  for 
diipoling  of  the  ftones. 

Pebbles  are  a  greater  annoy- 
ance on  a  farm,  as  they  need  re- 
moving, but  are  not  very,  good 
for  any  kind  of  building.  But 
picking  them  off  very  minute- 
ly, tor  common  field  tillage, 
IS  not  needful.  But  the  larg- 
eft  pebbles  fliould  be  taken  a- 
way. 

Stones  that  are  very  large,  and 
which  cannot  with  eafe  be  re- 
moved whole,  may  be  blown  to 
pieces  with  gunpovvder.  They 
will  be  not  only  more  handy  lor 
removing,  but  far  better  to  put 
into  walls.  For  the  blow  ing  ot 
round  ftones  will  make  fome 
fquare  and  regular  faces.  They 
will  often  come  cheaper  in  this 
way  than  it  they  vieredug  out  of 
quarries.  As  the  foil  that  is  oc- 
cupied by  a  large  flone  is  better 
than  the  reft  of  the  field,  it  is 
purchafed  at  an  eafy  rate  by  re- 
moving the  {tone. 

But  another  method  of  break- 
ing rocks,  which  ought  to  be  gen- 
erally known,  and  \\'hich  lome- 
times  turns  oiu  cheaper,  is  this  : 
Drill  two  holes  in  a  ftone,  rang- 
ing with  the  grain,  when  that  cm 
be  difcovcrea  by  the  eye.  Then 
filling  each  hole  with  two  femi 
cylindrical  pieces  of  iron,  drive  a 
long  fteel  wedge  between  them. 
The  Hone  will  thus  be fplit  open. 
And,  commonly,  very  regular 
fhaped  pieces  for  building  may 
bs  thus  obt^ned. 


S  T  O 

Another  method  is,  to  burn  an 
inflammable  piece  of  dry  wood^ 
laid  on  the  part  where  you  with 
a  flat  rock  to  open.  Thus  the 
rock  is  heated  in  a  ftraight  line,, 
and  may  be  made  to  open  in  that 
part,  by  a  fmart  blow  of  a  maul. 
This  method  often  anfwers  well 
v/hen  the  ftones  are  flat  Ihaped, 
and  not  too  thick. 

That  ftones  which  are  fo  large 
as  to  obftruft  the  operations  of 
hufbandry,  ought  to  be  removed- 
from  land  in  tillage,  all  will  a- 
gree.  Biit  it  has  been  long  a  dif- 
puted  point,  whether  the  fmall- 
er ftones  Ihould  be  taken  away. 
Some  have  contended  that  they 
add  fertility  to  the  foil. 

That  the  moifture  of  the  foil  is 
a?  much  greater,  as  the  propor- 
tion ot  room  the  ftones  take  up 
in  the  foil  is  undeniable  ;  unlefs- 
the  ftones  occafion  lome  evapo- 
ration»  But  many  fields  need 
not  any  increafe  of  moifture,  but 
would  rather  be  improved,  by 
being  made  as  much  drier  as 
they  can  be,  by  removing  the 
ftones  from  the  furface. 

M.  Duhamelisof  opinion,  that 
no  ftones  increafe  fruitfuinefs,un- 
lefs  they  be  lime  ftones,  marie, 
or  thofe  that  are  of  a  calcarious 
nature.  Thefe.  by  rubbing  againft 
each  other,  &c.  in  the  operations 
of  tillage,  do  probably  yield  a 
duft  that  increafes  the  ricl^nefs 
of  land. 

But  all  ftones  in  tillage  land 
ar£  fo  troublefome,  and  fo  much 
increafe  the  labour  of  tillage, 
that,  when  they  are  not  calcari- 
ous, they  fliouid  be  taken  away, 
or  at  lea  ft  fo  much  thinned,  that 
ploughing  and  hoeiHg  may  be 
comfortably  performed,  and 
without  much  injury  to  thetooli 
ufed  by  the  farmer.  Fixed 
ftones  under  the  furface  fliould 
be  removed,  or  fo  funk  by  dig- 
ging under  them  as  to  put  ther^ 


S  T  O 

ont  of  the  plough's  way,  that 
ploughing  may  be  pertormed 
without  oanger  oi  tlcflroying  the 
plough.  ,     ,        „ 

I  o  know  whether  floncs  are 
calcarioiis  or  not,  they  fliould  be 
tried  with  aqua  lortis.or  fpiritol 
fca  fait.  For  ftoncs  on  which 
the  fpirit  does  not  cfrervefce, 
can  beol  no  advantage  to  the  foil. 
By  the  way,  I  donotexpc^^  that 
calcarious  ftones  will  be  louiid 
in  many  fields  in  this  country. 

Ground  thu  is  laid  down  tor 
mowing  mud  have  even  the 
fmall  Hones  taken  out  of  the  way 
of  the  fithe.  But,  infteaJ  of 
picking  them  up,  forae  recom- 
mend driving  them  down  into 
the  foil,  when  the  ground  is  fo 
Toft  in  the  fpring  that  it  can  be 
cafily  done.  In  this  cafe  a  field 
will  not  be  disfigured  with  the 
heaps,  nor  any  of  the  furface 
loft. 

STONE  WALL.  See  the 
articles  Frncf  and  Slonts. 

STOOKL\G,  or  SHOCK- 
ING, fctting'fhcaves  intofhocks 
to  guard  corn  Irofn  wet. 

Farmers  have  various  methods 
of  doing  this.  But  I  would  pro- 
pofe  for  their  conlideration,  a 
method  inferted  in  the  Alufeum 
Rujluum,  Vol.  IL  page 250. 

"  Ten  (heaves  are  difpofed  in 
two  rows,  each  row  leaning  a- 
jrainft  the  other  ;  then  two 
meaves  are  laid  on  th«  top,  fo  as 
to  meet  at  the  centre  with  their 
tails,  and  to  flopc   downwards." 

The  writer  thinks,  and  with 
good  rcjfon,  that  this  method  is 
very  iavourable  to  drying  the 
corn,  if  it  needs  it,  as  well  as  to 
dcfendmg  it  from  rains.  Thick- 
er built  (hocks,  if  they  chance  to 
Set  wetted,  will  need  opening  to 
ry  the  (heaves. 

In  general,  it  is  better  for  the 
corn  to  ftand  in  (hocks  a  few 
«!ays  in  the  field,  than  to  carry 


S  T  R  3t3 

it  fooner  to  the  ftack  or  mow. 
There  will  be  Ids  danger  of  its 
taking  damage  by  heating. 

STOVKR,  fodder  for  cattle. 
See  Fodder. 

STRALM,  vulgarly  called 
Sprain,  a  violent  cxtenfion,  or 
ftretching  of  the  (inews,  or  ten- 
dons, by  which  the  fibres  are 
foinetimcs  broken. 

All  forts  of  animals,  and  partic- 
ularly horfes,  arc  liable  to  lame> 
iiels  by  (trains. 

My  defigneJ  brevity  will  not 
permit  me  to  treat  fully  on  this 
fubjeB.  But  let  it  be  noted, 
that  when  a  horfe  is  lamed  by 
draining,  he  fhould  be  permit- 
ted to  rell,and  be  lecuredfrom  wet 
and  cold.  Red  alone  will  (ome- 
times  recover  the  tone  of  the  fi- 
bres, and  complete  the  cure. 

But  bad  (irains  (hould  have 
fome  fuitablc  applications  to  the 
parts  affe6ted.  Oily  medicines 
are  in  general  to  be  avoided,  on 
account  ot  their  relaxing  quality  : 
But  oil  of  turpentine  may  be  ad- 
mitted. 

A  part  that  is  lamed  by  drain- 
ing (hould  be  bathed  thrice  a  day, 
with  hot  verjuice  or  vinegar,  in 
which  a  fmall  piece  of  foap  may 
be  diffolved. 

Plarly  in  the  difeafe,  if  the 
part  be  fwclled,  a  poultice  (hould 
be  applied  after  bathing.  It  (hould 
be  made  of  oatmeal,  rye  meal 
or  bran,  boiled  in  vinegar,  ftronz 
beer,  or  red  wine  lees,  with  lara 
enough  to  prevent  its  growing 
diff. 

After  the  fwelllng  is  down, 
bathe  with  camplioratcd  fpirits 
of  wine,  mixed  with  halt  as  nuicli 
oil  of  turpentine.  Or,  inftead  of 
the  oil,  lake  liiarp  vinegar,  and 
(pirit  of  vitriol,  in  equal  quanti- 
ties. 

Keep  on  a  linen  bandage, 
drawn  pretty  tight,  if  the  part 
alK-fle'l   will   admit  of   it.     But 

iojig 


ZH 


S  T  R 


long  refting  from  labour,  will  in 
fome  cafes  be  needful.  For  Inr- 
ther  direftion,  the  reader  may 
ice  Bart/ei's  Farriery. 

STRANGLES,  "  a  fwclling 
under  the  throat  of  a  horfe,  be- 
tween the  two  jaw  bones,  which 
feems  not  to  differ  very  much 
from  that  whicii  in  a  human  body 
is  called  the  qianfy.  Its  feat  is 
not  fo  much  upon  the  glands  as 
on  the  mufcles  ;  and  therefore 
it  comes  the  more  readily  to  an 
impofthumation. 

*'  If  the  fwellinghas  a  tenden- 
cy forwards  between  the  jaws, 
fo  that  the  pafl'ages  of  the  throat 
are  not  in  danger  of  being  chok- 
ed up  by  It,  the  fafeft  way  is  to 
ripen,  and  bring  it  to  a  fuppura- 
tion  ;  and  for  that  end  anoint  the 
part  with  ointment  of  marlh  mal- 
lows,covering  them  up  warm.  Or 
take  oil  of  bays  and  frelh  butter, 
of  each  a  like  quantity,  ointment 
of  marfh  mallows  the  weight  ot 
both  :  Or  the  poultice  recom- 
mended for  the  glanders  may  be 
applied  warm  twice  a  day. 

After  the  fwellings  are  ripe, 
and  that  you  perceive  matter  in 
them,  but  that  they  do  not  break, 
%vhich  perhaps  may  be  hindered 
by  the  thicknefs  of  the  ftcin,  you 
may  open  tiiem  with  a  fincet ; 
but  if  they  do  not  ripen  as  you 
could  wilh,  you  had  better  make 
life  of  a  hot  iron,  and  fear  the 
outfule  pretty  deep.  But  wheth- 
er you  open  them  by  incTion,or 
by  the  iron,  you  muft  be  (ure  to 
make  your  operation  in  the  low- 
ermofi  dependent  part,  that  the 
matter  may  more  eafily  run  off. 
While  you  obferve  this  mcihod 
your  incifion  need  be  but  fmall. 

"  As  foon  as  the  matter  is 
nearly  difcharged,  yoamay  prefs 
out  what  remains  with  your 
thumb.  Then  make  a  doftil  of 
fine  flax,  dip  it  in  warm  bafili- 
ccn,  and  introduce  it  into  the  or- 


S  T  R 

ifice,  but  not  too  far,  nor  muft 
it  be  continued  above  tlij-ee  of 
four  days  in  any  common  cafe  -• 
For  keeping  the  orifice  too  long 
open  will  derive  too  great  a 
quantity  of  matter  upon  the  parts, 
caufing  them  to  ulcerate,  (^r  to 
turn  fiflulous.  Thereiore  when 
the  running  abates,  only  apply 
fmooth  flat  pledgets  of  lint,  arm- 
ed wilh  the  fame  ointment,  and 
above  them  thick  comprelfes  of 
foft  canvafs,  in  feveral  doubles, 
to  fill  up  the  vacant  fpace  be- 
tween the  jaws,  that  the  divided 
parts  may  again  be  imited.  If 
hard  lumps  remain  after  the  fores 
are  healed  up,  they  may  be  re- 
moved by  the  following  plafler. 
Take  diacalon  and  red  lead  plaf- 
tcr,  of  each  four  ounces,  pitch 
two  ounces  ;  diflblve  them  with  a 
fufficient  quantity  of  oil  or  lard. 
Then  take  bole  in  fine  powder  an 
ounce  and  an  half,  and  flir  into 
this  mixture,  and  make  it  to  the 
confiflency  ot  a  plafter.  This 
muff  be  fpread  on  leather,  or 
thin  dowlas,  and  after  the  hair 
has  been  clipped  off  very  clofo, 
it  may  be  notched  and  applied 
all  under  his  chops,  where  it  is 
to  lie  as  long  as  it  will  flick  on  : 
And  by  the  help  of  this  all  the  lit- 
tle hardnelfcs  will  be  difi'olved. 

"  Sometimes  this  dillemper 
is  ca ft  off  chiefly  by  the  nofe  ; 
and  fometimes  the  difcharge  is  in- 
y.'ard.aboiitlhe  roots  of  the  tongue. 
Jn  this  cafe  moil  of  the  matt(  r 
ilTues  alfo  from  the  nofe.  In 
either  cafe,  the  hovfe  lliould  be 
moderately  ridden.  Bin  it  will 
be  very  proper  to  waih  his 
mouth  fometiiuts  v.uh  honey  of 
roles  ;  for  that  will  keep  it  clean, 
and  prevent  ulcers.  But  if  fores 
are  like  to  continue,  diifolve  a 
quarter  of  an  ounce  ot  crude  fal 
ammoniac  in  a  pint  of  water, 
and  wafh  his  moiuhvvith  it  once 
or  twice  a  day. 

"If 


S  T  R 

"If  the  cure  (ccms  iirprifcr), 
and  the  hoile  dues  not  ilmve 
upon  it,  rccourfi*  in.iy  l>c  liad  to 
purging  ;  lor  wliK.h  puri)olt*  1 
chiefly  rccomniciul  the  prt-para- 
liuus  of  alois  ;  ht.  taulc  tlu-i'c  are 
the  moH  ffltrinal  to  woi k  upon 
the  blooil,  &.C.  "  Cihfon\  lur- 
tury. 

vSTRAW.  the  flemson  which 
Coinnrows.     Sec  loilJrr. 

SIR  A  W  J  ^K 11 KY.  I'rcignna, 
a  well  known  iiuit  which  isinucli 
cflrrmed, 

Mr.  Millrr  reckons  four  forts ; 
the  wood  ftrawberry,  the  Virgin- 
ia, or  fcarlet  Ui.iwhcrry.tlie  haut- 
boy flrawbcrry,  and  the  Ihaw- 
berry  of  Chili. 

It  is  the  fcarlet  flrawhcrry  that 
i$  moft  common,  and  pcili.ips 
moft  wortliy  of  cuhivation.  Our 
grafs  ficl  often  prodiue  thefc 
itrawhcrri.  in  plonty.  Uutitis 
better  to  h..  ea  fp(U  ol  jrroiind  de- 
voted to  the  ctihure  ot  tliein  ;  as 
they  will  be  much  I  irger  and  better 
ila\  oured  ;  and  as  the  trampling  of 
the  grals  in  the  mowing  gioinids 
may  be  thus  in  fome  mcafure 
pr<,ventcd. 

A  light  loatny  foil  is  befl  for 
them  :  And  but  lutle  dung 
fhould  be  applied  to  the  ft/il,  as 
a  large  quantity  will  caufe  them 
to  run  much,  and  to  betels  tiuit- 
ful. 

I'he  time  to  remove  thcfe 
plants,  is  faid  by  the  above  men- 
tioned author  to  be  SeptembeY, 
r»r  the  beginning  of  U  toher. 
liut  they  are  known  to  do  well 
m  this  country  when  reniov«Ml 
early  in  the  fpring,  and  watered 
a  lew  times  after  it.  But  they 
Will  bear  little  fruit  that  year. 

lie  dn e/ts,  "  That  the  gr;^und 
fliould  b;-  rleaned  Irom  the  r  )iits 
oi  all  ba<l  weeds,  K«)r  as  the 
plants  are  to  Hani  three  yeirs, 
brtore  they  are  taken  up.  ilioft- 
weeds  would  uvcibcar  ilicpIauLo. 


S  T  R  325 

I      "  The  ufiial  method  is,  to  lay 

,  the  ground  out  into  beds  ol  four 

leet  broad,  with   paths  two  leet, 

or  two  and  a  halt  !  road  between 

■  them.      ThiTe    paths  being    tor 

the     convenience   ol    gaiherinjj 

,  the  (Irawberrii-s,  and  tor  weed- 

I  ing  and  drrning  the  befls.     1  he 

I  plants  Ihonld  be  in  the  quincunx 

order, and  filiien  inches  apart,  t*> 

!  that  there  will  be  but  three  rows 

!  in  eadi  bed. 

j      "  1  he   plants  fhonld  never  be 

I  taken  trom  old    ix-glcfted  beds, 

I  where  the  plants  have  been  fuf- 

j  tered  to  run  into  a  multitude  of 

fuckers,    or     from    any     plants 

j  which  are  not  fruittid  ;  and  thofe 

;  offsets  which  (land  ncarell  to  the 

old  pl.«-fs  thoidd  alwciys  be  pre- 

I  ferred  to  th"Iie  which  are  produc- 

I  ed  from    tlie    nailing  ilalks  at  a 

I  greater  difiance. 

I      "   During    the    fummer,    the 

j  plants  lliould  be  conflanily  kept 

clean    from  weeds,  and   all    the 

I  runners  Ihould  be  pulled  oft  as 

I  fad   as   they   are    produced.     If 

this    is    conflanily  pra^tlled,  the 

[  plants  will  become  very  fuong. 

Where  proper  care  is  taken  of 

1  the  plants  the  fiill  fummer,  there 

I  is  generally  a  plciititul  crop  the 

fecond    fpring  ;  whereas,  when 

this  is  negleded,   the  cnip    will 

be  thin  and  tlic  tiuit  fmall. 

"^^  'ihe  olil  pi. mis  are  thofe 
which  projhue  ilf  truit  ;  lc»r  the 
fuckers  never  pioduce  any  till 
4hcy  have  grown  a  lull  year  ; 
ihcrefoic  it  appears  how  necef- 
fary  it  is  to  dived  the  old  plants 
of  them  ;  for  where. er  they  arc 
fuffered  to  remain,  they  rof>  ihe 
fruitful  plants  of  their  nourifh- 
mcnt,  in  pioportion  to  their 
number  ;  for  each  of  thefe  fuck- 
ers fends  out  a  quantity  of  roots, 
which  interfere,  and  are  foclofe- 
ly  matfeil  together,  as  to  draw  a- 
way  the  gieated  pail  of  ihcnour- 
ilhiuciii  from  the  old  roots, 
whereby 


3*6 


S  T  R 


■whereby  they  are  weakened. 
And  the  fuckers  alfo  render 
each  other  very  weak,  hence  the 
caufe  of  barrennefs.  For  1  have 
known,  where  the  old  plants 
have  been  conflantly  kept  clear 
from  fuckers,  they  have  contin- 
ued very  fruitful  three  years, 
without  being  tranfplanted. 

"  In  autumn  diveft  the  plants 
of  any  firings  or  runners  which 
may  have  been  produced,  and  oi 
all  the  decayed  leaves,  and  clear 
the  beds  of  weeds.  Then  the  paths 
fhould  be  dug  up,  and  the  weeds 
buried  which  were  taken  from 
the  beds,  and  fome  earth  laid  over 
the  furface  of  the  beds,  between 
the  plants.  This  will  ftrengthen 
and  prepare  them  for  the  follow- 
ing fpring.  And  if  after  this, 
there  is  fome  old  tanners'  bark 
laid  over  the  furface,  between  the 
plants,  it  will  be  of  great  fervice 
to  them.  In  the  fpring,  after  the 
danger  of  hard  froft  is  over,  the 
beds  fhould  be  forked,  to  loofen 
the  ground  and  break  the  clods. 
And  in  this  operation  the  tan 
which  w^as  laid  over  the  furface 
will  be  buried,  which  will  be  a 
good  dreffmgto  theflrawberries. 
Then  if  the  furface  is  covered 
with  mofs,  it  will  keep  the  ground 
moift,  and  fecure  a  good  crop  of 
fruit ;  and  the  mofs  will  preferve 
the  fruit  clean.  When  heavy 
rains  fall,  after  the  fruit  is  full 
grown,  there  v.'ill  be  no  dirt 
waChed  over  them,  which  fre- 
quently happens  where  this  is  not 
praftifed."     Miller. 

STRING  HALT,  a  kind  of 
lamenefs  peculiar  to  the  hind 
quarters  of  a  horfe,  which  occa- 
fions  a  fudden  jerking  of  the  legs 
upwards  in  his  going.  When  it 
Jeizes  the  outfide  mufcles  the 
horfe  ftraddles  and  throws  his 
legs  outwards.  But  when  the 
infide  mufcles  are  afFefted,  his 
legs  are  twitched  up  to  his  bcHy. 


S  T  U 

j  Sometimes  it  is  only  in  one  leg, 
fometimes  in  both.  The  cure  is 
difficult,  and  rarely  accomplifh- 
ed.  Rubbing  and  fomentations 
are  recommended,  with  daily 
moderate  exercife  :  By  which 
the  blood  and  fpirits  may  be  equal- 
ly derived  into  the  difordered 
mufcle  and  its  correfponding 
one.     See  Gibjbn  and  Clark. 

STUBBLE,  the  Humps  of 
reaped  grain,  or  the  parts  of  the 
items  left  {landing  in  the  field. 

When  the  land  is  light  and 
fandy,  the  Hubble  of  wheat  and 
rye  fhould  be  ploughed  into  the 
foil  to  enrich  it.  For  this  will 
have  as  good  an  effeft  as  a  mod- 
erate manuring  with  dung  ;  ef- 
pecially  if  it  be  ploughed  foon 
after  the  crop  is  taken  off;  for 
then  the  flubble  is  in  its  heft 
flate.  But  after  it  has  been  ex- 
pofed  for  fome  time  to  the  fun 
and  wind,  it  has  much  lefs  virtue 
in  it  to  enrich  the  foil.  If  this 
operation  be  performed  in  fea- 
fon,  the  flubble,  together  with 
what  weeds  are  growing  among 
it,  will  be  equal  to  the  befl  green 
drefTing. 

But  with  ploughs  of  the  com- 
mon conflru£lion,  the  ploughing 
of  flubble  ground  is  dilagreeable 
work;  neither  can  it  be  well  per- 
formed. The  plough  is  fo  apt 
to  choak  up,  that  it  is  more  than 
one  man  can  well  do  to  keep  it 
clear.  Ploughs  for  this  work 
fhould  be  much  deeper  built  than 
the  common  ones.  And  this 
work  might  be  greatly  facilitated, 
if  a  heavy  roller  were  paffed  over 
the  flubble,  to  lay  it  flat  to  the 
ground  before  ploughing.  When 
this  is  doing,  great  care  fhould  be 
taken  to  pafs  the  roller  tlie  fame 
way  that  the  plough  is  to  go.  By 
TPRtdiQS  of  this,  the  coulter  will 
but  feldom  be  clogged  with  the 
flubble.  If  this  rolling  be  ne- 
glefted,  3  imall  roller  annexed  to 

the 


S  T  U 

the  fore  end  of  the  p!ought)eam, 
Ml  the  place  of  a  foot,  or  even  a 
foot  itlelf,  will  greatly  help  to 
clear  the  way  tor  the  coulter. 

When  ftubhie  is  on  a  foil  that 
is  (liff,  it  is  not  acc«untcd  fo  ad- 
vifable  to  plough  it  in.  For 
fuch  land  is  not  apt  to  cover  the 
fiubble  fo  clofely  as  to  caufe  it 
fpeedily  to  putrefy.  It  will  of- 
ten lie  in  a  found  unaltered  Hate 
for  a  long  time,  and  be  very 
troublcfome  ai  the  next  plough- 
ing. 

But  if  the  ground  fhould  be 
fcedcd  after  one  ploughing,  it 
might  be  expeftcd  the  fiubble 
would  render  the  ground  fo  hol- 
low and  cavernous  as  to  flarve 
many  of  the  plants  that  grow  up- 
on the  furface.  At  the  fame 
time  thefe  hollows  would  be  re- 
ceptacles for  noxious  infers  and 
vermine.  But  in  a  liglu  fandy 
foil,  the  fiubble  is  foon  reduced 
to  a  condition  to  nourilh  vege- 
tables. 

The  better  way,  therefore,  to 
difpofe  ot  the  fiubble  on  flifF 
lands,  is,  to  mow  it,  colletl  it, 
and  carry  it  into  the  farm  yard  ; 
where,  by  the  trampling  of  the 
cattle,  and  mixing  it  with  their 
excrements,  it  will  be  converted, 
before  the  following  fpring,  into 
a  rich  and  valuable  manure. 
And  it  is  3lni«ft  incredible  how 
much  a  farm  maybe,  in  this  way, 
improved  .ind  fertilized. 

xVhile  in  the  oUl  countries 
they  are  UHflcr  the  ncccffity  of 
makjng  ufe  of  part  of  their  fiub- 
ble, in  thatching  the  roofs  of 
their  buildings,  and  of  part  of  it 
for  fcwel,  the  farmers  in  this 
country  hav'e  the  privilege  of 
converting  the  whole  of  theiri  to 
manure.  And  perhaps  it  may 
be  as  well  to  do  fo,  on  whatever 
foil  it  is,  as  to  turn  it  in  with  the 
plough ;  for  it  is  not  eafy  to  bury 
u   completely    by    ploughing ; 


S  T  U  387 

and  the  part  which  is  not  cover- 
ed is  of  little  or  no  advantage  to 
the  ground. 

SrUMP,  the  part  of  a  tree 
which  remains  fall  in  the  ground 
after  felling. 

Stumps  arc  very  troubleforac  for 
fome  years  after  trees  are  remov- 
ed, unlefs  they  be  taken  out. 
But  doing  this  is  commonly 
thought  to  be  too  much  labour, 
efpecially  when  they  arc  ol  any 
confiderable  bignefs. 

Mr.  Evelyn's  engine  for  pull- 
ing up  large  roots,  may  be  thought 
ufeful  by  thofe  who  are  in  hafte 
to  have  their  land  thoroughly 
cleared,  and  do  not  grudge  the 
expenfe  of  doing  it.  See  Com- 
pUte  Farmer,  under  the  article 
Stump. 

M.  de  Turbilly  advifes  to  the 
blowing  up  ftumps  with  gun 
powder.  But  I  think,  my  coun- 
trymen will  hardly  go  into  this 
method,  unlefs  it  be  in  particular 
cafes. 

Moft  of  the  flumps  of  hard 
wood  trees  will  be  fo  decayed  ia 
their  roots  in  fix  or  feven  years, 
that  thej"  may  be  eafily  taken  a- 
way.  So  will  foine  of  the  foft 
woods.  But  the  flumps  ol  white 
pine  trees,  that  are  large,  will  laft 
more  than  half  a  century.  How- 
ever, when  they  arc  well  dried, 
and  have  fomewhat  decayed,  they 
may  be  conquered  by  fire,  where 
there  is  plenty  of  wooil  to  pil© 
on  them.  But  before  this  is  at- 
tempted, the  earth  lliould  be  re- 
moved from  their  fides,  and  it 
pratticable  f  rom  underneath  them, 
allowing  them  a  few  days  to  dry. 
A  good  method  of  deflroying 
the  flumps  of  white  pine  trees  is, 
to  dig  up  the  fmaller  ones,  and 
pile  them  round  the  larger  ;  and 
when  they  have  become  dry,  fct 
fire  to  them. 

The  flumps  of  trees  arc   fuch 

bindraDces  to  the  operations  oi: 

tillage. 


?.28 


S  U  M 


tillage,  as  greatly    ditniiiifh  the 
profit  of  tarming.     Where  land 
abounds  wiih  them,  they  are  e-  j 
uual  to  a  heavy  tax.     This  fliouid 
be  confidered  by  thole  who  have  | 
the  power  ol  taxing  new  fettle-  i 
merits.     It  is  horrid  opprefiion,  i 
to  tax  lands  that  are  fnll  of  ftunips  ! 
ot  trees,  equally  with  the  oldelt 
and  moft  improved. 

STY,  a  fmall  houfe,  orhut,  in 
which  hogs  are  kept,  or  lodged. 

Hogs  that  are  not  confined 
fhould  always  have  a  fty,  or  eot, 
to  lodge  in,  placed  in  a  conve- 
nient fituation,  and  eafy  ot  ac- 
cefs.  It  Ihoiild  be  very  tight, 
warm  and  dry,  ot  whatever  ina- 
teri.ds  it  may  be  built,  and  kept 
well  littered  ;  For  it  iwine  have 
nut  a  warsn  lodging,  or  are  much 
pinched  with  the  cold,  they  will 
be  injured  iti  their  growth. 

That  a  ft  V  may  be  the  warmer, 
the  door  ot  it  Ihi'uld  be  no  larger 
th.in  is  needlul  for  the  fwme  to 
pals  through.  And  a  doorthould 
be  hung  in  this  pafTai^e  by  the 
top,  that  it  may  be  pullied  up  by 
their  nofes, either  inwardsor  out- 
wards, as  there  (hall  be  occafion. 
Th'?  Iwi/ie  will  no  fail  to  open  it, 
and  it  will  Ihut  of  itfelf.     Sec 


S  U   R 

woik  can  hardly  be,  and  feldorn 
is  finilb.ed,  before  the  gral's  on 
the  high  lands  calls  for  mowing. 
And  beiore  the  mowing  feafon  is 
ended,_reaping,  and  all  the  toil 
of  the  iormer  haiveft,  come  on. 

The  fummer  bufinefs  is  the 
more  toillome,  on  account  of  the 
inte.nle  heat  of  a  confiderable 
part  of  that  feafon.  To  lighten 
the  labours  of  the  field,  the  farm- 
er and  his  men  fhould  beat  their 
work  early  and  late,  and  reft 
themfeU'cs  in  the  hottefl  hours. 
Thus  they  may  perlorm  as  much 
as  they  ought  to  do,  without  fa- 
tiguing or  overheating  them- 
felves,  and  without  exciting  fuch 
ati  immoderate  thirft  as  will 
tempt  (hem  to  ruin  their  conlli- 
tutions  with  cold  drinks. 

S  U  X F LO  W£R,  Heliantk us, 
one  ot  the  largcft  of  annual 
piants;  fo  well  known  as  to  need 
no  defcription. 

The  fuatlower  is  a  native  of 
A^mc-rica  ;  but  has  been  carried 
into  F.ngland,  where  it  flourifhes. 
It  bears  very  large  difcous  flow- 
ers, and  produces  a  large  quan- 
tity of  black  feeds,  which  are  of 
uff*  tor  feeding  poultry. 

The  feeds  fliould  be  fowed 
early.     Th-^y    will   grow  in  al- 


SUCKER,  a  young   twig,  or  [  moft  any  foil.    The  young  plants 


(hoot,  from  the  flock,   roots,  or 
limbs,  of  a  plant  or  tree 


may  be  tranfplanted  at  any  time, 
'  before  thev  are  fix  or  feven  inch- 


SUMMFR,  the  warmed '7U3r-^  es  high,  only  obferving  to  take 


ter  ot  the  year,  including    ];jne, 
July  and  Auguft. 

In  this  feafon,  as  well  as  in  the 
fpriiig,  the  farmer  has  plenty  ot 
work.     Ci  ops  that  are  to  be  hoed, 


up  a  ball  ot  earth  about  their 
roots.  They  fhould  be  placed 
in  the  northern  borders  ot  gar- 
dens,ifing.trdens  at  all, where  they 
i  will  do  the  Icail  harm  to  other 


are  firft  to  be  at;en;led  to,  and  j  plants  by  their  fhadow  ;  and  they 

ihould  ftand  not  lefs  than  two  feet 
a.funder.  They  will  rife  to  the 
height  of  a  dozen  or  fourteen  feet. 

SURFEIT,  a  difcafe  to  which 
cattle,  and  horfes  efpecially,  are 
liable. 

It  is  produced  by  various  cauf- 
es ;  it  comes  from  inteafe  labour, 

from 


mult  by  no  means  be  negleftecl 
There  is  often  much  ot  this  work 
to  do  in  a  little  time,  efpecially 
on  firms  where  much  Indian 
corn  is  raifed.  And  the  more 
fruitful  the  feafon  is,  the  more 
frequent  hoeingswill  be  needful, 
to  keep  the  weeds  under.    I'iiis 


S  U  R 


3«9 


S  U  R 

fr-«m  overheating;,  anJ  iVom  liif- 
t'dles  not  well  cureil. 

*'  A  horfc  is  (aiA  lo  be  furfeit- 
e !,  wlicn  his  coat  flares,  ami 
Ji>.>k«  rufty  atiil  'dirty,  though 
proper  nicins  have  not  been 
wanting  to  keep  hinj  clean.  I  he 
(kin  is  lull  ol  Icales  and  darulcr, 
that  lie  thiik  and  mealy  among 
the  h.iir,  and  is  cotillantly  lup- 
plicil  with  a  frelli  fuccellion  of 
the  lame  lor  want  of  due  tranfpi- 
ration.  Some  horfes  have  hur- 
dles ol  various  lizes  like  peas  or 
tares  :  Some  have  dry  fixcil  fcabs 
all  over  their  limbs  or  bodies  ; 
others  a  moilhite  attended  wich 
heat  atitl  inli.unniation  ;  the  hu- 
mours being  lo  Iharpand  violent- 
ly itching,  that  the  horfes  rub  fo  }  be  proper  to  keep  the  horfe  dry, 
iiiceHantiy.as  tomakethcmfelves  and  to  give  him  warm  water, 
raw.  Some  h  ive  no  eruptions  I  This  ointment  properly  rubbed 
ar  all,  but  an  unwholefome  look,  i  into  the  blood,  with  the  afTiflance 
and  arc  dull,  Ihiggifh,  and  lazy  ;  ;  ol  purging  phyfick, has  frequently 
fome  appear  only  lean  and  hide-  '.  cured  thefe  kind  of  furfeits,  with- 
boutid  ;  others  have  Hying  pains  i  out  any  other  affiftance. 
and  lamenefs,  refemblinga  rheu-  |      "  The  wet  furfeit,  which  is  no 


ed,  half  a  pound  ;  crude  anti" 
mony  in  fine  powder  four  ounc" 
es  ;  gum  guaicum  alfo  in  pow- 
tier    lour   ounces  ;  malu;   into 
fivtcen  dofes  lor  eight  days. 
"  riiis  medicine  inufl  be  re- 
peated till  the  horfc  coats  well, 
and  all  the  fymptoms  of  the  fur- 
leit  difappear.     If  the  horfe  is  of 
Imall  value,  two  or  three  com- 
mon   purges    fliould    be   given, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  antimony, 
with  the    fame  quantity  of  ful- 
phur,  twice  a  day,  or  the  altera- 
tive balls  with  camphire  and  nitre. 
"  If  the  little  fcabs  on  the  fkin 
do  not  peal  off,  anoint  them  with 
the  mercurial  ointment  ;  during 
the  time  of  ufing  which,  it  will 


matifm  ;  fo  that  in  the  lurfeitsol 
horfes,  we  have  almofl  all  the 
diUcrent  fpccies  of  the  fcurv)", 
and  other  chronical  diflempers. 
*'  The  following  method  is 
ufually  attended  with  iuccefs  in 
tlie  dry  fpecics.  b  irlf,  take  away 
about  three  or  four  pounds  of 
blood  ;  and  then  give  the  follow- 
ing nnid  purge,  which  will  work 
a^  d%  alterative,  and  (hould  be  re- 
peated once  a  week  or  ten  days, 
/or  fome  time 


more  than  a  moift  running  fcur- 
vy,  appears  on  different  parts  of 
the  body   of  a    horfe,  attended 

I  fometimes  with  great  heat  and 
inflammation  :  The  neck  often- 

,  times  fweilsfo  in  one  night's  time, 

,  that  greatquantities  of  a  hot  brinr 
humour  ifluc    forth,    which,   if 

I  not  allayed,  will  be  apt  to  coilett 
on  the  poll  or  withers,  and  pro- 
duce the  poll  evil  or  fiflula.  Thi» 
difeafe     alio   frequently    attacks 

I  the  limbs,  where  it  proves  obfti- 


Take  luccotrine  aloes  G.K  drams,  i  nate,  and  hard  to  cure;  and  ifi 


or  one  ounce  ;  gum  guaicum 
half  anounce ;  diaphoretickan- 
imiouy,  and  powder  of  myrih, 
ol  each  two  drams  ;  make  into 
aball  with  fyrupot  buckthorn. 
"  la  the  intermediate  days,  an 
ounce  of  ilie  following  powder 
ihouid  be  given  moraing  and 
k.*riing  in  hu  teois. 


fome  horfes  Ihcws  itfelf  fpring 
and  fall. 

"  In  this  cafe  bleed  plentiful- 
ly, avoid  externally  all  repellers, 
and  give  cooling  phyfick  twice  ai 
week  ;  as,  four  ounces  of  lenitive 
electuary,  with  the  fame  quanti- 
ty of  cream  of  tartar,  with  lour 
ounces  of  glauber  falts,  quicken- 


1  akc  native  cinnabar, or  cinna-    ed,.if  thought  proper,  with  two 
barufiiniitnoiiy  Hnely  powder-    or  three  dr^asof  powder  of  jalap. 


as© 


s  w  A 


cKflblved  in  water  gruel,  and  giv- 
en in  a  morning  fading. 

"  After  three  or  four  of  thefe 
purges,  two  ounces  oi  nitre  made 
into  a  ball  with  honey,  may  be 
given  every  morning  for  a  fort- 
night ;  and  if  attended  T»Mth  fuc- 
cefs,  repeated  for  a  fortnight  long- 
er. 

"  The  powders  above  men- 
tioned may  alfo  be  given  with 
the  horfe's  corn  ;  or  a  flrong  de- 
coclion  oi  guaicum  fhavings,  or 
logwood,  may  be  given  alone,  to 
the  quantity  of  two  quarts  a  day. 
Thefe,  and  indeed  all  alterative 
medicines,  muft  be  continued  for 
a  long  time,  where  the  difordsr 
prov^es  obftinate. 

"  The  diet  fhouid  be  cool  and 
opening  ;  and  if  the  horfe  is 
hidehound,an ounce  of  fenugreek 
feeds  fiiould  be  gV\'en  in  his  feeds 
for  a  month  or  longer.  And  as 
this  diforder  often  proceeds  from 
v/orms,  give  the  mercurial  phyf- 
ick  too,  and  afterwards  the  cin- 
nabar powder,  as  above  diretted  ; 
but  as  in  general  it  is  not  an  orig- 
inal difeafe,but  a  fymptomonly 
of  many,  in  the  cure,  regard  mull 
be  had  to  the  firil  caufe ;  thus  as 
it  is  an  attendant  on  fevers, 
worms,  &c.  the  removal  of  this 
complaint  muft  be  varioufly  ef- 
fected."'    Complete  Farmer. 

SWAMP,  wet  funkcn  land. 
See  the  article  Bog. 

SWARD,  the  furface  of  grafs 
ground- 

The  fward  is  formed  of  a  web 
of  the  roots  of  grafs,  mixed  with 
the  befl  mould.  The  common 
Engliih  grafs,  or  poa,  forms  a 
very  firm  and  tough  fvvard,  which 
may  be  cut  up  and  ufed  as  turf. 
Herdfgrafi  has  a  weaker  fward  ; 
and  clover,  being  tap  rooted, 
forms  a  very  weak  and  crumbly 
fward.  The  firft  kind  bears  the 
tread  of  cattle,  and  the  preffure 
•f  wheels  far  better  than  the  others, 


SWA 

The  fward  is  wifely  coutrivecF 
by  the  Author  of  Nature,  for  the 
recruiting  and  enriching  of  land. 
At  the  fame  time  that  it  prevents 
the  defcending  of  the  food  of 
vegetables  too  deep  into  the  foil, 
it  is  continual lycoilefting  it  from 
the  atmofphere.  So  that  for  a 
long  courfe  of  years,  fome  grafs 
lands  will  afford  good  crops  of 
hay  with  little   or  no  manuring. 

The  fward  always  contains  the 
rrcheff  part  of  the  foil.  Accord- 
ingly it  is  always  found,  that  land 
nev.'Iy  ploughed  out  of  fward  is 
more  fruitful  than  that  which  has 
been  longer  in  tillage.  Some- 
times it  will  bear  as  good  a  crop 
v/ithout  dung,  as  it  will  in  fuc- 
ceeding  years,  well  dunged. 

Other   things  being   equal,   a 
fward    that  is  always    fed   very 
clofe  does  not  gather  richnefs  fo 
fall  as  one  that  has  more  fogge.. 
In  the   one  cafe,  the   vegetable 
food  in  the  atmofphere  is  blown  • 
away  ;  in  the  other,  it  is  entan- 
gled in  the  fogge,  retained  by  it, 
and  carried  into  thefoil  by  rainSj 
and  melting  fnows. 

A- fward  on  which ■  cattle  lie- 
much,  or  where  fwine  frequent- 
ly run,  as  in  the  borders  of  many 
of  our  roads,  becomes  very  rich. 
So  that  if  the  furface  be  pared  off, 
to  ti>e  thicknefs  of  two  or  three 
inches,  and  laid  in  heaps  to  fer- 
ment, with  the  graffy  fides  in- 
ward, it  will  foon  become  an  ex- 
cellent manure.  A  dreffing  of 
this  will  furprifingly  renew  the 
fertility  of  an  old  worn  out  field. 
But  a  mixture  of  dung  with  this 
manure  will  be  no  fmall  advan- 
tage. 

By  the  fides  of  fences,  a  fward 
gathers  richnefs  fafter  than  in  the  . 
other  parts  of  a  field.  The  veg- 
etable food  which  floats  in  the  ' 
air,  the  earthy  parts  efpecial- 
ly,  may  be  fuppofed  to  fall,  for 
the  fame  reafan  that  fnow  does, 

and 


SWA 

«Titi  remain,  under  the  lee  of 
fences.  And  the  banking  up  of 
fnovs-  in  thefe  fituations  is  anoth- 
er caufe  of  cnrichiiii;  the  furface 
of  the  ground.  By  lying  tor 
fome  tinie  atior  the  ground  is 
bare,  beinj;  peculiarly  adapted  to 
catch  and  retain  the  lood  ct 
plants,  it  conveys  the  more  of  it 
into  tlie  (ward.  High  and  dole 
fences  produce  ihcfc  effects  more 
obfervaKly  than  low  and  open 
ones.  But  this  is  to  be  under- 
ftood  with  limitation  ;  tor  it  is 
obferved  that  a  clofe  lence  feven 
or  eight  feet  high  has  often  a 
much  (mailer  bank  ot  fnow  un- 
der its  Ice  than  a  fence  of  but  four  i 
or  five  feel.  I 

When  the  fward  of  mowing  i 
ground  binds  too  much,  it  Ihould  , 
be  broken  up  and  tilled.     But  to  ' 

Prevent  bindmg,  it  (hould  not  I 
e  ted  very  dole  alter  mowing  ;  \ 
andcfpcciallyafprinklingot  well  { 
rotted  comport,  applied  in  au-  | 
tumn,  will  not  f)nly  prevent  | 
binding,  but  increafe  the  next  , 
crop,  to  luch  a  degree,  that  j 
manure  cannot  be  better  appli-  I 
cd.  I 

SWARM,  a  large  number  of, 
bees.     vSce  the  article  ^('c'. 

SWARTH,  or  SWATH,  a 
line  or  row  ol  grafs,  or  corn,  &c. 
cut  down  by  the  mower. 

The  double  fwarthiswhercthc 
grafs  of  two  fwarths  is  thrown 
together  in  mowing.  It  (aves  a 
little  labour  in  raking  to  make 
the  double  fv\'3rth  the  centre  of  a 
windrow.  But  when  the  crop 
is  thin,  this  is  an  object  unwoi  thy 
of  attention. 

SWATH  RAKE,  a  rake  a- 
'no'it  f.vo  yards  long,  wiili  iron 
i  a  bearer  in  the  mid d!.- ; 
.  i  a  man  fixes  hi:n(.-lt 
A  1  a  belt;  and  wlien  he  has 
;;  riifrcd  as  much  as  his  rake  will 
hold,  he  raifes  it  and  begins  a- 
gain.    Compute  Farmer, 


SWl  sji 

I  SWINE, the  name  of  a  fpecie* 
I  ol  tame  quadruped  animals,  well 
I  known  in  all  countries. 
I  Sowen  is  the  old  tnglith  plural 
oi  fori',  whence  the  namefwiuc, 
j  which  cultom  has  applied  to  the 

whole  (pecies  of  hogs- 
I      TIk'  J.eepinj;  of  (vine  is  of  ef- 
1  fcntial  advantage  to  the  hulband- 
I  man  ;  hccaulc  they    reed    much 
upon  things,  which  would  other- 
I  v/ifc  be  of  no  confiderablc  fcrA'ice 
j  to  him.     The  roads,  and    com- 
mons, in  the  farming  towns  ot 
;•  this  country,  afford  fwine,  except- 
ing in  winter,  the  greated  part  of 
their   fcanty    living,     lor   they 
I  feed  heartily,  not  only  oi:  grafs, 
but  many  ioris  of  weeds,  the  tops 
and  roots  of  tern,  the  roots  of 
leveral  kinds  ol  aquatick  plants, 
&c.    They   pick  up  grain   and 
feeds  that  are  ncccflarily  fcaiter- 
ed  about  the  bam  and  out  houfes, 
befides  eating  worms  and  many 
vkinds  of  inlefls. 

Befides,  the  farmer's  houfe  af- 
fords many  things  which  contrib- 
ute to  their  fupport,  which  would, 
otherwilc  be  loft,  fuch  as  whey, 
four  fkimmcd  milk  and  butter 
milk,  the  walhing  of  tubs  and 
dilhes  ;  animal  and  vegetable 
food  that  luis  accidentally  got 
corrupted,  decayed  and  rotten 
fruit,  the  offal  of  bcafts,  fowls  and 
fifh,  and  the  grounds  oi  cyder, 
beer,  and  oilier  liviuors. 

As  this  anim.i!  is  much.lifpof- 
cd  and  adap'cd,  to  do  inilchict, 
thofe  that  are  i)ermiticd  to  go  at 
lirge,  (hould  he  well  yoked,  that 
they  may  not  break  through 
fences.  And  whether  they  goat 
large  or  in  paftures,  they  Ihould 
always  be  ringed  in  the  nofc,  to 
prevent  their  tearing  up  the 
ground  too  much,  in  fearch  of 
roots.  When  kept  in  pens,  they 
need  ringing  alio,  that  they  may 
live  the  mure  quietly  log-.thtr, 
t  ,iiiJ  iK't  tfj/  ini  wuiiUu  each  Other. 

Thfx 


83^ 


S  W  I 


Their  running  at  large  is,  per- 
haps, not  advifable,  unleis  it  be 
in  wide  roads,  or  in  places  where 
there  is  a  lar§e  outlet  tor  them  ; 
or  where  grals,  brakes,  acorns,  or 
ntits  ot  beech,  cheflnut,  or  hick- 
ory, are  not  to  be  found  in  plen- 
ty. For  they  are  expofed  to  the 
more  accidents;  and  in  fonie  oi 
our  fettlements,  which  border  on 
the  wilderneis,  the  bears  are  apt 
to  catch  them.  And  the  moflof 
our  publick  roads  are  fo  much 
frequented  by  other  hungry 
bealhs,  that  the  fwine  can  have 
but  little  advantage  from  thegrafs. 

But  in  cafe  of  necellity,  when 
the  farmer  happens  to  have  no 
fuitable  paflure  for  his  fwine,  let 
the  wafh  from  the  houfe  be  reg- 
ularly given  them,  morning  and 
evening,  to  prevent  their  wan- 
dering away  too  far  from  home. 
This  will  induce  them  always  to 
lodge  at  home,  efpecially  it  they 
Jiave  a  good  fty  to  receive  them 
in  inclement  weather  ;  by  means 
of  w'hich  they  will  be  the  lefs  in 
danger  of  being  loft,  or  of  ftray- 
ing  too  far  trom  home. 

I  am  fenfible  that  the  method 
of  management,  I  here  recom- 
jnend,  is  liable  to  one  confidera- 
ble  objeftion  ;  which  is,  that  if 
they  be  ted  at  all  at  home,  they 
■will  be  apt  to  haunt  about  the 
lioufe  all  the  time,  crying  lor 
more,  and  never  go  away  tar  in 
queft  of  food. 

Inftead  of  attempting  to  an- 
fwer  this  objeftion,  1  wifh  I 
could  make  it  appear  a  fuHicient 
argument  to  convince  farmers  of 
the  great  advantage,  or  the  ne- 
cefhty,  ot  ha^■ing  good  enclofed 
paftures  for  their  fwine.  They 
•will  be  fafer,  and  fare  better ;  and 
the  coft  of  it  is  not  great. 

The  hog  pafture  fhould  be  fo 
near  to  the  dwelling  houfe,  that 
it  may  not  be  troublefome  to  car- 
ry the  wafli  to  the  fwine  :  And 


S  W  I 

yet  fo  far  off  that  the  people  in 
the  houfe  may  not  be  ftunned 
with  their  nolfe.  And  a  warm 
cot  mull  be  made  in  Tome  con- 
venient part  ot  their  pailure,  for 
them  to  lodge  in. 

To  prepare  a  pafture  for  them, 
let  the  ground  be  broken  up, 
tilled  and  manured,  and  then 
laid  down  with  clover.  For 
fwine  are  more  fond  ot  thisgrafs 
than  ot  any  other  which  our 
country  produces.  Let  the 
quantity  of  land  be.fo  proportion- 
ed to  the  number  of  fwine,  that 
they  may  keep  the  grals  from 
running  up  to  leed.  For  this  will 
prevent  wafte  ;  and  the  fhorter 
the  grafs  is,  the  fweeter  it  will 
be,  and  the  fuore  tender  and  a- 
greeable  to  their  palates, 

I  fuppofe  that  one  acre  of  rich 
land  in  clover,  will  lupport  twen- 
ty or  more  iv.ine,  large  and  fmail 
together,  through  the  fummer  ; 
and  bring  them  well  forward  in 
their  growth.  But  thcv  Ihould 
have  rings  in  their  nofes  to  pre- 
vent their  rooting  out  the  clover. 

It  has  been  proved,  by  many 
trials,  that  hogs,  in  fuch  a  pafture, 
may  be  kept  in  good  plight,  with- 
out any  other  lood.  Some  lay 
they  may  be  halt  tattened. 

Arthur  Young,  Ffq.  ot  Great 
Britain,  in  the  lumrner  of  the 
year  1766,  paftured  fixty  four 
fwine  of  various  fizes,  on  two 
acresof  clover  ground.  And  al- 
lowing two  pence  halt  penny 
per  week,  one  with  another, 
their  feeding  am.ounted  tt)  fevenr 
teen  pounds  fixteen  ihillings 
fterling.  Their  keeping  was  fet 
at  a  low  rate,  fix  months  feeding 
for  one  fwine  being  5/5,  and 
the  profit  of  the  clover  put  to 
this  ufe  is  aftonilhing,  He  af- 
fures  the  publick  that  all  theie 
fwine  grew  very  iiii.  And  ia 
his  opinion,  this  uie  ot  clover 
h  greatly  preferable  to  making  it 


S  W  I 

"nto  h.\y.  I  think  tlus  is  not  to 
1  '■  floulitfd,  though  the  crop  ot 
!iiy  were  fuppolcd  to  be  ihc 
gir.itrfl  that  is  ever  ol»tai(u-(l. 

It  Ihoiiltl  be  reineriihered,  th;U 
the  p.irtunnR  witii  Iwuie  \\\\\  cii- 
riili  land  more  thdra  pHlhirinsf 
with  (dlicr  Iiealls,  and  hereby  i!ie 
profit  o{  the  Farmer  will  be  in- 
<  re. lied.  And  iT  a  common  clo- 
•  or  l.iy  will  producer  good  crop 
ol  wlieai,  much  more  may  be  ex- 
pelled of  the  fame  kiad  ol 
Tiound,  after  pafturing  fwine  np- 
ri  it  ;  as  their  dung  adds  much 
to  the  teitility  ol  the  foil. 

Hogs  may  ho  turned  into  their 
paflure  about  the  fir  (I  ol  May, 
and  kept  in  it  till  the  laR  of  Oc- 
tober. And  if,  in  M.iy  and  Oc- 
tober, the  grafs  fhouli  not  be 
<|uite  fnfficient  tor  their  fuppoit, 
lome  potatoes  orothcr  roots  may 
be  thrown  to  them. 

The  fence  abotit  the  paRure 
'lould  he  fo  fipht  and  ffrotig 
•::at  tlic  fwine  will  not  need  to 
bo  yoked  :  Becaiife  yokes  do 
much  towards  preventing  their 
growth,  as  I  have  found,  by  let- 
ting yoked  and  unyoked  ones  of 
the  fame  litter  run  together  in  a 
pallnre. 

It  will  be  a  great  ad''anfage  to 
a  hog  padiire,  to  have  plenty «of 
water  in  it  through  the  furnmer. 
Running  water  is  bell,  as  it  will 
afford  them  the  moll  wholclxjme 
drink,  and  at  the  fame  time, 
ferve.  as  well  an  any  other  for 
iliem  to  wallow  in  ;  and  it  will 
kerp  tiiem  dean,  which  is  no 
f  .lall  advantage. 

iVi'  the  moil  dirty  puddle  wa- 

:    than   none,  as  they 

I  Miilclvcs  in  it  in   hot 

wcdiijcr,    winch    is    grcativ    rc- 

firlhmg  to  iliem,  and  conducive 

'  '  keep  them  in  health. 

I  he  bell  way  of  managing 
fwme  is,  to  keep  ihcm  always  in 
Hiiiilmg   plight  :  S<ji   too    lat, 


s  w  r         333- 

left  their  It'^alth  (lioulH  be  in  dan- 
ger, efpecialiy  when  the  weather 
is  hot ;  Not  too  lean,  becaufe 
tins  is  apt  to  give  them  a  r.;ven- 
o  :s  .ippetite,  and  tempt  them  to 
e.if  thmgs  that  are  not  whnlc- 
fome  U)i  them.  7  hofe  thatliave 
been  long  ffarved,  cannot  be 
riiade  fat  withotit  groat  expenfe  : 
Sometimes  more  tban  they  will 
repay  with  their  ficfh. 

When  it  can  with  convenieTice 
be  fo  ordered,  it  is  an  excellent 
niece  of  huniandry,  to  make  a 
hog  pafltirc  of  an  orchard.  J  heir 
dung  i.s  allowed  to  be  the  very 
belt  ol  manure  for  the  trees. 
They  will  keep  the  ground 
light  and  loofe  ;  deflroy  infe^fs 
that  inlcll  the  trees,  and  Iced 
heartily  on  the  premature  apples 
that  fall,  which  the  farmer  is  too 
oUen  tempted  to  grind  up  for 
cyder.  And  the  (hadow  of  the 
trees  will  be  very  gratelid  and 
comfortable  to  them  in  furnmer. 
Ah  orchard  may  be  prepared 
with  clover  as  well  as  any  other 
fpot  of  ground,  iiut  it  Ihould  be 
remembered  that,  when  the  tares 
in  an  orchard  arc  young  and 
Imall,  fwine  flioidd  not  be  per- 
mitted to  go  among  them  :  For 
there  will  be  danger  of  their 
wounding  them,  and  llripping  off 
fome  of  the  bark. 

I  would  not  wifh  to  have  the 
keeping  of  fwim*  wholly  cngroll- 
ed  by  tlie  farmer.  In  populous 
towns,  where  tbore  is  fo  much  as 
ioo\u  for  ^.ardons,  every  family 
fhould  koep  at  leafl  une,  to  take 
off  the  relule  of  the  kitchen,  dilh 
water,  &.c.  which  would  other- 
wife   be  thrown  away. 

Let  him  be  kept  in  a  p<?n.  or  fly, 
perpetually.  For  the  weeds  evea 
ofafmall  ganlen,  thrown  intolus 
pen,  will  f.'"  ten  times  better  lor 
him,  than  all  ho  can  pickup  i.';t'i.- 
flrccls, though  there  may  • 

to  bed  liitlcijrdfsin  ihclvc 

He 


334         S  W  I 

He  fhould  be  fatted  and  killed 
in  the  fall  ;  and  a  halt  year  old 
ihoot  bought  in,  to  fupply  his 
place.  They  who  keep  but  one 
fwine,  or  even  tv/o,  had  better 
purchafe  their  pigs  than  attempt 
to  breed  them. 

It  is  perhaps  of  more  confe- 
<}uence  than  fome  are  aware  of, 
to  be  furnifhed  with  the  bed 
breed  of  fwine.  There  has  been 
very  little  care  hitherto,  in  our 
country,  taken  about  this  matter. 

The  compilers  of  the  Complete 
Farmer  fay,  "  A  wild  kind  of 
hogs,  though  fmaller  than  thofe 
bred  in  Leiceflerfhire,  are  much 
more  hardy  and  better  meat." 
They  add,"  in  the  choice  of  hogs, 
choofe  fuch  to  breed  out  of,  as 
have  long,  large  bodies,  are 
deep  fided  and  bellied,  that 
have  a  fhort  nofe,  thick  thighs, 
fhort  legs,  high  claws,  thick  neck, 
a  fhort  ftrong  groin,  and  a  thick 
chine,  well  fet  with  briftles." 

A  new  breed  of  hogs,  called 
Chinefe,  has  lately  been  brought 
from  England  to  Bofton,  which 
are  fo  much  coveted,  that  they 
arc  already  propagated  in  many 
parts  of  the  country.  Thofe 
that  1  have  feen,  feem  to  anfwer 
pretty  well  in  fliape  to  the  above 
defcripiion.  They  have  long  bod- 
ies, broad  hacks,  fhort  necks,  nofes 
and  legs,  and  very  {lender  tails. 
They  multiply  exceedingly,  are 
remarkably  ftill  and  quiet,  are 
apt  to  keep  themfeUes  tat,  when 
they  are  tolerably  well  ted  ;  but 
feldom  or  never  grow  to  a  large 
fize.  Wherever  I  have  feen 
them,  and  however  treated,  they 
have  appeared  much  more  plump 
and  fat  than  other  fwine  that  ran 
in  the  fame  herds,  and  had  equal 
advantage.  Their  fkin  is  not 
very  thin,  but  their  flefh  excel- 
lent, when  killed  young.  No 
roafling  pigs  that  1  have  feen  are 
-equal  to  thofe  of  this  breed.     As 


S"W  1 

they  are  great  eaters,  and  get  t® 
their  full  growth  in  about  a  year, 
I  fufpeft  that  they  all  ought  to 
be  killed  in  the  firft  year.  I  have 
kept  fome  tM'^o  years  ;  but  could 
never  fatten  them  up  to  more 
than  two  hundred  pounds. 

In  the  breeding  ot  fwine,  care 
fhould  be  taken  to  have  them 
pigged  in  the  right  feafon,  about 
March  or  April.  Thefe  will 
bear  the  rigour  of  the  following 
winter,  much  better  than  thofe 
which  come  later.  Though  a 
fow  will  farBOw  three  times  in  a 
year,  it  is  better  that  they  fhould 
do  it  only  twice. 

The  above  mentioned  writers 
fay,  "  It  is  common  for  fows  to 
have  thirteen  or  fourteen  pigs  at 
a  litter  :  But  the  fow  can  rear 
no  more  than  .fhe  has  teats  to 
fucklc  them  with  :  Thereflmuft 
therefore  be  deilroyed,  or  put  to 
other  fows.  If  a  fow  mifs  the 
time  of  going  to  boar,  that  fhe 
might  in  courfe  have  done,  give 
her  fome  oats  parched  in  a  pan, 
in  her  wafli,  or  the  fmall  end  of  a 
runnet  bag,  and  it  will  caufe  her 
quickly  to  go  to  boar.  The  pigs 
which  you  rear,  after  you  have 
chofen  out  the  beft  tor  boars  and 
fows,  the  males  muilbe  gelt,  and 
the  fows  fpayed." 

The  mo  ft  eligible  food  for 
ftore  hogs  in  winter  ought  to  be 
known,  regard  being  had  to  the 
cofl  of  the  food,  and  the  advan- 
tage gained  in  the  growth  of  the 
fwme.  Raw  potatoes  feem  to 
be  the  mofl  fafhionable  food  in  the 
northern  parts  of  Newengland. 
But  if  fwine  are  wholly  confined 
to  this  food,  they  will  butjufl 
lis'e,  without  increafmg  much  in 
their  growth.  But  boiled  pota- 
toes will  make  them  grow  and 
even  fatten  them.  Roafled  po- 
tatoes are  flill  better  for  thera 
than  boiled,  as  they  are  lefs  wa- 
tery. 

Fiom 


s  w  r 

From  fome  late  experience  I 
have  had  of  feeding  ihcni  with 
rju- carrots,  I  judge  them  to  be 
a  more  fattening  food  th<in  even 
boiled  potatoes.  The  fwine  are 
exceedingly  fond  of  them,  fome- 
tiroes  preferring  them  to  Indian 
com.  Andl  think,  the  coft  of  raif- 
ing  carrots  will  not  be  found  great- 
er on  the  whole,  where  the  loi!  is 
fuitabic  for  them,  than  that  of 
ralfing  potatoes. 

The  feeding  of  (lore  fwine 
Gonftantly  with  any  kind  of  corn, 
feems  to  be  tooexpenfive.  Pof- 
(ibly  it  will  be  found,  upon  fur- 
ther trial,  that  carrots  arc  the  bell 
fubllitute.  Red  fleets  are  alfo 
a  good  food  for  them,  and  parf- 
neps  e.xccllent  :  But  tur.nips  and 
cabbage  are  improper. 

Mr.  Young  made  many  accu- 
rate experiments  in  order  to  fi«d 
out  the  thcapeft,  and  beil  meth- 
ods of  feeding  fwine  in  flies. 
The  refult  of  the  whole  was, 
that  boiled  carrots  had  the  preS 
erence. 

Sows  and  pigs  on  a  farm,  as  he 
iuflly  obfcrves.  (hould  have  the 
benefit  that  arifes  to  fwine  from 
the  dairy.  The  red  of  the  fwine 
may  be  fed  chiefly  on  clover  in 
the  fummer,  and  on  roots  in  the 
winter.  If  this  rule  be  obferved, 
the  dairy  farmer  may  keep  a 
very  great  number  of  fwine  to 
advantage. 

But  It  (hould  not  be  forgotten, 
that  fwine  are,  in  one  refpett  at 
leafl.like  human  creatures,  apt 
to  be  cloyed  when  confined 
wholly  to  one  kind  of  food. 
They  fhould  ihrrcfore  be,  in 
fome  meafure,  gratified  with  va- 
riety. It  liJ^  been  oiten  rcmark- 
ctf,  tb^*  '  . '••'^tfs  fuit  hogs  better 
in  {v.  ■»  in  winter.    Tl  c 

fccrei  i>,  ,  '1  fummer  no  hog 
is  wholly  ccnht'.e  I  to  potatoes  ; 
for  he  gets  at  leaft  fome  grafs, 
and  weeiU. 


S  W  I 


335 


I  know  not  whether  it  has 
ever  yet  been  determined,  at 
what  age  it  is  bcfl,  or  moft  for 
the  owner's  intercfl.  that  fwine 
Ihould  be  fatted  and  killed.  That 
it  is  in  no  uart  of  the  firfl  year, 
excepting  the  China  breed,  I  fup- 
pofe  will  be  generally  granted, 
ror  as  they  have  not  near  attain- 
ed to  their  full  growth,  it  cannot 
be  expetfed  that  t!>ey  ihould  be 
fo  Quickly,  or  fo  eafily  fatted  br 
feeding.  But  as  the  young  pork 
is  more  palatable,  fome  will  pre- 
fer it  on  the  whole,  though  it 
fhould  be  more  dearly  obtamed. 
The  more  common  prafclice  is, 
to  kill  them  at  about  the  age  of  a 
year  and  a  half.  But  I  fufpe6c 
the  profit  would  be  greater,  if 
they  were  kept  one  year  longer. 
For  it  is  well  known,  that  they 
bear  the  cold  of  the  lecond  win- 
ter much  better  than  that  of  the 
firfl.  As  their  growth  is  nearly 
or  quite  completed,  they  are  the 
more  eafily  fattened  ;  and  I  nev- 
er could  perceive  but  that  the 
pork  was  equally  good  and  pala> 
table,  as  thofe  killed   at  eightceit 

!  months  old. 

j      According  to  the  opinion  oF 

I  the  Rev,  Mr.  Eliot,  the  bcfl  time- 
[  in  the  year  to  fliut  up  hogs  to  fat- 
ten them,  is  the  month  of  Augufl. 

I I  rather  prefer  the  nionth  of  Sep- 
tember, when  it  may  be  depend- 
ed on,lhat  th^y  will  not  fufTer  af 
all  by  the  heat  in  their  confine- 
ment :  And  there  will  be  time 
enough  to  make  them  fat.  before 
the  weather  comes  to  be  extreme- 
ly  cold. 

He  that  attempts  to  fatten  his 
hogs  in  winter  wilf  be  a  lofer  : 
For  it  ha>  been  found  by  long 
expcricnc*,  that  they  do  not  gain 
in  their  flelh  near  fo  fafl  in  a  frof- 
ty.  ns  in  a  temperate  feafon.  I 
therefore  take  care  to  get  them 
fit  for  the  knife  by  the  beginning 
or  middle  of  Deccrabcr.    And  I 

ihould 


336 


S  W  I 


fhoulJ  choofe  to  kill  them  flill 
earlier,  weie  it  not  lor  the  ad- 
vantage ot  keeping  the  lean  part 
of  tlie  poik  tor  lome  time  with- 
out faking  ;  as  it  moll;  common- 
ly may  be  clone  by  expofing  it 
to  froft,  in  the  coolefl  part  of  a 
houfe. 

But  a  very  important  queftion 
is,  what  food  and  management  is 
befl  in  fattening  fwine  ?  Peafe 
anfwcr  well,  when  the  price  of 
them  is  low.  But  I  amconftrain- 
ed  to  give  the  preference  to  In- 
dian corn.  Let  them  be  fed  in 
September  v/ith  green  cars  from 
the  field.  There  is  nothing  they 
will  devour  more  greedily  than 
this  corn,  and  even  the  cobs  with 
it. 

In  Indian  harveff,  the  unripe 
ears  Ihould  be  picked  out,  and 
given  to  the  hogs  that  are  fatting, 
without  delay  :  Or  as  fait  as  they 
can  eat  them  :  For  it  will  do 
them  four  times  as  much  good  in 
this  ftate,  as  it  will  after  it  is  dri- 
ed, it  being  ditiicult  to  dry  it 
without  its  turning  mouldy,  or 
rotten  ;  fo  that  they  will  fcarce- 
ly  eat  any  ot  it  in  this  Hate,  un- 
lefs  they  be  kept  Oiorter  of  food 
tlian  tatting  hogs  Ihould  be. 

After  the  unripe  corn  is  ufed, 
that  which  is  ripened  mull  be 
given  them. 

If  it  be  thought  mod  conve- 
nient, to  teed  them  with  corn  ot 
the  preceding  year,  it  ihould 
not  be  given  them  without  foak- 
ing,  or  boiling,  or  grinfliiig  it  in- 
to meal.  For  they  will  not  per- 
feftly  digcit  much  of  tiie  hard 
kernels  ;  it  being  often  too  hard 
for  their  teeth.  It  has  been 
thought  by  good  judges,  that  the 
corn  will  be  at  leaft  a  tixth  part 
more  advantage  to  the  fwine,  tor 
Joaking  it  in  water.  But  ther6 
is,  if  I  millake  not,  ftill  more  ad- 
va'ntage  in  grinding  it.  What 
new  corn  is  given  them,  may  be 


s  w  r 

in  ears,  as  it  is  not  hardenec! 
enough  for  grinding.  I  know  of 
nothing  that  will  fatten  hogs  taft- 
er  than  a  dough  of  meal  and  wa- 
ter. But  as  this  is  an  expenfive 
food,  the  dough  may  be  inxed 
with  boiled  potatoes,  or  boiled 
carrots.  They  eat  thefe  mix- 
tures as  well  as  dough  by  itfelf ; 
and  it  appears  to  make  no  materi- 
al difference  in  their  fattening. 
In  this  mixture,  barley  meal  will 
aniwerinftead  of  Indian:  Which 
fhould  be  attended  to  in  our  more 
northern  parts,  where  two  bufh- 
els  of  barley  may  be  as  eafily  raif- 
ed,  as  one  of  Indian  corn.  Botti 
kinds  of  meal  I  have  found  to  be 
a  good  mixture  with  boiled  po- 
tatoes :  But  it  Ihould  by  all 
ineans  be  a  little  faked,  to  give  it 
a  good  relifh. 

While  hogs  are  fatting,  littfe 
or  none  of  the  wafli  from  the 
kitchen  fhould  be  given  them. 
Their  drink  fhould  be  fair  water, 
which  they  relifli  better  than  any 
other  drink,  and  of  which  they 
will  drink  a  good  deal,  when  they 
arc  fed  only  on  corn,  or  ftilF 
dough. 

To  prevent  meafles,  and  other 
diforders  in  hogs,  while  they  are 
tatting,  and  to  increa.fe  their 
health  and  appetite,  a  dofe  or  two 
ot  brimttone,  or  antimony,  given 
them  in  their  dough,  is  uietul, 
and  thould  not  be  negleftcd. 

Some  change  of  food  may  be 
advifable,  in  every  flage  of  their 
exiilence,  as  it  always  feems  to 
increafe  their  appetite.  But 
while  they  are  fatting,  laxative, 
food  in  general  Ihould  be  avoid- 
ed, as  thefe  animals  are  feldom 
known  to  fuffer  by  coflivenefs, 
efpecially  when  they  are  tuU  fed, 
but  often  from  the  contrary  dif- 
order.  If  they  c fiance  to  be  cof- 
tive,  a  little  rye  will  help  them. 

In  feeding,  fteady  care  fliould 
be  taken  that  not  one  njeal  Ihould 

be 


S  W  I 

he  mincil,  nor  miftimcJ,  and 
•ficrir  water  fhoij'.d  never  be  lor- 
t-ottcn.  They  ihould  always 
have  as  much  food  as  they  will 
cat  up  clr-;n  ;  Inn  never  more 
tlian  that  qM.i.):::v,  left  ihcy  de- 
iile  it.  ar.i  it  be  wailed.  A  little 
at  a  I :::.:,  and  olicn,  is  a  good 
rule. 

If  their  fkins  be  fcurfy,  or  in- 
cliriiiijij  to  manginefs,  a  little  oil 
poured  upon  their  backs,  will 
caule  it  to  come  off.  And  fomc 
fay,  a  fmall  mefs  of  rye  nort-  and 
then,  as  a  change  in  their  food,  is 
good  againft  tiieft  and  other  dif- 
orders. 

IfthcifTufs  in  (heir  fore  legs 
fhould  chance  to  get  ftoppeil, 
every  attempt  to  fatten  them  will 
be  in  vain.  Thefe  therefore 
fhould  be  watched  ;  and  if  found  '. 
to  be  flopped,  they  Ihould  be  ' 
rubbed  open  with  a  corn  cob.       I 

Rubbing   and    currying   their ' 
hide-;  very  frequently,  is  of  ad-  j 
v.irrage  to  keep  up  perfpiration.  I 
It  IS  grateful  to  the  animals,  as 
well  as  conducive  to  their  health 
3v.<\  gvcwih.  A  proper  fcrubbing  > 
J    1^  m  the  middle  of    their  pen  1 
will  nJt  be  amifs.     And  during  j 
tlie  whole  time  of  their  fatting, 
they  Ihould  have  plenty  ol  litter.  ! 
1  hey  will  fie  the  more  dry  and  { 
w-r"i,  and  it  will  be  more  than  I 
pdi  i  tor,  by  the  incrcale  of  good  j 
roan  ire.  I 

When  hogs  arc  killed,  a  fingle  ' 
one  Ihould  not  be  left  to  live  a- 
lonr  in  a  pen.  He  will  be  apt  ' 
to  piiKT  too  much  jftcr  his  form-  ' 
cr  c  >n!nanions  :  And  in  cold  i 
■ :  MriJI  faffer  for  want  ol  i 
1  )  warm  as  he  has  been  ; 

I  to  do. 
:  part  of  pork  fhould  be  I 
pl.ntituilr    failed   with  the  bcfl  | 
,  ,  .  a  ^.  •-,,  >     '— ,  fait.     It  Willi 
tor  a    barrel. 
Ill   11   1  L»e  keptconiM-  I 
»  .r  p.ckle  ;  f»r  if  it  be  1 

3» 


S  Y  C  337 

expofcd  ever  fo  little  to  the  air, 
it  will  become  n:ilv  aid  unpala> 
table.     Sqc  II -/! J. 

SYCAMORh./:.^?,  Acer,  the 
maple  tree.  Tlu-iii^h  Mr.  Mil- 
ler leckons  ninediffinft  kinds  of 
maple,  I  know  of  but  two  that 
are  ufually  to  be  found  in  thi» 
country. 

One  of  thefe  kinds  is  vult^arly 
called  white  maple,  Acf: 
do.     It  is  a  very  quick  ; 

tree,  and  therefore  ouglu  to  be 
encouraged  in  foreffs,  cfpecially 
where  a  quick  profit  is  defired* 
But  the  wood  is  foft  and  white, 
not  inclined  to  burn  well  till  it  is 
dried.  As  limber,  it  is  valued 
chiefly  by  turners,  by  farmers  for 
o.\  yokes,  and  for  cabinet  work. 

The  other  fort,  called  rock  ma- 
ple, Acer  fdccharinumy  is  much 
harder  andf  heavier,  and  an  excel- 
lent wood  for  fewel,  being  in- 
fiammable  in  its  green  flate,  ani 
dunible  in  the  fire.  Both  forts 
will  quickly  decay,  when  expof- 
cd  to  the  weather  ;  the  latter  is 
lefs  durable  than  the  former. 
The  fap  of  the  white  maple  is 
drawn  by  many  for  fugar.  But 
it  yields  little  in  comparifon  with 
the  other. 

It  is  of  the  fap  of  the  rock  ma- 
ple that  an  excellent  fugar  is 
made,  which  is  of  no  fmall  ad- 
vantage to  planters  in  thewilder- 
nefs,  where  the  trees  arc  plenty, 
and  the  wounding  and  injuring 
ihcm  is  not  conlidcred  as  any 
Icjfs.  But  a  farmer  that  wifhes 
his  trees  to  live  and  grow  Ihould 
not  tap  them  for  their  fap  ;  bc- 
caufe  it  flints  them  in  their 
growth,  and  often  caiilesthem  to 
decay  and  rot.  Thcbeft  method 
of  tapping  has  been  lately  found 
to  be  by  boring  the  trees  :  So 
that  thedifchargeof  the  fap  may 
be  flopped  at  pleafurc  with  a 
p<«,  as  there  may  be  occafion. 
"  When  a  plcaty  of  fap  is  col- 
lect sd. 


S38  S  Y  C 

iefted,  you  fnould  have  three 
kettles  of  different  fizes.  Fill 
the  largell  kettle  with  lap.  To 
fix  gallons  of  fap  put  in  one  heap- 
ed table  fpoonful  of  flacked  lime, 
which  will  caufe  the  fugan  to 
granulate.  Boil  the  fap  in  the 
large  kettle,  taking  off  the  fcum 
as  it  rifes,  till  the  quantity  is  fo 
dirainiflied  that  the  fecond  ket- 
tle will  hold  it.  Shift  it  into  the 
fecond  kettle,  and  fill  the  large 
kettle  with  frefli  fap.  Let  both 
boil  till  the  third  or  fmalleil  ket- 
tle will  hold  the  fap  contained 
in  the  fecond  kettle.  Shitt  it  in- 
to that,  and  the  fap  in  the  firft  in- 
to the  fecond,  and  fill  the  firft 
'\s'ith  frefh  fap.  Boil  the  fap  m 
the  fmallefl  kettle,  till  it  becomes 
ropy,  v.'hich  you  will  know  by 
taking  out  a  little  with  a  flick, 
and  trying  it  between  your  thumb 
and  finger.  Put  it  into  the  cool- 
er, and  keep  it  flining  till  the 
next  parcel  is  done,  and  niit  that 
into  the  cooler,  and  continue  the 
ftirring.  When  the  third  parcel 
is  ready,  put  that  alio  into  the 
cooler,  with  the  other,  and  ftir 
the  whole  fmarily  till  it  granu- 
lates. Put  it  into  moulds.  Earth- 
en ones  are  beff.  Wooden  ones 
are  made  by  nailing  or  pinning 
four  boards  together,  fo  fhaped  as 
to  make  the  mould  one  inch  di- 
ameter at  the  bottom,  and  ten  or 
twelve  inches  at  the  top.  The 
length  may  be  two  feet,  or  two 
and  a  half.  The  moulds  mull 
be  flopped  at  the  fmall  ends. 
The  fugar  muft  then  be  put  into 
the  moulds.  Next  morning,  the 
floppers  muft  be  taken  out,  and 
the  moulds  put  on  troughs  to 
drain  their  molaffes.  In  the 
Evening  the  loaves  muft  be  pierc- 
ed at  the  fmall  ends,  to  make 
them  run  their  firup  freely. 
This  may  be  done  by  driving  in 
a  wooden  pin,  fliapcd  like  a  marl- 
ing fpike,  three  or  four  inches  up 


TEA 

the  loaf  :  After  which  they  muft 
be  left  to  drain  their  molafles, 
which  will  be  done  in  a  fliorter 
or  longer  time,  accorduig  as  the 
fugar  has  been  boiled."  Amer- 
ican Muftum. 

It  is  praftifed  in  England,  to 
plant  a  large  fort  of  maple  on  the 
margins  ofplautations  againft  the 
fea,  as  they  thrive  well  in  fuch 
fituations,and  ferve  to  fcreen  the 
plantations  of  other  kinds. 

Mr.  Miller  fays,  "  All  forts  of 
maple  may  be  propagated  by  cut- 
tings. Aiid  that  if  they  be  cut 
from  the  trees  before  the  buds 
begin  to  fwell,  and  before  the 
ground  be  fit  to  receive  them, 
they  may  be  wrapped  in  mofs, 
and  put  in  a  cool  place,  where 
they  may  be  kept  amonth  or  five 
weeks  without  injury."  The 
trees  may  alfo  be  propagated  by 
lowing  the  feeds,  commonly  call- 
ed keys. 


TAIL  SICKNESS,  a  diflem- 
per  attended  with  weaknefs  and 
fluggifhnels,  to  which  horned 
cattle  are  liable  in  the  fpring. 
The  end  of  the  tail  becomes  hol- 
low and  relaxed,  but  not,  as  fome 
have  afferted,  dellitute  of  feeling. 
A  cure  is  ean.ly  effected,  by  the 
amputation  of  a  fmall  piece  of 
the  tail,  which  will  be  attended 
with  a  difcharge  of  f«me  blood. 
But  when  the  tail  is  but  little  af- 
fe6fed,  and  near  to  the  end,  a  flit 
of  one  inch,  or  an  inch  and  a 
half,  in  the  end  of  the  tail,  is  pref- 
erable to  amputation. 

TEAM,  the  beafls  that  are 
ufed  together  in  the  draughft 

The  right  ordering  and  man- 
agement of  a  team  is  a  matter  of 
no  little  confequence  to  the  farm- 
er, not  only  m  ploughing  and 
harrowing,  but  in  carting  and 
fledding. 

la. 


TEA 

In  fome  counirics,  teams  con - 
fiR  oiily  of  horfcs.     But  in  anf 
country,  where    roads    arc*  !' 
and  the  ground  full  of  ob'.' 
this  will  not  anlwcr.     A 
team   travels   \o    much   quicker 
than  oxen,  that  where  there  are 
many  o'  '•-  !cs  no  harncfs  will 
hold    ihi.  .1  ;  and    violiMit  jerks 
would    i::i;iro     and    dilcourage, 
if  not  ruin  t!ie  horfes. 

But  in  fields  that  are  pcrkctly 
cleared,   plo:;  *   with   lioil^-s 

may  be  per  ^ith    much 

greater  di(|  .ui,:i  .ir.d  advantage. 
An  at;c  >:-id  a  half  is  but  a  mod- 
crate  days  vorl:  for  a  team  ol 
horfes,  whereas  an  o\  team  fcl- 
dom  does  m^vc  t!ian  an  acre. 
And  there  is  a  ;iropoMionablc  ad- 
vantage ia  tc  iniing  en  a  good 
road  with  horios. 

But  when  it  isconfi  Icred  how 
mfich  more  c\pcnlive  the  fup- 
port  of  horles  is,  than  that  ol  ox- 
en, and  tlut  an  ox,  when  pall 
labouring,  is  valuable  for  beef, 
the  general  ufe  of  hoifes  in  the 
draught  is  not  to  be  accounted 
eligible,  in  any  cauntry.  Mr. 
Marlhall  computes  that  a  m^ion 
Herling  annually  is  loll  in  Brit- 
ain, by  the  ufing  of  horrcs  for 
draught  iuftead  of  oxen  :  And 
that  a  hundred  tlioufand  pcrfons 
:r.:glit  be  fiipplied  with  a  pound 
ot  animal  food  per  day,  without 
confuming  one  additional  blade 
ot  .-;rafs,  if  oxen  were  uled  in 
g.:,,:,I. 

1  lie   lownefs  of  oxen  is  partlv 

nit.i.  il,    ,' •  1     partly     acquired. 

I  liic  ilownefs  may  be 

i,  care  (hould  he  f  .'-icrj 


TEA 


339 


-vcr: 


:ad 


1.     When 
y  be 

,         r  of 

cm  ;  and  liieir  coniract- 
')}  i.M\  !:ig  llowly  may 

.^  .     ...  :,  that  old  oxen 
vc  always  apt  tg  be  Qower  than 


be  tl. 
It: 


Toimg  ones.  It  is  not  a:K  ir..lile, 
!ore,  to  continue  to  w<jrk. 
!    till  they  nre  old ;  but    to 

irn  them  (i:i,;t,ri>v  or  fevcn 
;  oars  old,  at  \v!iich  ago  thcj 
will  be  better  beci  thanoldcr  cat- 
tle. 

Perhaps  a  team  con  fi  fling  part- 
ly ot  oxen  and  partly  of  horfes, 
may  be  found  to  be.  tipon  the 
whole,  of  the  grcTtell  advantage, 
efpecially  among  finall  f-trmer^ 
Tor  they  find  it  needful  to  krrp 
one  horfe  or  more,  which  \  'JL 
be  idle  moftofthe  time,  unlofs 
they  work  him  in  the  team  with 
the  oxen. 

I'he  methods  of  harnefTmg  a 
team,  arc  fb  well  known  to  farm- 
ers by  their  experience,  that  they 
would  perhaps  fcorn  to  be  in- 
itruc^edin  it.  But  I  would  recom- 
mend it  to  them  to  take  it  into  con- 
fideration, whether  improvements 
might  not  be  made  %n  this  arti- 
cle of  rural  economy.  Particu- 
larly, whether  the  hard  and 
heavy  wooden  yokes  with  which 
oxen  are  worked,  fhould  not 
give  place  to  a  mode  of  harnelT- 
ing  iimilar  to  that  ot  horfes. 
Collars,  to  open  and  Ihut  at  the 
top,  with  haims  and  traces,  for 
oxen,  arc  ufed  in  England,  and 
have  been  recommended  by  fome 
of  its  ingenious  writers.  But  if 
this  advice  fhould  be  generally 
followed  in  tliis  country,  the  ule 
of  two  wheeled  carts  mull  be  laid 
afide,  the  '  '  yokes  being 
jicccirarih  i  with  them. 

See  the  irt:.  i 

TKA^KL.C  rSFUL- 

I.'  .    or    i  .:..    ■  s    Tinjlle^ 

J  1  fpecics  of  tliillle,  the 

li  .ich  areot  ufe  toraife 

tl.  o!i     woollen    cloth. 

They  arc  utter  to  woik  on  fine 
than  on  coarfe  cloths. 

This  15  a  pl.ji;t  which  onglit 
to  be  cultivated  in  this  cournry, 
ia  crdcr  iv  iacilitate  and  improve 


340 


T  E  T 


ihemanufaflure  of  woollen.  And 
from  feme  trials  that  have  been 
made  it  appears  that  it  may  be 
done  without  difficulty. 

Mr.  Aliller  fays,  "  This  plant 
is  propagated  by  fowing  the  feeds 
in  March,  upon  a  foil  that  has 
been  well  prepared."  Any  time 
in  April  will  anfwer  in  this  coun- 
try. "About  one  peck  of  feed  will 
fow  an  acre ;  for  the  plants  fhould 
have  room  to  grov.%  otherwife  the 
heads  will  not  be  lo  large,  nor  in 
fo  great  quantity.  When  the 
plants  are  come  up,  they  muftbe 
jioed  in  the  fame  manner  as  is 
pra6tifed  tor  turnips,  cutting  out 
all  the  weeds,  and  fingling  out 
the  plants  to  about  eight  inches 
diftance.  And  as  the  plants  ad- 
vance, and  the  weeds  begin  to 
grow  again,  they  mufl  be  hoed  a 
fecond  time,  cutting  out  the 
plants  to  a  ,wider  dillance  ;  for 
they  Ihould  be,  at  laft,  left  a  foot 
afunder,  and  iTiould  be  kept  clear 
from  weeds,  efpecially  the  firit 
fummer  :  For  when  the  plants 
have  fpread  fo  as  to  cover  the 
ground,  the  weeds  will  not  fo 
readily  grow  betweea  ihem.  The 
fecond  year  alter  fowing,  the 
plants  will  fhoot  up  heads,  which 
will  be  fit  to  cut  about  the  begin- 
ning of  Aiigufi:  ;  at  which  t;me 
they  fhould  be  cut,  and  tied  up 
in  bunches,  fetting  them  in  the 
fun,  if  the  weather  be  iair  ;  but 
it  not,  they  mull  be  fet  in  rooms 
to  dry  them.  The  common 
produce  is  about  a  hundred  and 
fixty  bundles,  or  ftaves^upon  an 
acre,  which  they  fell  tor  one 
fliilling  a  flave." 

Thofe  who  would  fee  a  more 
particular  account  of  this  ufeful 
plant,  may  confult  the  Complete 
Farmer. 

TETHER,  or  TEDDER,  a 
rope  with  which  a  horfe  is  tied  in 
the  field.  He  may  be  fattened 
\iy  phe  neck,  or  the  foot,  or  head, 


T  H  I 

fhifting  his  fituation  as  often  aC 
needful.  Where  grafs  grows  in 
part  ofa  lot,  with  a  tillage  crop 
growmg  on  part  of  it.  it  is  often 
convenient  to  feed  off  the  grafs  in 
this  wav. 

THATCH,  ftraw  laid  on  the 
lop  ot  a  building,  or  ftacks,  to 
keep  out  the  weather.  In  this 
country  itisufedonly  for  flacks, 
fheds  and  hovels. 

THILL  HORSE,  thehinder- 
moft  horfe  in  a  team,  which  goes 
between  the  thills  or  Ihafts. 

THISTLE,  Cizr^e/z/j,  a  prick- 
ly weed  found  in  tillage  and  paf- 
ture  lands.  It  indicates  a  rich 
foil  ;  but  it  is  a  very  trouble- 
fome  weed,  as  it  exhaulls  much 
ot  the  ttrength  of  the  foil,  and 
eafily  propagates  itfelf  far  and 
wide,  by  its  downy  feeds,  which 
are  wafted  by  the  wind  to  con- 
fiderable  diftances. 

An  effectual  way  to  fubdue 
thiflles  is,  to  pull  them  up  by 
hand  while  they  are  fmall,  or  be- 
fore the  ufual  time  of  cutting 
them.  It  may  be  eafily  done 
after  a  confiderabie  rain,  when 
the  ground  is  foftby  being  moift- 
ened.  But  the  operator  muft 
have  his  hands  well  defended 
by  gloves  of  flout  leather.  They 
may  be  taken  out  at  any  time 
with  a  Itrong  fpade.  Or  thiflles 
may  be  cut  up  in  autumn,  about 
the  beginning  ot  September,  and 
burnt  before  they  have  fcattered 
their  feed.  A  thorough  tillage 
of  the  land,  or  a  good  fummer 
tallowing,  %viM  fubdue  them. 

But  it  fignifies  little  for  one 
farmer  to  deftroy  the  thiftles  in 
his  ground,  fo  long  as  they  are 
fuffered  to  flourifli  in  contigu- 
ous fields  ;  becaufe  the  feeds  are 
wafted  in  the  air  from  field  to 
field,  to  a  confiderabie  dilfance, 
For  this  reafon  it  is, that  in  France, 
a  man  may  fuehis  neighbour  for 
neglecting  to  ihutle  his  ground 

TA 


T  H  R 

in  the  proper  leal<"n  ;  or  may 
employ  people  to  do  it  at  hisex- 
ycnie. 

N'>t  onlv   thr  ficH«;.  but  tlx 
ihrni, 
;       .  >^.  or  a 

tiiinpic  f.r  Cwiivjiic'li.  over  ihcm 
will  m\or  be  obiairred.  And 
this  is  the  moft  difiicuit  part  ot 
the  work. 

THRASHING,  beating  out 
corn,  Iccds,  &c. 

This  is  coinmonly  done  with  a 
flail.  But  it  is  greatly  fufpctted 
(hat  many  feeds  arc  fo  bruifed 
by  t!iis  inflrumeni,  Uiat  they 
will  not  vegetate.  That  which 
is  to  be  fowed,  Ihould  theretore 
be  extricated  from  the  heads  in 
fomc  better  method.  Striking 
the  grain  by  handlulis,  againll  a 
beam  or  port,  is  recommended. 
Some  forts  oi  feeds  (hould  be  beat- 
en out  with  a  llaff,  ora  Ilcnder  rod. 
Turning  a  heavy  wooden 
wheel  upon  grain,  by  a  horfc, 
migiu  be  the  means  ot  faving  a 
good  deal  of  labour.  This  is  the 
common  method  of  getting  out 
the  feeds  of  clover  :  And  it 
might  anfwer  equally  well  for 
any  other  kind  of  finooth  and 
Ihppcry  feeds.  The  wheel  holds 
the  chaff  in  its  place  and  drives 
t>.e  iccds  before  it. 

An  engine  was  once  made  by 
a  gentleman  in  the  Hate  ot  Xew- 
l.j::.,^lhire,  conljltmg  ot  a  broad 
fraiiicd  wheei,  filled  wiiii  heavy 
fliers,  wiiich,  as  the  wheel  turn- 
ed, fell  out  forwards  upon  the 
grain,  with  a  conliJer^blc  forte, 
1  her.  '     s  two  kinds  ot  force  ; 

at  o:  ..J  to  the  gram,  the.  I 

prei' ire  ot  liie    wKcel,  ajid    the' 
flrokcN  of  the  fliers.  | 

The  ancient  practice  of  tread-  ; 
ing  out  corn  with  oxen  and  j 
borfes  mull  ha\e  been  exceed-  i 
ini;ly  intonvt  :uent.  It  is  no  I 
won  icr  that  it  has  tHren  longdif-  \ 
Vjled  m  uioll  places.  1 


T   I    K 


341 


When  the  work  is  performed, 
with  a  flail  or  otherwife,  tho 
\^\'ikman  flioiilJ  cither  be  bare 
loofcJ,  or  lid\  L  fott  fhoes,  or 
I::  !ian  maukafins  on  his  feet, 
tli.it  he  nuy  not  cruth  tbe  comt 
by  treading  on  them.  Wheat, 
when  It  is  new,  is  particularly  li- 
able to  be  crufhed. 

Mr.  Mortimer  thinks  it  a  day's 
work  for  a  man  v.ith  a  flail  to 
thrafli  four  bulhels  of  wheat,  or 
rye  ;  fix  of  barley,  or  five  ol 
oats,  beans,  or  peafe.  But  Mr. 
Lifle  fays,  a  good  thraflier  alFured 
him,  that  twelve  bulhels  ot  oats 
or  barley,  are  reckoned  a  good 
day's  thralhing,  and  five  or  fix 
bulhels  of  wheat.  But  no  cer- 
tain rule  can  he  given,  by  rea- 
fon  of  the  difference  in  grain. 
Every  one  knows  that  large 
plump  grain  is  ^  more  eafily 
liirafhed,  than  that  which  is  poor 
and  blighted. 

This  work  (hould  be  perform- 
ed when  the  weather  is  dry,  both 
on,  account  of  the  eafe  of  the  la- 
bourer, and  the  grain  itfelt,  whicli 
will  keep  the  better  afterward'^. 

T!;c  beards  ot  barley  come  off 
the  more  eafily  in  thralhing, 
when  the  fwaths  of  this  cora 
have  taken  the  dew  before  it  is 
houfed.  It  often  requires  much 
thraUiing  after  it  is  extricated 
Irom  the  llraw.  It  will  keep  well 
in  a  mow  uuthralhed,  tor  a  year, 
or  longer. 

Beans  and  peafe  always  thrafh 
bed  after  Iwe^ting  in  the  mow, 
which  they  arci:pt  ta  do.  Alter 
kiln  drying,  or  drying  in  the 
iun,  they  will  keep  a  long  time 
in  the  gr.tnary,  though  laid  ever 
[o  thick. 

TIKE,  a  moll  difagrecable 
infect,  bred  in  the  woods,  and 
found  on  lliecp,  dogs,  cattle,  ccc. 
By  drawing  nc';rifhTirr.t  from 
animals,  the)  fvs  'csu^) 

to  a  large  h^c.     .  *■ 

i  iLLAGE, 


34« 


T  I  L 


TILLAGE,the  workorbufinefs 
oi  tilling,  or  working  the  ground, 
irtcluding  ploughing,  hoeing  and 
harrowing.      See  thofe  articles. 

The  fame  field  fliould  not  be 
kept  in  tillage  perpetually.  It 
anfwers  a  better  purpofe  to  lay 
a  field  fometimes  to  grafs.  No 
rotation  of  tillage  crops  can  be 
fo  good,  as  to  have  fonie  years  of 
grafs  taken  into  the  courfe.  It 
makes  the  variety  greater,  and  it 
checks  the  increafe  of  certain  in- 
fecfs,  as  well  as  deflroys  fome 
kinds  of  weeds. 

High  lands  are  ufually  felefted 
for  tillage.  But  low  and  moifl 
lands,  well  drained,  ridged,  and 
water  furrowed,  are  often  more 
productive  ;  and  there  is  lefs 
danger  of  exhaulliug  them,  and 
reducing  them  to  a  barren  flate. 

A  correfpondent  of  the  editors 
of  the  Mufeum  Rujiicinn,  fays, 
"  The  inhabitants  of  Market 
Vveighton  have  five  fields,  two 
of  a  fandy  foil,  and  three  of  a 
ftrong  clayey  foil :  The  two  form- 
er deftine'dto  rye,  and  the  others 
to  wheat.  Their  fandy  lands  are 
difpofed  in  ridges,lands,or  bedsto 
four  fwaths  breadth  :  And  finding 
by  experience,  that  confiderable 
parts  of  each  land,  towards  each 
furrow^  are  ftarved  by  the  cold- 
nefs  of  the  water  dripping  from 
the  higher  parts  of  the  lands, 
they  have  for  many  years  alter- 
ed their  former  method  :  And 
only  ploughed  the  half  of  each 
land,  viz.  the  two  middle  fwaths : 
So  that  they  have  now  excellent 
rye  growing  on  the  higher  and 
drier  half  of  e^-ery  land,  and  ex- 
cellent meadow  on  the  lower 
and  wetter  half,Avhich  being  jufl 
two  fwaths,  is  mowed  with  great 
eafe  and  exaftnefs. 

"  It  will  perhaps  be  thought 
by  fome,  that  by  making  narrov/- 
er  lands,  they  might  have  more 
dVy     land,     and    confequemly 


T  I  M 

more  corn.  But  I  apprehend  that 
thefe  induflrious  hufbandmen 
find  by  experience,  that  when 
they  make  their  lands  narrower, 
and  confequently  with  lefs  de- 
fcent,  the  water  ffagnates  in  the 
higher  parts,  and  confequently 
fpoils  their  whole  crop.  Nor 
could  they,  I  fuppofe,  fow  more ' 
corn  on  their  lands,  in  their  pref- 
ent  difpofition,  with  convenience, 
as  their  prefent  method  allows 
them  jufl  one  fwath  on  each  fide. 

"  They  have  rye  and  meadow 
in  one  of  their  two  fandy  fields 
every  other  year,  and  a  fallow 
the  next  ^ear.  The  faving  half 
of  the  field  in  grafs  affords  good 
grafs  for  their  flieep,  &c.  in  that 
year  ;  and  allows  them  to  keep 
a  good  flock  thereon  ;  and  this 
flock,  in  return,  manures  the 
ground  confiderably,  both  the 
fallow  and  the  fwath.  One  of 
their  fields  affords  them  plenty 
of  fpring  corn  ;  and  thus  they 
aie  fupplied  with  wheat,  rye, 
fpring  corn,  meadow  and  fum- 
mer  grafs,  from  their  five  fields, 
which  in  any  other  management 
they  could  fcarcely  be."  Mufe- 
um Rujlicum,  Vol.  VI.  page  83. 

To  TILLER,  to  fpread,  or 
multiply  fhoots. 

Griiin  that  is  fown  thin,  in  a 
good  foil,  will  produce  a  confid- 
erable number  of  flalks  and  ears 
from  one  root.  Winter  grain 
will  tiller  more  than  that  which 
is  fown  in  the  fpring  ;  for  which 
reafon  fpring  grain  fhould  be 
fown  thicker. 

TILTH,  the  flate  in  which 
grcund  is  after  tilling.  Witen  it 
rs  well  pulverifed,  and  made 
light  to  a  fufficient  depth,  it  is 
faid  to  be  in  good  tilth. 

TIMBER,  wood  for  building, 
mechanifm,  &c. 

All  kinds  of  limber  fhould  be 

felled  in  the  right   feafon,  when 

the  vefTels  of  the  wogd  are  mofl 

deflitute 


T  I  M 

tleiliiutc  of  fap.  In  this  clininte, 
December  and  Jamiary  are  the 
t>e(l  months  tor  this  purpofe. 
limber  tellcd  in  other  months  is 
more  fubjeft  to  1^*  eaten  by 
worms.  i'he  relinous  woods 
ure  leaft  injured  by  felling  in 
the  wrong  (eafon  ;  but  it  ought 
generally  to  be  avoided. 

When  ncceility  calls  for  fell- 
ing trees  when  the  fap  is  up, 
ileeping  the  timber  for  a  contid- 
cidbje  time  in  water  will  be 
proper.  Salt  water  is  far  better 
tor  this  purpofe  than  Irelh. 

But  when  the  bark  of  timber 
trees  is  wanted  for  ulc,  the  bark 
may  be  llripped  off  from  the 
;iunks  in  i\Iay  or  June,  while 
♦lie  trees  are  ilanding,  and  the 
trees  fclie<l  in  autumn  lollowing, 
or  rather  in  winter. 

M.  Buffon.  of  the  Royal  A- 
cademy  ot  Paris,  has  proved  by  a 
variety  ot  experiments,  that  the 
timber  ot  trees  thus  barked  is 
more  folid,  hard,  weighty  and 
Urong,  than  the  timber  ot  trees 
Iclled  in  their  bark,  and  thence 
concluded,  with  probability,  that 
It  is  more  durable.  I  fufpetl 
that  the  increaled  Itrcngth  and 
lolidity  ot  the  wood  were  in  the 
hica,  or  what  is  vulgarly  called  the 
lap  of  the  tree.  Ihe  (urtacc  lo 
expofe.l  will  loon  be  too  hard  to 
pernjit  the  entrance  ol  any  worm. 
The  laving  ol  the  bark  tor  tan 
ning  is  fometimes  fo  important 
an  object,  where  wood  has  be- 
come tcarce,  that  it  may  well  be 
worth  while  logo  into  this  prac- 
tice. It  is  doubtlels  better  than 
the  pratlice  in  England,  where- 
telling  begins  about  the  end  of 
April  ;  a  (laiute  requiring  it  to 
lu  1>  :;c  then,  that  the  bark  may 
he  l.ivcl  tor  the  advantage  of 
tanning  leather. 

The  ancients  chiefly  regarded 
the  age  of  the  moon  in  felling 
their  timber.     Their  rul«  was  to 


T  O  B  84f 

fell  it  in  the  wane,  or  four  day» 
alter  the  new  moon,  or  fome- 
times in  the  lall  quarter.  But 
this  is  ot  little  confequencc.  For 
the  fap  will  be  down  when  the 
weather  continues  day  and  night 
to  be  trofty,  be  the  moon's  place 
as  it  may. 

Timber  fhould  be  cut  at  the 
right  age.  For  if  the  trees  be 
too  young,  or  too  old,  the  limbef 
will  be  lefs durable.  It  is  faid 
that  oak  trees  Ihould  not  be  cut 
under  fixty  years  old,  nor  above 
two  hundred.  Trees  fhould 
however  be  cut  in  their  prime, 
when  alniofl  fully  grown,  and 
before  they  begin  to  decay  ;  and 
this  will  be  fooncr  01*  later  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  of  the  foil, 
or  the  nature  of  the  climate. 

While  timber  is  feaibning  it 
fhould  not  be  much  cxpofed  to 
the  weather,  or  the  heat  of  the  fun, 
that  it  may  not  dry  too  rapidly, 
and  fpring,  warp,  or  crack. 
Neither  fhould  pieces  be  piled 
too  clofe  on  each  other,  but  kept 
apart  by  fhort  flicks  acrofs,  ta 
prevent  mouldinefs  and  decay, 
by  permitting  the  air  to  pafs 
through  the  pile.  The  fame  ob- 
fervations  will  apply  to  all  kind» 
tit  valuable  boards. 

TIMOTHY  GRASS,  or  bul^ 
bus  cat's  tad  grafs,  Fhlcum  pra^ 
tenfd,  a  coarfe  giafs,  but  very 
agreeable  to  all  forts  ol  cattle.  It 
grows  bell  on  low  an<l  moid 
lands.  It  is  a  native  of  America, 
though  fome  fay  it  is  not  pecu- 
liar to  this  c«)untry. 

It  obtained  its  name,  by  be- 
ing carried  from  Virginia  to 
Northcarolina  by  one  Mr.  Tim- 
othy Hanfo,  as  it  is  rcprefented 
by  the  Rev.  Mr.  Kliot  of  Kill- 
ingfworth,  in  his  Effays  on  Field 
Hufbandrv. 

TOBACCO,A7r^//fl«rt,  a  well 
known  narcotick  plant,  which  has 
become  very  iniporiam,  in  Eu- 
rope 


344  T  O  g 

rope  and  America,  fince  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  imported  it  into 
Efjgland,  and  is  very  generally 
ufed,  in  one  way  or  other,  by 
perfons  of  both  fexes.  It  need 
not  be  told  how  much  many  a- 
bufe  themfelves  with  it.  It  has  its 
name  from  Tobago,  one  of  the 
Caribbee  iflands. 

To  cultivate  this  vegetabk  fuc- 
ceisfuUy,  burn  the  furface  of  a 
piece  of  ground,  as  early  as  pof- 
fible  in  the  Ipring  ;  rake  it  well, 
and  fow  the  feeds  pretty  thin. 
Or  if  the  goodnefs  of  the  feeds 
be  fufpc6}ed,  they  may  be  fo\vn 
a  little  thicker.  When  the  leaves 
are  as  large  as  the  nails  oi  one's 
fingers,  the  plants  may  be  remov- 
ed. 

A  fandy  or  gravelly  foil  fhould 
be  choTen,  as  mofl:  fuitable  to  the 
nature  of  this  plant,  which  re- 
quires much  heat,  and  is  not  apt 
to  fufFer  by  drought  ;  and  a 
fouthern  expofure  is  befl:. 

The  ground  Ihould  be  prepar- 
ed for  the  plants,  by  feveral 
ploughingsand  harrowings  ;  and 
be  made  rich  by  toiding.  Or,  it 
the  folding  be  omitted,  old  dung 
of  the  hotteft  kinds  fhould  be  put 
in  the  holes. 

But  the  common  way  of  raif- 
ing  tobacco  in  cow  pens,  and 
barn  yards,  without  pulverifing 
the  foil,  is  deteilable.  The  tafte 
of  fuch  tobacco  is  intoleral)le. 

The  ground  being  well  prepar- 
ed, let  the  young  plants  be  tranl- 
planted  into  it  in  a  wet  day  abo\u 
three  feet  afundcr,  or  three  teet 
and  a  half. 

Aiter  this  it  will  be  needful  to 
keep  the  ground  clear  oi  weeds, 
and  the  plants  ihould  be  daily 
viewed  and  examined,  to  clear 
them  of  the  worms  that  eat  them ; 
for  there  is  a  fort  which  have  a 
voracious  appetite  tor  this  kind 
of  food,  though  it  is  a  fovereign 
antidote  to  all  other  infefts. 


ton 

The  tops  of  the  plants  fhoulct 
be  broken  or  cut  off,  at  the  height 
of  three  feet,  or  a  little  lefs  or 
more,  according  to  the  greater 
or  lefs  vigour  of  the  different 
plants  ;  thofe  excepted  which  are 
to  bear  feed,  which  ihor.ld  be 
fome  of  the  floutefl  and  moll 
thritty.  It  fhould  be  done  fo 
early  in  the  fummer,  as  to  allow 
time  tor  the  upper  leaves  to 
grow  to  the  fame  fize  as  the  low- 
erones  ;  or  which  the  cultivator 
muff  be  his  own  judge,  attending 
to  circumftances.  All  the  plants 
fhould  be  topped  about  the  fame' 
time,  let  their  height  be  greater 
or  lefs  ;  for  if  this  be  done  too 
late,  though  their  will  be  a  greater 
number  of  leaves,  the  tobacco  will 
be  of  a  worfe  quality,  nor  will  the 
quantity  in  weight  be  much,  it  at 
all,  increafed,  becaufe  the  leave* 
will  be  thinner  and  lighter. 

The  fuckers  which  flioot  ouf 
at  the  foot  Italks  of  the  leaves, 
Ihould  be  broken  off  as  otten  as 
they  appear  ;  that  fo  the  leaves 
may  have  all  pofiible  advantage 
of  the  fap  of  the  plants  to  per- 
fect them. 

The  maturity  of  tobacco  is 
known  by  certain  fmall  dulky 
fpots  appearing  on  the  leaves. 
When  It  is  in  this  ftate,  it  Ihould 
be  cut  down  carefully  with  a 
flrong  knife,  below  the  lower 
leaf,  on  the  morning  ot  a  funny 
day,  and  the  plants  laid  fingly  in 
the  fun  to  wither,  which  it  they 
do  not  fufficiently  in  one  day, 
mufl  be  in  the  fame  manner  e.x- 
pofcd  the  next  day. 

Being  entirely  withered,  the 
plants  Ihould  be  laid  in  clofe 
heaps,  in  the  barn,  or  fome  oth- 
er building,  to  fweat,  for  the 
time  of  forty  eight  hours  at  lealf. 
After  which  let  holes  be  made 
with  a  gimblet  in  the  lower  ends 
of  the  Hems,  and  the  plants  con- 
nefted  by   two  and  two,  with 

flicks 


T  O  B 

iicks  about  eight  inches  long 
tliMift  into  thole  holes  ;  then 
hinj;  them  upon  finooth  poles, 
jilaceil  about  (ixtci-ii  inches  apart, 
in  an  apartment  which  is  pretty 
tight. 

As  the  tobacco  turns  dry  and 
brown,  the  plants  Ihould  be  flip- 
ped nearti  loj^i-thcr  on  the  p')lcs. 
But  tliis  Ihould  be  done  only 
%vIk"h  the  air  is  damp,  and  when 
the  leaves  do  not  crumble.  It  is 
often  found  convenient  to  re- 
duce them  to  rlofe  order  to 
make  room  for  the  remainder  of 
a  crop,  wliich  will  be   ripe  later. 

From  tl'.e  roots  ol  plants  which 
are  cut  early,  fuckers  will  arife, 
►  ..d  give  a  fecond  crop  ;  but  it 
•...II  be  of  an  inleriour  quality. 
It  may  llind  out  till  late  in  au- 
tumn, d-s  a  fmiil  degree  of  froft 
will  not  injure  it. 

When  the  tobacco  has  hung 
till  all  the  greennefs  is  f^one  out 
ot  the  leave*;,  and  at  a  time  when 
the  air  is  dnmp,  the  leaves  Ihould 
be  flrippcd  from  the  ftalks,  tied 
up  in  h<nvls,  packed  in  cafks  or 
r hells,  well  prelfed  down,  and 
kept  in  a  dry  place.  But  by  no 
mems  in  a  cellar,  which  would 
f"  Ml  fpoil  if.  It  will  not  be  fo 
{:  ;.)!  ufc  the  firft  year  as  after- 
wards. 

Thjt  is  the  heft  tob.icco  which 
i-;  raifed  with  the  leafl  ailiflance 
from  manure.  And,  as  high  ma- 
nuinig  is  required  when  it  is 
talruatcd  in  cold  climates,  I 
rarjnot  wilh  to  fee  many  attempts 
to  do  If,  in  any  p!.:cc  that  is  north 
of  ttic  forty  ieei>nd  degree  ol  lat- 
itude. Iti  c«ild  ct>untrics,  the 
le.ivesare  apt  to  be  very  thin, 
and  fo  weak  that  they  will  Icarce- 
ly  hold  t,);;eluer  in  the  curing  ; 
,111  lit  .s  1,11  l.'om  being  fo  well 
as   that   which   comes 

; fouthcrii  Uates  ;  Irum 

^v;.t•ncc  I  wiih  it  may  be  always 
wutJoricd.      i:\jt  I    fuppolc   wc 
T  t 


TOP 


345 


ought  in  general  to  cultivate  onlf 
thofc  vegetables,  to  which  our 
climate  is  moll  hiitable. 

TOP  DRE.SSING,  dimg  or 
other  manures, fpread  over  the  fur- 
face  ot  the  ground,  for  the  nour- 
tlhing  ot  plants  that  are  growing 
in  it.  Thefe  manures  (liould  b« 
well  pulverifed,  that  they  may  be 
fpread  evenly. 

'lop  drefhngs  arc  ufed  with 
advantage  tor  grain,  grafs,  flax. 
Sec.  The  timing  them  jiiditiouflf 
is  a  matter  of  no  fniall  impor- 
tince.  They  (hould  not  be  too 
freely  given  to  winter  grain  in 
auiiunn,  left  they  imfeafonably 
produce  a  luxuriant  growth,  at  a 
time  when  it  expofes  the  tender 
plants  to  be  the  more  injured  by 
troft.  The  right  time  to  give 
this  culture  to  grain,  is  juft  at  the 
feafon  when  it  is  earing  ;  for 
then  is  the  time  when  it  fecmsta 
require  the  greateft  fupply  oE 
noiuiniment. 

As  to  grafs  lands,  the  fpring 
would  be  a  very  proper  fealon  to 
give  them  their  top  drcfTing, 
were  it  not  for  the  injury  they 
would  receive  from  the  wheels^ 
and  the  feet  ot  the  cattle,in  carting 
it,  when  the  ground  is  wet  and 
folf. 

Let  it  therefore  be  applie<l  in 
autumn,  when  the  drefling  is 
catties'  duTig,  or  any  weak  corn- 
poll.  But  j>eat  alhes  and  wootl 
alhcs,  foot,  fowls'  dung,  atid  all 
the  rich  manures,  which  are  to 
be  applied  in  final  I  quantities, 
miy,  and  ought  to  be,  applied  in 
the  fpring.  And  this  may  be 
conveniently  done,  as  thefe  ma- 
nuies  may  be  fowed,  or  fcatter- 
ed  by  hand,  from  a  balket. 

It  the  application  of  top  drefT. 
ings  to  mowing  grounds  were 
generally  pratliled  in  this  coun- 
try, and  yearly  repeated  as  it 
ought  to  be,  inllead  of  the  pref- 
cni  general,  or  rather,  univerfal 
■cglc(A' 


346         T  R  A 

iieglecc  of  it,  it  would  put  a  new 
fece  upon  things.  A  valt  plenty 
of  hay,  double  crops,  two  cuttings 
in  a  year,  and  much  uicreafe  of 
wealth  t-o  farmers,  an;!  the  coun- 
try in  general,  would  foon  appear 
to  be  tiie  happy  confcquences. 

The  materials  ufed  for  top 
dreffings  are  numerous,  and  va- 
rious.    See   the  article  Manure. 

TRANSPLx'\NTING,remov- 
ing  plants  from  their  feed  bed, 
and  fetting  them  in  other  places, 
where  they  will  have  better 
room   to  perfett  their  growth. 

Some  vegetables  indeed,  need 
to  be  tranlplanted  tv/ice,  elpe- 
cially  fome  kinds'  of  trees,  nrll 
from  the  feed  bed  into  the  nurfe- 
j'y,  afterwards  from  the  nuriery 
•into  orchards,  groves,  iorefls, 
&c.^ 

The  firft  thing  in  the  latter 
tranlplanting  of  trees  is,  to  have 
the  ground  prepared  before  the 
-trees  are  taken  up,  that  fo  they 
may  remain  out  of  the  earth  as 
Ihort  a  time  as  pofTible  ;  the 
next  is,  to  take  up  the  trees. 
In  doing  this,  carefully  dig 
away  the  earth  round  the 
roots,  fo  as  to  come  at  their 
feveral  parts  to  cut  them  off: 
for  if  they  are  torn  out  ot  the 
ground  without  care,  the  roots 
will  be  broken  and  bruifed,  to 
the  great  injury  ot  the  trees. 
When  you  have  taken  them  up, 
prepare  them  for  planting,  by 
pruning  the  roots  and*  heads. 
All  the  fuiall  fibres  are  to  be 
cut  off,  as  near  to  the  place  from 
whence  they  are  produced  as^may 
i)e,  excepting  perhaps  when  they 
are  to  be  replanted  immediately 
alter  they  arc  taken  up.  But  it 
w-ill  require  great  care  to  plant 
them  in  fuch  a  rnanner  as  not  to 
diflort,  or  entangle  the  fibrous 
roots,  which,  if  done,  will  be 
worfe  for  the  plant  than  if  they 
.■w«re  cut  off.    Then  prune  off  all 


T  R  A 

the  bruifed  or  broken  roots,  all- 
fuch  as  are  irregular,  and  crofs 
each  other,  and  all  downright 
roots,  cfpecially  in  fruit  trees. 
Shorten  the  lateral  roots  in  pro- 
portion to  the  age,  the  ftrength, 
and  nature  ot  the  trees  ;  obferv- 
ing  that  the  walnut,  mulberry, 
and  fome  other  tender  rooted 
kinds,  Ihould  not  be  pruned  fo 
clofe  as  the  more  hardy  forts  of 
fruit  and  forell  trees.  In  young 
fruit  trees,  fuch  as  pears,  apples, 
plums,  peaches,  &:c.  that  are  one 
year  old  from  the  time  of  their 
budding  or  grafting,  the  roots 
may  be  left  only  about  eight  or 
nine  inches  long  :  But  in  oli;\er 
trees,  they  mufl  be  left  of  a  mi  k 
greater  length.  But  this  is  only  to 
be  uziderltood  of  the  larger  roots. 

"'  The  next  thing  is  the  prun- 
ing of:  their  heads,  which  nuift 
be  differently  performed  in  dif- 
ferent trees  ;.  and  the  defign  of 
the  trees  muft  be  confidered  : 
Thus,  if  they  are  defjgncd  for 
walls  or  efpaliers,  it  is  beft  to 
plant  them  with  the  greatefl  part* 
of  the  heads,  which  Ihould  re- 
main on  till  they  begin  to  fhoot 
in  the  fpring,  when  they  mult 
be  cut  down  to  five  or  fix  eyes, 
at  the  fame  time  taking  care  not 
to  diflurb  the  roots.  But  if  the 
trees  are  defigned  for  flandards, 
you  fliould  prune offall  the  fmali 
branches  clofe  to  the  place  where 
they  arc  produced,  as  alfo  irreg- 
ular ones,  which  crofs  each  oth- 
er ;  and  after  having  difphced 
thefe  branches,  you  fhould  alfo 
cut  of  ail  fuch  parts  of  branches 
as  liave  by  any  means  been  brok- 
en or  wounded  ;  but  by  no  means 
cut  off  the  main  leading  (hoots, 
which  are  neceffary  to  attraft  the 
fap  frcra  the  root,  and  thereby 
promote  tlie  growth  of  the  tree, 

"  Having   thus    prepared   the 

trees  for  planting,  you  muft  now 

proceed   to  place  them   in  the 

earth  ► 


T  R  A 

rarth  :  Bat  firft.  if  the  trees  have 
been  long  out  ot  the  grourul,  (o 
(hat  the  fibres  of  the  roots  are 
liried,  place  them  eight  or  ten 
hours  in  water,  bchirc  they  arc 
planted,  with  their  heads  erefci, 
and  the  roots  only  iminerfcd 
therein,  which  will  fwell  thv- dri- 
ed veljcls  of  the  roots,  and  pre- 
pare them  to  imbibe  nourilh- 
ment  from  the  earth.  In  plant- 
ing them,  great  regard  (hould  be 
had  to  the  nature  ot  the  foil  ;  for  it 
that  be  cold  and  moill,  the  trees 
ihould  be  planted  vcr}'  (hallow  ; 
and  if  it  be  a  hard  rock  or  gravel, 
it  will  be  better  to  raifea  hill  of 
earth  where  each  tree  is  to  be 
planted,  than  to  dig  into  thcrock 
or  gravel,  and  fill  it  up  with 
caith,  as  is  too  often  praftifed ; 
by  which  means  the  trees  are 
planted,  as  it  were  in  a  tub,  and 
liave  but  little  room  to  extend 
their  roots. 

'*  The  next  thing  to  be  ob- 
fcrved  is,  to  place  the  trees  in 
the  hole,  in  fuch  a  manner  tiiat 
the  roots  may  be  about  tlie  fame 
depth  in  the  ground,  as  before 
they  were  txken  up  :  Then  break 
the  earth  fine  with  ^  fpade,  and 
fcatter  it  into  the  hole,  fo  tliat  it 
may  tall  in  between  every  root, 
that  there  may  be  no  hollownefs 
in  the  earth.  Then  having  fill- 
ed up  the  hole,  gently  tread 
down  the  earth  with  your  feet, 
but  do  not  make  it  too  hard  ; 
which  is  a  great  tault,  efpecially 
if  the  ground  he  ftrong  and  v.-ct. 

"  Having  thus  planted  the  trees, 
they  Ihould  be  faftened  to  Hakes 
driven  into  the  ground,  to  pre- 
vent their  being  aifplaced  by  the 
wind,  and  fome  mulch  laid  on 
the  fur  face  of  the  ground  a- 
i>out  their  roots.  As  to  fuch  as 
.ML'   ;.'         '  'fl   walls,  their 

1  "V  ccd  about  five 

or   h\   inLii;.^  t;  jm   the  wall,  to 
Vkhicb  their  heads  (hould  be  n  ul- 


T  R  E 


147 


i  cd,  to  prcvcnr  their  being  blown 
I  up   by    the   wind."      JJui.    of 
Arti. 

The  fmaller  fpecics  of  vegeta- 
bles,and  particularly  annuals, are 
renjoved  Imt  once,  if  at  di!.  A 
rajiiy  or  damp  Icalon.  if  fuch  a 
one  happens,  (hould  bechofcnfor 
tliis  operation,  as  the  plants  wiii 
need  the  lefs  watering  by  han'i, 
or  iheltering  from  the  heat  ot  ihe 
fun. 

But  when  it  is  found  necefTary 
to  do  it  in  dry  weather,  the  even- 
ing (hould  always  be  prelerred 
to  the  morning,  as  the  coi)inef« 
and  dampnefs  ot  the  night  will 
do  much  to  prevent  the  witiicr- 
ing  of  the  plants. 

Plants  which  are  only  to  be 
carried  a  few  Heps  (hould  be  re- 
moved with  a  gardener's  trowel, 
for  when  a  good  ball  of  earth  is 
taken  up,  and  put  into  the  hole 
with  a  plant,  the  roots  are  but 
little  diiturbed,  or  altered,  and 
the  pbiu  not  at  all  aiTecfcdby  its 
removal. 

liut  when  the  plants  arc  carri- 
ed to  a  ccnfidcrabic  diftance,  .ind 
the   roots   are    neccirariiy   made 
{  bare   of  e.u  th,  make  the    holes 
with  .1  dil>hle  or  (fake,  and   f;!! 
I  tiiem  q  ure  full  of  water  ;  dw\  if 
j  it  foaks  uA.  y  luiJenly,  hll  them 
j  again.     Piunge  the  root  in,  while 
the  waier  itandv  in  the  l:o|;-,  hold 
the   pbiit   with  one    hand,  and 
fprinkle  in  dry  f:  ic  mould  with 
the  other,  till  the    hole  is  full. 
Thus  the  fioalled  roots  will    be 
likely  to  remain  in  tiictr  natural 
pofitions.     AUcr  this  the  plants 
will  need  but  little  watering,  or 
fhelter;  often  none  at  all.      The 
di (lances  at  which  diRcjcnt  plants 
arc  to  be  let  is  to  be  tound  under 
particulararricles.     Sec  A'urJ<rr)\ 

TRf.i-, :.  lai'Tfi  vegetable,  w  iiii 
one  w<'  I,  ariling  to  acon- 

lideraL. 

Ixcof 


T  R  E 

Trees  are  diftinguiflicd  into  ev- 
ergreens and  deciduous  ;  the 
former  hold  their  leaves  during 
the  winter,  the  latter  Ihed  them 
jn  autumn.  They  are  otherwife 
diftinguilhed  into  ilandards  and 
dwarts  ;  and  again  into  timber 
and  fruit  trees. 

As  fomething  further  ought  to 
be  faid  of  timber  trees,  in  a  work 
of  this  kind,  I  fhall  prefent  the 
reader  with  the  refult  of  a  num- 
ber of  experiments  made  by  M. 
de  Buffon  in  the  propagation  ot 
oaks.  It  was  this  ;  that  to  make 
Si  plantation  in  a  foil  of  common 
clay  or  loam,  the  moft  fuccefstul 
jnethod  is  as  follows  :  The 
acorns  mud  be  preferx ed  inearth 
through  the  winter  in  this  man- 
ner :  Let  a  bed  of  earth  be  made 
lix  inches  deep  ;  in  which  plant 
a  layer  ot  acorns ;  over  thele  lay 
another  bed  of  fix  inches  of  earth, 
and  over  it  another  layer  of  a- 
corns,  and  fo  on,  till  as  many  are 
*rmp!oyed  as  there  Ihall  be  occa- 
iion  for  ;  the  whole  to  be  cover- 
ed with  earth,  to  prefer ve  all 
arom  the  froft.  In  the  fpring 
following  thefe  beds  are  to  be 
opened,  and  the  acorns,  which 
ivill  by  this  time  be  (hot  out,  and 
are  fo  many  young  oaks,  are  to 
be  planted  at  a  foot  diftance  for 
a  nurfery.  Another  method 
which  he  found  fuccefstul  was, 
to  lay  the  acorns  in  autumn  on 
the  furtace,  under  the  grafs, 
which  fhewed  themfelves  in  fo 
many  young  oaks  in  the  lucceed- 
ing  fpring.  This  laft  method 
feems  to  be  following  nature, 
and  would  anfwer  better,  were 
it  not  lor  the  depredations  ot 
birds  and  vermine.  li  a  Imall 
degree  of  froft  were  fatal  to  a- 
corns,  oaks  would  never  be  prop- 
agated as  they  are  in  the  wilJer- 
nefs,  in  this  climate.  But  per- 
haps not  one  in  a  thoufand  ef- 
captes   bX:in£  deltroyed    by   the 


r  V  M 

froft.  Thofe  that  do  efcape,  i* 
will  be  iound,  have  had  a  thick 
cover  ot  leaves  over  them,  dur- 
ing the  v.-inter.  This,  together 
with  a  covering  ot  fiiow  over 
the  lea\cs,  during  the  whole  of 
the  frolly  feafon,  may  allow  them 
to  vegetate  in  a  cold  climate. 

Inftead  of  M.  Buffoon's  bed  of 
earth,  planting  the  acorns  in  box- 
es cf  earth,  placed  in  a  warm 
cellar,  would  be  a  more  eligible 
method.  Placing  them  under 
the  leaves  in  a  toreli  is  by  no  means 
tobedependedon,  in  thisclimate. 
See  Fru7t  Trees,  Nurfery,  8cc. 

TREFOIL,  the  general  name 
of  clover,  of  which  there  are  ma- 
ny forts.  Mr.  Miller  reckons 
twelve  different  fpecies.  Seethe 
article  Clover. 

TRENCK,a  channel  or  ditch 
cut  into  the  earth.  See  Ditch, 
Drain,  Sec. 

TRENCH  PLOUGHING, 
palling  the  plough  twice  in  a 
place  to  deepen  the  furrows. 
See  Ploughing. 

TROWEL,  a  tool  which  is  of 
great  ufe  and  advantage  in  gar- 
dening ;  efpecially  in  tranfplant- 
ing  Imall  and  tender  plants,  as 
by  taking  up  a  bull  ot  earth  about 
their  roots,  it  pre\  ents  injury  to 
the  plants.  It  is  made  like  the 
trowel  uled  by  bricklayers,  ex- 
cepting that  it  is  hollowed  into 
the  thiipe  of  a  large  gouge. 

TUMOUR,  "  a  preternatural 
fwelling  in  any  part  of  a  horfe, 
arifing  irora  external  injuries;  or 
internal  caufes. 

'■  Swellings  caufed  by  external 
accidents,  as  blows  and  bruifes, 
fliould  attirftbe  treated  with  ref- 
tringents.  Let  the  part  be  bath- 
ed trequently  with  hot  vineg-ir 
or  verjuice,  and,  where  it  v/ill 
admit  of  a  bandage,  let  a  flannel 
wetted  with  the  fame  be  rolled 
on.  If  by  this  method  the  fwell- 
ing  do  not  abate,  applv,  efpecial- 
ly 


T  U  M 

I \- to  the  legs,  a  poultice  of  red 
witic  Ices,  or  I'  uls,  and 

odtnical ;  or  vi:     ,  jiid  oal- 

lutdl  ;  either  oi  tiiclv.-  Juay  bf 
continued  twice  a  day,  after 
bathing,  till  the  fwelling  abates; 
■when,  in  order  lo  dilpcik*  it  en- 
tiicly,  the  viiiegdi'  llu>uld  be 
changed  for  camphorated  fpirit 
of  wine,  to  tour  ounces ol  which 
may  be  added  one  ol  fpirit  ot  fal 
ammoniac  ;  or  it  may  he  bathed 
with  a  mixture  ot  tw(»  otmces  of 
crude  fal  ammoniac,  boiled  in  a 
quart  of  chanjbcr  lie,  twice  a  day, 
and  rags  dipped  in  the  fame  may 
be  rolled  on. 

"  l'\)aientations  made  by  boil- 
ing wormwood,  bay  leaves,  and 
rofernary,  and  adding  a  proper 
quantity  ol  fpirits,  are  olten  ot 
great  fervice  to  thin  ti.e  juices, 
and  fit  them  tor  tranlpiration  ; 
cfpecially  it  the  injury  has  afiect- 
ed  the  joints, 

**  But  in  bruifes,  where  theex- 
travafated  blood  will  not  by  thei'e 
means  be  difperfect,  tiie  Ihurtell 
way  is  to  open  the  Ikin,  and  let 
out  the  grumes. 

"  If  the  fwclling  fixes  under 
the  jaws,  behind  the  ears,  on  the 
poll,  withers,  or  in  the  groins 
and  flicath,  &c.  it  fhoiiid  be  en- 
couraged and  torward'td  by  rip- 
ening poulttces,  whert-ver  they 
Can  be  applied.  Oatmeal  boiled 
I>»ft  in  iTiilk,  to  wh'.ch  a  proper 
quantity  ot  oil  and  lard  is  added, 
may  anfwcr  this  purpole,  applied 
twice  a  day,  till  the  matter  is 
perceived  to  fluctuate  under  the 
iingers,  when  it  ouglit  t«»  be  l-t 
'>'.K.  For  which  purp<jfc,  let  the 
•  imour  bi-  opened  with  a  kmfc 
oi  ftronj  lancet,  the  whole  length 
of  the  fwclling,  it  it  can  be 
d  )nc  fafcly,  tor  nothing  contrib- 
utes fo  much  to  a  kind  healmir, 
as  the  matter  s  having  a  tree  dii- 
charge,  and  the  opet)ing  being 
kig  enough  to  diefs  to  the  bottom. 


T  U  M         34f 

*'  Pledgets  of  tow  fprcad  wiilt 
black  or  yellow  bafilicon  for  the 
wound  ointment;  and  dipped  in 
the  lame,  melird  «luwn  with  a 
fihh  part  ot  oil  ot  turpentme, 
IbouM  be  applied  to  the  bolto'u 
of  the  lore,  and  lillud  up  lightly 
with  tlie  lanjc  withoitt  warming. 
It  may  be  thus  tireli'ed  once  or 
twice  a  day,  it  the  dilcharge  i* 
great,  till  a  proper  diKetlion  in 
procured,  when  it  liioiild  be 
changed  for  pledgets  fpread  witli 
the  red  precipitate oinintent,  ap- 
plied in  the  lame  manner. 

"  Siiould  the  fore  not  dif:eft 
kindly,  but  run  a  thin  water  and 
look  pale,  fi)Tnent  as  often  as  you 
drefs  \%'itli  the  above  fomenta- 
tion ;  atid  apply  over  your  «lreH- 
ing  the  flrong  beer  poultice,  aod 
continue  this  nsethod  till  the 
matter  grows  thick,  and  tiie  fore 
lioriil. 

**   The    following    ointtncnts 
will  generally  aniwer  your  ex- 
pectations ill  <ili   common  cales, 
and  may  be  prepared  without,  as 
well  as  with  the  verdigrife. 
Take  Venice    turpentine    and 
b-.-es  wax  ;  oil    of  olives  one 
j)oiind  and  a  halt  ;  yellow  rof- 
in  twelve  ounces  ;  when  melt- 
ed    together,    two    or    three 
ounces    of    verdigrife    finely 
powdered  may  be    (tirred  in, 
and  kcnt  fo  till  cold,  to  prevent 
its  fubfiding. 
Take  of  yrllow  bafilicon,  or  the 
above  ointment  without  verdi- 
grife,   four    ounces  ;  and  red 
precipitate  finely  powdered  halt 
an  ouiue  ;  mix  them  together 
colli,  with   a  knile  or   fp<i:iila. 
**^This  l.ifl,  applied  carlv,  will 
prevent  a  tun^us,  or  prou(5  flcf}i, 
Jrom  (hooting  out  ;  for    if   you 
ilrefs  too  long  with  the  above  di- 
geltivc,  the  tiingus  will  rife  faft, 
and  give  lome  trouble  to  fupprefs 
it  ;  when  it  w  II  be  neceiLry  to 
valh   the   fore  ^  oflcn  as   yoa 

drcfs. 


350         T  U  R 

-drefs,  with  a  folution  of  blue  vit- 
riol in  water,  or  to  fprinkle  it 
Avith  burnt  alum  and  precipitate. 
If  thefe  fhould  not  be  powerful 
enough,  touch  with  a  caullicit,or 
■wafh  with  the  fublimate  water, 
ir.ade  by  diflblvinghaif  an  ounce 
of  corrouve  fublimate  in  a  pint 
of  water. 

"  But  this  trouble  may  in  great 
meafurebe  preventecL,  it  the  fore 
is  on  a  part  where  bandage  can 
he  applied  v.ith  compreires  of 
jinen  cloth;  for  even  when  thefe 
excrefcences  regerminate,  as  it 
■ivere,  under  the  knite,  and  fpring 
up  in  fpite  of  the  caufticks  above 
mentioned,  they  are  to  be  fubdu- 
cd  by  moderate  comprelTjon  made 
on  the  fprouting  fibres  by  thefe 
means."  See  more  on  this  fub- 
ject  in  Bariki's  farriery,  page 
236, 

TURF,  a  clod  filled  with  grafs 
roots,  taken  from  the  furlace  ol 
the  ground. 

That  which  is  ufed  as  fewel  in 
fome  countries,  is  properly  the 
jfward  of  a  wet  and  boggy  foil, 
and  confifts  of  a  fulphureous 
earth,  and  the  roots  of  aquatick 
vegetables. 

In  Flanders,  they  pare  their 
turf  from  the  furface  of  the  earth, 
and  cut  it  in  the  form  ot   bricks. 

The  Dutch  take  their  turt  from 
ihe  bottom  of  the  canals  which 
-divide  their  lands  ;  by  means  of 
ivhich  they  keep  their  dikes  clear 
and  navigable. 

In  the  north  of  England  and 
Scotland,  turf  is  dug  out  of  fott, 
moill,  rotten  earth,  which  they 
<:all  peat  viofs.  It  is  decayed 
mofs  mi:ied  with m.ooiry  earth,  and 
aquaticJc  grafs  roots. 

Some  writers  confound  turt 
with  peat,  as  if  they  Were  the 
fame  lubflance.  Peat  confi.^sof 
decayed  wood,  large  trees  in  a 
found  flate  being  olten  found  in 
a  peat  foih  and   tbofe  that  are 


T  U  R 

changed  into  peat  retain  their 
Ihape.  Nut  (hells  and  lea-^es  are 
obferved  in  it,  whicli  indicate 
thaf  peat  was  originally  wood. 
Turf  is  therefore  quite  a  differ- 
ent fubftance,  of  much  Icfs  value 
as  fewel  ;  and  yields  a  weaker 
kind  of  afhes. 

Turf  alfo  difFers  from  peat,  a« 
in  places  where  turt  is  cut  out,  it 
will  in  fome  years  be  renewed  ; 
but  this  is  not  the  cafe  with  peat, 
which  being  once  dug  out  is  nev- 
er renewed. 

TURKEY,  a  large  domeftick 
fowl,  brought  from  Turkey,  and 
is  called  bv  the  nameot  itscoun- 

As  many  of  them  are  reared  in 
the  farming  towns  in  thisco.untry, 
I  fhall  here  give  directions  from 
a  good  writer,  how  it  may  be 
done  with  fuccefs. 

*'  Aloft  of  our  houfewives,  fays 
a  Swedifh  authoi"  on  hufbandry, 
h.ave  long  defpaired  of  fuceefs  in 
rearing  turkeys  ;  and  complained 
that  the  profit  rarely  indcninihes 
them  for  their  trouble,  and  lofs 
of  time  :  Whereas,  continues  he. 
little  more  is  to  be  done  than  to 
plunge  the  chick  into  a  vefTel  of 
cold  water,  the  very  hour,  or  if 
that  cannot  be,  the  day  it  is 
hatched,  forcing  it  to  fwallow 
one  whole  peppercorn,  and  then 
reftoring  it  to  its  mother.  From 
that  time  it  will  become  hardy, 
and  fear, the  cold  no  more  than 
a  hen's  chick.  After  which  it 
muft  be  remembered,  that  thefe 
ufeful  creatures  are  fubjecf  to  one 
particular  malady  whillt  they  are 
young,  which  carries  them  off"  in 
a  few  days.  When  they  begin 
to  droop,  examine  carefully  the 
feathers  on  their  rumps,  and  yau 
will  find  t\YO  or  three,  whofe 
quill  part  is  filled  with  blood. 
Upon  drawing  thefe  the  chick  re- 
covers, and  after  that  requires  no 
other  cAie  than  wbat'is  common- 


T  U  R 

IV  hcflowc'l  on  pouTiry  that  ranjc 
m  •;;.•  (.••art  yard. 

•  iliclr?  araclcs  arc  too  true  to 
Ik*  fh-nicH  ;  and  i:i  proot  ot  the 
fiucefs.  three  pjriiiies  in  Sweden 
h  ive,  for  many  ycJrs,  gained  le»'- 
rrdl  liundrtrd  pounds  by  rearing 
and  felling  turkeys,"  iiural 
Ejjnj-.v,  pjgc  739. 

Bu:k    wheal   is    accounted   a 

jT'^  i  food  for  turkeys  ;  but  in- 

LDntnbute  much  10  their  liv- 

::\   furamt-r.      When   grafs- 

.  ors  are  plenty,  ihey  will  tai- 

;c:i  up  >n  tli?:n. 

R.  \\'cih)n.  Efq.  recommends 
:uiig  turkeys  with  walnuts, 
1    them    whole.     See    his 


i  '..•''.  v'ze  190. 


;iP,   a    white  efculent 
loot. 

'I'he   forts,  according   to   Mr. 

"^         r,   are    tliree  ;  the  tL:.   or 

;  i   fliapcd    turnip,  the    long 

jooifd,  aiici  thf  French  turnip. 

0[  the  firll  loit  lonie  are  green 

;  d.  Others  red   purple   lop- 

,       ,  the  yellow  ;  and  the  early 

Dutch  turnip,  which  are  not  ot 

f  >  much  value.     The  laft  fort  is 

fo.vn  early  in  the  f}  ring,  to  fup- 

,>!y  the  markets  in  the  beginning 

•  >f  fiimincr.     The  green  toppetl 

p  is  prefine  I  10  ihc  rell,  as 

>.vi  to  a  larger  fizc. 

•••— ;  love  a   lii^ht  fandy  or 

.  iil,  or  a  fandy  inaiii.  It 

i:i.>ui,i  O'^  made  foft  and  fine,  but 

!i.»i  ttx>  rich,  left  the  turnips  be 

Tiiik  and  ill  tafted. 

Ground  that    has  been    newly 

!s    the  lir?:eft   and 

.;■%  ;  and  0:1  fuch  a 

!;c:c  u  the  lead  danger  from 

ts. 

Xt-xt^-*   new    land,    fwarrli'd 

gr.">und  .N  to  bechofenfor  a  crop 

o;  :',:rnips  ;  and  the  way  to  pre- 

]-'.::  :   it   IS   t')    p!TU;zh    it    prcfy 


Aumber  of  nights.     For  there  is 


T  U  R  35i 

fcarcely  any  of  our  fields  fuffi- 
cieniiy  rich  to  produce  tuniips^ 
without  matuiring  :  And  folding 
hitlieito  appeal  s  ro  be  the  belt 
method  of  enrjching  the  ground 
for  this  purpofc.  li  Ihould  be 
weil  harrowed  a^  i.fitii  as  once  a 
week,  while  the  •  .rontin- 

ued,  to  mix  thee; ::sof  the 

cattle  with  tiie  foil. 

The  ground  ihould  be  crofs 
ploughed  as  foon  as  the  foil  is 
lufficiently  rotten,  and  reduced 
by  harrowing  to  a  fine  tilth,  be- 
fore it  is  fowed.  Where  a  good 
flock  is  kept,  as  much  as  an  acre 
may  be  tulhcienily  folded.  See 
Folding. 

The  time  for  fowing  the  feed 
is  about  the  middle  of  July.  Do- 
ing it  on  a  let  day  is  ridiculous  : 
Yox  a  time  fhould  be  chofen  when 
the  ground  has  the  right  degree 
of  moiflure  to  mnke  thi-  feed  veg- 
etate ;  and  if  this  fhould  happen 
a  week  cirlier,  or  a  fortnight  lat- 
er than  the  ufual  time,  it  need  noc 
be  regreted  ;  but  the  opportuni- 
ty ought  to  be  embraced. 

I  have  fown  thcni  in  drills  the 
firft  week  in  Augull,  and  had  a 
gt>od  crop.  One  great  advan- 
tage ot  fowing  fo  lale  is,  that  the 
turnips  will  efcapc  infects.  And 
if  the  crop  (hou)d  not  happen  to 
be  quite  fo  large  as  if  the  fowing 
had  been  earlier,  tfie  rooLs  will 
not  fail  of  being  better  for  the 
table. 

One  pound  of  fed  is  the  com- 
mon allowance  for  an  acre  of 
land.  But  to  -^  .  '  mil  the 
fly,  the  quant i;\  .1  little 

increafed.  An  I  it  is  recom- 
mended by  iudiciouswriters,  that, 
it  be  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of 
new  and  old  feeH.  tl-at  the  plants 
coming  up  :it  times,  the 

one  fort  or  may  ch.incc 

to  efcape  t  '  his 

view,  Mr.  ;:is 

turnip  drill  to  lodge  ibc  ie^  <is  at 
iilfcrcut 


S52  T  U  R 

diflFerent  dep'.hs,  which  it  feems 
had  the  defired  efFett.  -    - 

The  feed  Town  broad  call:  mufl 
be  harrowed  in  with  a  fhort  lin- 
ed harrow,  and  then  rolled  vviih 
a  wooden  roller,  to  break  the 
clods,  and  level  the  furface. 

In  a  week,  or  thereabouts,  the 
young  plants  will  be  up  :  And  it 
it  be  a  dry  feafon,  the  fly  will 
be  apt  to  defhoy  them  :  To  pre- 
vent which,  fome  powdered  foot, 
or  lime,  may  be  fowed  very 
thinly  over  them,  by  fihing,  in  a 
dewy  morning.  This  will  quick- 
en the  growth  ot  the  plants,  as 
well  as  otherwife  defend  them. 
And  the  fafter  the  plants  grow, 
the  fooner  they  will  untold  their 
rough  leaves,  and  be  out  or  dan- 
ger of  the  fly.  Or  it  may  anfwer 
well  to  fprir.kle  the  ground  with 
an  intufion  ot  elder,  wormwood, 
or  tobacco.  But  it  mull  be  dona 
feafonably,  as  foon  as  the  plants 
are  up. 

But  if  the  young  plants  cannot 
be  faved,  as  it  may  fometimes  fo 
happen,  the  ground  may  be  har- 
rowed, and  (owed  again,  the  coft 
of  feed  being  but  little,  to  com- 
pare with  the  lofs  ot  a  crop. 

When  ths  plants  have  got  five 
■or  fix  lea^'tts,  they  fhould  be 
hoed,  and  the  plants  cut  out  to 
fix  or  eight  inches  afunder.  In 
the  fecond  hoelpg,  which  Ihould 
he  three  or  four  weeks  after  the 
firfl.  they  ihould  be  furtlier  thin- 
ned, to  the  dillance  ot  iourteen 
or  fifteen  inches  ;  efpecially  if 
they  are  defigned  ibr  the  feeding 
of  cattle.  The  roots  grov/ing  at 
fuch  a  diitancc  will  be  large,  fo 
that  what  i'?  wanting  in  number, 
will  be  more  than  made  up  by 
their  bulk.  But  if  they  are  de- 
figned for  tlic  table,  they  need 
not  be  more  than  from  fix  to 
ten  inches  apart,  as  overgrown 
ones  are  not  fo  fit  for  this  pur- 
pofe. 


T  U  R 

fiut  few  have  been  hithcrt* 
raifed  in  this  country,  for  the 
Feeding  of  cattle.  But  if  our  farm- 
ers would  follow  the  direttions 
given  above,  they  would  find  it 
eafy  to  raife  hundreds  of  buflieis 
ioriheir  flocks.  Forty  feven  tons 
have  been  the  crop  of  an  Irifli 
acre,  as  Mr.  Wmn  Baker  tefti- 
fies,  under  his  culture.  Tht>fe 
who  have  made  no  fpiriled  trials, 
will  hardly  conceive  how  much 
the  hoeings  will  increafe  their 
crops,  liven  without  hoeing, 
where  the  weeds  are  fufFered  al- 
mofl:  to  fliflethem,  a  crop  of  tur- 
nips fometimes  turns  out  to  be 
profitable  :  How  much  more 
profitable  may  it  be  expected,  if 
they  had  fuKicient  room,  and 
were  not  robbed  of  their  nourifli- 
ment  by  ftanding  too  near  to- 
gether ? 

In  England,  tbe  drill  hufband- 
ry  has  been  applied  to  turnips, 
and  the  produce  has  exceeded 
thofe  fown  broad  caft,  which 
have  been  hand  hoed.  The  late 
Lord  Vifcount  Townfend  made 
a  fair  trial,  and  found  that  tbe 
crop  of  an  acre  of  drilled  turnips 
weighed  a  ton  and  a  half  mere 
than  that  of  an  acre  in  the  old 
hufl^andry,  though  the  latter 
were  well  hand  hoed.  For  two 
years  paft,  I  have  fown  turnips 
in  the  drill  way,  in  the  pooreft 
part  ot  my  garden,  where  a  crop 
ot  peafe  had  grown  the  fame 
funimer,  and  never  had  better 
turnips.  They  were  fufficiently 
large  for  the  fable,  thoiigh  they 
grew  fo  near  together  in  the  rows 
that  the  roots  crowded  each  oth- 
er, arid  were  not  fown  earlier 
than  about  the  tenth  o:  Auguft. 
The  earth  was  hoed  fc.o  ridges 
three  feet  apart,  ana  a  fingle 
channel  feeded  on  each  of  the 
ridges.  This  is  the  more  ob- 
fervable,  as  I  have  often  fown 
turnips  in  the  broad  caft  way,  on 

th* 


T  U  R 

the  fame  fpot.Snd  at  the  iifual  time 
ot  fo\vin;j  tall  turnips,  and  never 
before  raifcd  any  iliat  were  tit  to 
eat.  I  have  al(  -tor  rcvcral  years 
fjifcil  turnips  :•!  tlic  field  in  the 
drill  way.  1  he  ridges  \fcie 
raifed  in  Miy  with  the  cultiva- 
tor, about  ;Iirce  lect  apart.  They 
weje  kept  clear  from  weeds  (ill 
al>out  the  IjII  of  Jidy,  by  the 
cultivator  and  the  hand  hoc,  and 
then  fown  in  fingle  drills.  Noth- 
ing more  was  necelfary  after- 
wards, except  thinning  and  once 
hoeing.  1  he  cr.ips  were  fo 
much  l»etter  than  I  have  obtain- 
ed from  broad  caft  fowing,  tlwt  I 
am  induced  to  pcrfjfl  in,  and  rec- 
ommend this  method. 

A  crop  of  turnips  in  the  old 
hulbandry  prepares  the  ground 
excellently  lor  a  crop  of  wheat, 
or  flax,  the  ioUowinj;  year.  But 
it  would  he  in  much  better  or- 
dcr,i{  t!ie  turnips  were  horfe  hoed. 

In  other  countries,  they  Iced 
the  turnips  off  of  the  ground 
with  fhecp  ;  or  draw  them  up 
ft»r  neat  c.iltle,  through  the 
winter,  as  fall  as  thev  are  want- 
ed ;  and  c\en  let  them  Hand 
until  fpring.  when  it  is  conve- 
nient. 

But  in  this  country,  they  mufl 
be  harveftcd  in  autumn,  about 
the  end  of  Oftober,  or  even  ear- 
litT  in  fome  places  ;  and  then 
flored  in  cellars,  out  t»f  the  way 
of  the  fro  (I ;  which  muR  needs  be  a 
drawback,  on  the  profit  ol  this 
crop.  Thofe  that  are  defigned  for 
the  tabic  in  winter,  (houid  be  bu- 
ried in,  or  covered  with,  dry  pit 
fan  1,  to  prevent  iljcir  becoming 
corky. 

Ific  mofl  cxrcllent  mutton  is 
fatied  on  turnips,  and  they  are  a 
Bcuxi  t.M)d  tor  horned  cattle. 
But  milch  cows  ihould  not  be 
led  very  plentifully  on  turnips,  as 
there  IS  fomc  danger  of  their 
giving  thf  tnilk  an  ill  taftc. 

U  « 


T  U  R  553 

I  To  produce  good  turnip  feeds, 
^  fome  of  the  be  ft  roots,  of  the 
middling  fi/e,  which  have  begun 
to  fprout,  fhould  be  planted  early 
in  tlie  Ipring.in  a  good  fpot,  free 
from  fhade.  Thi-y  Ihould  be  ia 
rows,  eighteen  inches  afuudcr, 
and  the  ground  mull  be  kept 
clear  of  weeds  till  the  feed  is  ripe. 
Stakes  and  laths  may  be  needful 
round  the  outfide,  to  keep  the 
branches  from  falling  to  the 
ground beforethe feed  is  fully  ripe. 

Theright  culture  of  the  French 
turnip  is  much  the  fauie  as  the 
above,  excepting  that  they  Ihould 
be  allowed  more  room,  and  that 
the  ground  Ihould  be  tilled  to  a 
greater  depth  than  is  necelTary 
for  the  other  fort,  and  fowed  at 
the  end  of  Jime. 

1  he  common  praffice  of  tranf- 
plantuig  them  is  not  good, 
i'hey  get  dinted  in  their  growth, 
of  which  the  infetfs  take  the  ad- 
vantage, as  they  are  wont  to  da 
ot  other  vegeufiles,  in  the  fame 
languid  ftaie.  But  wliilc  a  plane 
grows  rapidly  it  is  feldom  annoy- 
ed by  infects,  or  much  hurt  hy 
them. 

They  fhould  not  be  fown  in 
the  fpring  ;  for  this  will  makt; 
them  hard  and  flicky  ;  nor  more 
than  about  a  month  earlier  thar* 
other  fall  turnips.  I  have  knowr* 
it  anlwer  well  to  fow  both  kinds 
mixed  together,  where  the  foil 
has  been  mellow  and  deep.  But 
I  rather  prefer  lowing  each  kind 
by  itfelf;  becaufe  the  one  re- 
quires to  be  earlier  fowed  than 
the  other. 

As  there  arc  foiic  other  in- 
fects winch  prey  upon  turnips, 
bcfides  the  fly,  while  they  are 
feed  leaf  or  afterwards,  it  ha* 
led  fomc  to  fct  plants  of  tobacco, 
perhaps  fix  or  eight  feet  apart, 
among  their  turnips,  which  is 
thought  t J  bavc  an  excellent  cf- 

fca 

TURNIP 


3'54  T  U  R 

TURNIP  CABBAGE,  "  a 
fpecies  oi  cabbage,  fo  called,  be- 
caufe  the  ftalk,  at  fome  di fiance 
from  the  ground,  after  rifing  of 
the  ufuai  thicknefs,  and  in  the 
manner  of  thofe  of  other  cab- 
bages, enlarges  fuddenly  to  fuch 
3  degree,  that  it  forms  a  knob  of 
a  very  large  turnip,  ot  which 
likevvife  it  has  fometimes  the 
figure,  though  it  is  in  general 
more  oblong. 

"  By  this  peculiar  formation 
of  the  ftalk,  or  produftion  of  the 
turnip  like  knob,  together  with 
its  being  perennial,  this  fpecies  of 
cabbage  is  diilinguifhed  irom  all 
others.  From  the  top  of  this  tur- 
nip rife  a  number  of  leaves,  of 
a  greenilh  red,  or  fometimes 
greenifli  purple  colour  ;  which 
anfwer  to  the  radical  leaves  in 
other  plants.  They  do  not, 
though  this  plant  is  truly  of  the 
cabbage  kind,. ever  clafe  togeth- 
er, and  form  a  compact  globular, 
or  oblong  mafs,  as  in  the  com- 
mon fpecies  ;  but  keep  their  e- 
re£l  grov/th,  or  turn  outwards. 

"  From  among  thefe  leaves 
fpring  a  number  of  other  ftalks, 
of  which  thofe  that  are  nearer 
the  exrremity,  branch,  and  fend 
out  flower  ftalks,  fpreading  hori- 
zontally ;  and  thofe  that  are 
more  in  the  centre  grow  ereft, 
and  without  branches.  On  thefe 
ftalks  are  leaves,  fpringing  out 
alternately,  and  of  the  fame  col- 
our with  the  others.  The  flow- 
ers are  fmall  and  yellow,  and 
fucceeded  by  long  cods,  full  of 
feed,  Oi  the  fizeofthatofmuftard, 
and  a  lighter  brown  colour." 
Complete  Farmer. 

It  grows  v/ild  near  Dover,  in 
England ;  but  it  is  doubted 
■whether  it  be  indigenous.  When 
it  is  cultivated  in  gardens,  it  is 
rather  as  a  curious  than  as  an  ef- 
culcnt  plant  :  Yet  it  is  eatable, 
and  is  recommended  by  Mr.  W. 


T  U  R 

Baker,  for  the  ufe  of  fieamen  : 
And  he  thinks  it  of  importance 
as  winter  food  for  cattle.  I  have 
not  yet  known  trials  enough  of  it 
in  this  country,  to  be  able  to  af- 
certain  its  value.  But  its  bidding 
defiance  to  all  inclemencies  of 
weather,  after  it  is  once  firmly 
rooted,  is  a  circumftance  that 
ought  to  incline  us  to  make  trial 
of  it 

"The  turnip  cabbage,"  fays  a- 
Mr.  North,  "  is  one  of  the  hardi- 
e ft  roots  that  grow  ;  and  I  dare 
affirm,  might  be  propagated  to 
great  advantage,  for  feeding 
Iheep,  &c.  For  in  the  moft  fe- 
vere  winter  that  I  can  remem- 
ber, when  cabbages,  turnips,  &c, 
have  all  been  demolifhed  by  the 
extremity  of  the  weather,  the 
turnip  cabbages  have  not  been 
hurt.  They  are  a  very  folid 
and  juicy  root,  and  do  not  grow 
fpongy  when  they  are  old,  as 
turnips  do.  The  tops  may  be 
cut  off,  and  given  to  fheep  in  the 
fpring,  and  the  root  laid  by  in  an 
out  houfe,  to  feed  them  in  April 
and  May,  when  no  other  roots 
can  be  had.  Sheep  are  fo  fond 
of  thefe  roots,  that  they  will  leave 
the  beft  turnips  for  them.  They 
will  eat  them  tops  andbottomsas 
they  are  growing  in  the  fields." 
Mr.  North  is  not  very  accurate, 
in  calling  the  turnip  part  of  this 
cabbage  a  root,  as  it  is  only  an 
enlargement  of  the  upper  part 
of  the  ftem,  and  feveral  inches 
above  the  ground. 

In  the  Bath  Society  Papers  is 
the  following  account  of  Sir 
Thomas  Reevor's  method  of  cul- 
tivating this  root.  "  In  the  firft 
or  fecond  week  of  June,  I  fow 
the  fame  quantity  of  feed,  hoe 
the  plants  at  the  fame  fize,  leave 
them  at  the  fame  diftances  from 
each  other,  and  treat  them  in  all 
refpefts  like  the  common  turnip. 
In  thi«  method  I  have  always  ob- 
tain eil- 


T  U  R 

tained  a  plentiful  crop  of  thfm. 
Onthe23dofAprilla(l,liavinj:»two 
acres  left  ot  my  crop,  I  divicicd 
them  by  huriUfs  into  three  equal 
pans.  Into  the  Hrft  part  I  put  twen- 
ty four  fmall  bullocks  and  thirty 
middle  fi^cd  wethers,  which,  at 
the  end  ot  the  firft  week  —  1 
ftiifted  into  the  fecond  divifion, 
and  then  put  fcvcnty  lean  Iheej) 
into  what  was  hit  of  the  firft  : 
Thcfe  fed  ofl  the  remainder  of 
the  turnips  left  by  the  fat  ftock  : 
And  fo  they  were  Ihilted  through 
the  three  divifious,  the  lean 
flock  following  the  iat,  till  the 
whole  was  conlumed.  The 
twenty  four  bullocks  and  the 
thirty  fat  wethers  were  fed  four 
weeks,  end  the  fcvciny  lean 
flieep  as  long.  So  that  the  two 
acres  kept  twenty  lour  bullocks 
and  one  hundred  Iheep  four 
weeks.  The  value,  at  the  rate  of 
keeping  at  that  feafon,  cannot  be 
Icfs  than  ^d.  a  week  for  each 
fheep,  and  is.  6d.  a  week  for 
each  bullock,  which  amount 
together  to  £  14  10  8,  for  the  two 
acres.  Thus  you  fee  that  in  pro- 
viding  a  moll  incomparable  food 
for  cattle,  in  that  feafon  of  the 
year  in  which  the  krmer  is  rnoft 
(liftrclfed,  and  his  cattle  almoft 
ftarved,  a  conliderable  profit  may 
be  likewife  obtained. 

"  The  lan<l  on  which  I  fow 
turnip  rooted  cabbage  isadry  mix- 
ed foil, worth  only  httccn  fhillings 
per  acre." 

The  Baih  Society  have  fub- 
joined,  *'  That  this  account  Ls  as 
interefling  as  any  they  have  been 
ever  favoured  with,  and  recom- 
mend it  to  farmers  in  general 
that  they  adopt  a  mode  of  prac- 
tice fo  decifively  afcertained  to 
be  highly  judicious  and  profita- 
ble."    Enc)c[np\Tdia. 

Whether  this  plant,  which  has 
but  newly  found  its  way  into  our 
country,  is  hardy  enough  to  bear 


V  A  L  355 

the  froft  of  our  winters,  1  fup- 
pofc  is  yet  to  be  proved. 

V. 

VALLEY,  or  VALE,  the  low 
ground  or  hollow,  lying  between 
hills  or  mountains. 

It  is  (lemonftrably  true,  that 
the  influence  of  the  fun  upon  the 
earth  in  valleys  is  much  flronger 
than  on  the  tops  of  hills  or  moun- 
tains. As  the  air  is  more  denfe 
in  vallcy«,  it  is  capable  of  hold- 
ing a  greater  quanity  of  heat,  and 
this  heat  is  communicated  to  the 
contiguous  earth. 

It  is  pleafing  to  obferve,  how 
the  onmifcient  and  beneficent 
Author  of  Nature  has  wifely 
made  one  thing  to  anfwer  anoth- 
er. As  the  valleys  receive  a 
greater  proportion  of  rain  from 
Heaven,  the  heat  from  the  fun  is 
proportionably  augmented  in 
valleys.  Tbus  the  redundant 
wetnefs  is  well  balanced,  as  in- 
creafed  heat  caufes  the  evapora- 
tion of  v.ater  from  the  ground  to 
be  the  more  copious. 

Hence  the  praftical  farmer 
fh{)uld  learn,  that  the  vegetubles 
wiiich  require  the  grcateft  de- 
gree of  heat  fhould  be  cultivated 
in  vales,  rather  than  on  hills,  un- 
lefs  it  be  on  their  fouthera 
flopes,  and  near  to  the  bottom. 
Valts  for  tillage,  and  kills  for 
pojlure,  is  a  good  rule  in  general, 
as  moft  grades  requite  a  Ie(s  de- 
gree of  heat  than  the  various 
kinds  of  corn,  pulfe,  &c.  But 
land  may  be  too  low  and  wet  for 
tillage.  Iri  fpots  that  arc  fo,  un- 
lefs  the  wetnefs  can  convenient- 
ly be  cured  by  draining,  their 
produce  nnjft  he  grals. 

VAN,  or  FAN,  aninftrument 
for  cleaning  corn  from  its  chafT. 

Wind  is  always  the  chief  a- 
gent  in  this  bufinefs,  the  air  ho^ 
ing  fo  little  lighter  than   chaiT 

thox 


356  VAN 

that  when  put  in  a  bride  motion, 
it  drives  it  away  to  fuch  a  dif- 
tance,  as  to  feparate  it  efFeftually 
Irom  the  corn. 

An  artificial  wind  is  to  be  prefer- 
red for  this  purpofeto  that  which 
is  natural.  It  blows  not  evenly, 
nor  conftantly  ;  and  theretore  it 
frequently  disappoints  the  win- 
nower. When  the  wind  blows, 
the  weather  is  not  always  fair  ; 
or  if  fair,  it  is  often  fo  cold,  or 
damp,  that  the  health  of  the 
"workman  isexpofed.  for  thefe 
Teafons  the  common  fan  was  in- 
Vented.  But  the  working  it  is 
]aborious,  and  the  operation  ot 
cleaning  the  grain  is  flow  and  te- 
dious. 

To  avoid  thefe  inconveniences 
the  Dutch  have  invented  a  ma- 
chine, which  may  be  termed  a 
winnowing  mill.  It  is  a  fan  en- 
clofed  in  a  cafe  or  box,  and  oc- 
cupies half  its  cavity.  It  con- 
fifts  of  boards  or  flaps  fallened  to 
an  axis,  which  is  turned  by  a 
winch.  The  other  half  of  the 
box  has  a  Hoping  floor,  on  which 
the  grain  falls  from  the  hopper 
above  it.  The  grain  pafles  down 
and  runs  ofl^from  the  lower  edge 
of  the  floor,  while  the  force  of 
the  confined  air,  driven  by  the 
fan,  carries  the  chaft'over  the  top 
of  the  floor,  which  tails  in  a 
heap  at  a  dilfancefrom  the  corn. 
The  hopper  hangs  by  fl:rings  up- 
on four  pegs,  and  the  neceflary 
.motion  is  communicated  to  it  by 
the  hand  that  turns  the  Ian.  Sec 
the  Complete  Farmer,  under  the 
article  ihrajinng. 

A  great  deal  of  the  mofl  difa- 
greeable  work  is  prevented  by 
the  ufe  of  this  machme,  the  colt 
of  which  is  but  a  trifle.  The 
workman  may  ufe  it  within  doors, 
in  all  weathers  ;  and  he  will  ef- 
cape  being  fluffed  and  incom- 
iTioded  by  the  duft,  which  is 
ftund  very  hurtful   in  the  old 


V  E  G 

way  of  fanning.  Nor  will  he  be 
in  any  danger  of  catching  cold. 

UDDER,  the  part  of  a  female 
beaft,  wheie  the  milk  is  contain- 
ed for  the  nourifhment  of  her 
yoimg.  The  udder  is  dividfd 
into  four  parts,  according  to  the 
number  of  teats  ;  fo  that  it  one 
teat  is  difeafed,  the  milk  in  the 
reft  will  not  be  affeffed  by  it. 

VEERING,  a  ridge  made  in 
ploughing,  where  two  lands  or 
furrows  meet. 

VEGETABLE,  "  a  term  ap- 
plied to  all  plants,  confidered  as 
capable  of  growth,  that  is,  to 
all  natural  bodies,  which  have 
parts  organically  formed  for  gen- 
eration and  accretion,  but  not 
fenfation."  Co^nplfte  Farmer. 

VEGETATION,  the  unfold- 
ing and  growth  of  plants  from 
feeds. 

As  vegetables  are  fixed  to  a 
place,  they  have  few  offices  to 
perform.  An  increafe  ot  body, 
and  maturation  ot  their  feed, 
feemsall  that  is  required  ot  them. 
For  thefe  purpofes,  Providence 
has  beflowed  upon  thtm  organs 
of  a  wonderful  mechanifm.  The 
anatomical  invefiigation  ot  thete 
organs  is  the  only  rational  meth- 
od of  arriving  at  any  certainty, 
concerning  the  laws  ot  the  vege- 
table economy. 

"  7  he  feed  of  a  plant,  after  it 
has  dropped  from  the  ovarium, 
may  be  confidered  as  an  impreg- 
nated ovum,  within  which  tiie 
embryo  plant  is  fecureiy  lodged. 
In  a  few  days  after  it  has  been  com- 
mitted  to  the  earth  we  may  dif- 
cern  the  rudiments  of  the  future 
plant.  Plvery  part  appears  to  ex- 
ilt  m  miniature. 

"  The  nutiitive  juices  of  the 
foil  infinuatPthemfehes between 
the  original  particles  of  the  plant, 
a'nd  bring  about  an  extenfion  of 
its  parts.  This  is  what  is  called 
the  erowthof  the  vegetable  body» 
"  V/uU 


'  V  E  C 

"  With  regard  to  ti)i>  incrcafc 
by  addition  ^nd  cxte'ifi'm,  thrrc 
fcerns  to  be  a  j;rrr.  aMj!'>»Ty  be- 
tween the  anim^i  and  vc;''--tal'le 
Xingiams.  1  he  imprrgnaced 
ovum  of  every  animal,  attcr  it 
has  pafTed  down  the  fallopian 
tube,  and  fixed  itfelf  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  uterus,  is  toand  to 
contai:-  ' 
two  m. 

amnion.  i:j  t::is  lituaiio:!  :r.c  em- 
bryo could  not  long  fabfill,  with- 
oata  fupply  of  nijurHhrneiit.  Na- 
ture has  therefore  beftowed  upon 
it  a  placenta  and  umbilical  chord, 
through  which  the  hhxxi  and 
juices  of  its  mother  are  tranfmit- 
ted,  lor  its  prcfervaiion  and  ia- 
creafr. 

*•  Seeds  are  difpofed  by  Prov- 
idence, nearly  in  the  fame  man- 
ner. Tl:ey  have  two  coverings, 
anfwenng  to  the  chorion  atid 
amnion,  and  two  lobes  which 
perform  the  office  of  the  placen- 
ta. Thefe  lobes  conftiaue  the 
body  of  the  feed,  and  in  tlic  far- 
inaceous kind^  they  are  the  flour 
ofthegrain.  innumerable  fmall 
velTels  run  throjgh  thef.ibflance 
oi  the  lobes,  whicli,  ui;iting  as 
they  approach  the  feminal  plant, 
form  a  (mall  chord  to  be  infert- 
ed  into  the  body  ol  the  g<Tm, 
Through  It  the  nutriment  fuppli- 
ed  by  the  placenta,  or  lobes,  is 
conveyed  lor  the  jrefervation 
and  mcicafeof  tlie  cm'>ryo  plant. 

*■  In  order  that  I  m-iy  be  clear- 
ly unrtcrllood,  it  will  be  nccella- 
ry  to  obfcrvc,  that  thtr  i"bes  ot 
faiinaceous  graiTu  aie  hxrd  in 
the  earth.  They  are  tln-relore 
not  properly  termed  frminal 
]eavc>.  b<-ing  rather  the  placcn'a, 
or  cotyIcdv)!»s  of  ibe  plant.  On 
the  contrary,  vegetables,  tiiat 
hjve  an  oily  feed,  as  rape, 
hemp,  Wnr,  and  turnip  carry  fhrir 
lubes  upward,  anrl  Ipread  tho;n 
upou    the   fuxface,  in   the  torm 


V  E  R  357 

of  broad  leaver.  Thefe,  though 
they  perform  the  ohiceof  a  pla- 
centa, arc  properly  ft-rruipl 
leaves,  SiC."     Ciorr^uai   Ejjuys, 

V'^VTILATOR,  a  machine 
by  wnich  the  noxious  air  oiany 
clofe  place,  as  an  '.   iaii, 

Uiip.  chamber,  gr.;  .  :nay 

rd  for  trclli  a:r. 
,  crnicious  efft  tts  of  bad 
au  ti.-.vf'ieen  long  known,  though 
not   fufficientjy  attended    t<\    or 
guarded  againlt.     But  (in 
very  ingenious  and  indciat: 
Dr.  Hales  has  fei  the  evils  cnl- 
ir'g  from  this  ]>ell  in  a  true  liijhf, 
and  the  antidote  he  has  pro^^dl-ri 
in  his  ventilators  has  been   ii;ade 
known,  it  is  hi>ped  liiat  mankind 
will  foattendtotheir  own -.velfare, 
as  to  make  ufe  of  io   valuable  a 
difcovery. 

Ventilating  has  been  applied 
by  M.  Duhainel,  to  grain  in  gran- 
aries, and  was  found  to  have  ex- 
cellent effects.  See  the  Complete 
Farn:er,2iTUc\<.  I'fntiUior. 

An  ealier  method,  and  which 
may  anfwer  very  well  lor  venti- 
lating grain  in  facks  or  cafK^s,  is 
as  follows  :  Prepare  a  tube  of 
fuf?icient  Ifngtii.of  wood,  tin.cr 
any  luldlonce  :  Let  the  lower 
end  be  Hopped,  and  a  good  num- 
ber ot  fmall  holes,  fniallcr  than 
the  grains,  be  made  near  to  the 
lower  end  :  Thriift  it  into  the 
grain,  io  as  to  touch  the  bcitom 
of  the  calk  :  Infert  the  ncfe  of  a 
boafehtdd  bellows  into  the  other 
end  of  the  tube,  with  foinethir-;^ 
wiappcd  r'ji;nd  it,  to  h!l  i: 
cavity,  that  no  air  njay  e; 
In  a  few  minutes  a  fufhcient 
quantity  uf  pure  air  may  be 
ilirown  in  to  c<".'l  the  grain,  and 
allay  any  termentation  that  i^  be- 
gun in  it. 

VtRJL'ICE,aliquorexpre{r. 
M  from  cr.iblH-d,  unripe  grapes, or 
apple),  ivo  ucid  lor  viinc  or  cy- 
der. 


S5«  V  I  N 

der.  It  is  generally  made  In 
£ngland  from  the  juice  of  the 
crab,  or  'A'ilrl  apple. 

VERMIN^E,  -a  general  name 
applied  to  all  kinds  of  noxious  or 
troublefome  animals. 

\'ETCH,  Tzaa,  a  plant  which 
is  otherwife  called  tare^  fitch, 
Jetch,  and  tlietch,  much  cultix'at- 
ed  in  England,  and  of  ^s■hich 
there  are  fe^'eral  fpecies  ;  viz. 
the  white,  the  black,  the  Siberian 
vetch,  and  die  fmall  black  fum- 
mer  vetch. 

Vetches  are  a  kind  of  pulfe, 
■w'wh  a  round ifh  feed,  contained 
in  pods  like  peafe,  but  fmalier  ; 
and  they  are  cultivated  in  the 
fame  manner  as  peafe. 

They  are  confidered  as  an  im- 
proving crop,  and  will  grow  in 
all  kinds  of  foil.  They  are  com- 
monly {own  in  autumn  ;  but 
fometimes  in  the  fpring. 

The  ufes  to  which  they  are 
moft  commonly  put,  are,  either 
for  green  fodder  for  cattle,  early 
in  the  fpring,  before  any  grafs  is 
grown  ;  or  to  make  into  hay  ; 
or  to  plough  them  into  the  foil, 
as  a  green  drelTmg,  to  prepare 
land  for  a  crop  ot  wheat. 

A  fmall  black  vetch  is  found 
among  the  weeds,  in  fome  of 
our  tillage  lands,  which  proba- 
bly may  have  been  imported 
from  Europe  among  wheat.  And 
there  is  one  kind  of  vetch  that 
grows  wild,  on  fome  of  the  un- 
cultivated iflands  in  Cafco  Bay. 
Vetches  are  one  of  the  crops,  of 
which  I  fuppofe  trials  ought  to 
be  made  in  this  country.  They 
are  faid  to  produce  two  crops  a 
^"ear  in  warm  climates. 

VINE,  viiis,  an  important 
plant  of  the  creeping  kind,  fa- 
mous for  its  fruit,  the  grape,  and 
the  generous  liquor  it  affords  for 
the  ufe  of  mankind.  There  is 
net  the  leaft  reafon  to  doubt  of 
lie  practicability  of  cultivating 


V  I  N 

the  vine  to  advantage  in  the 
North  American  ftates.  Some 
kinds  or  other  may  agree  very 
well  with  each  latitude.  The 
Newengland  Hates  are  not  to  be 
excepted  ;  For  this  plant  is  cul- 
tivated on  a  large  fcale,  in  moft 
parts  of  the  great  Republic  of 
France,  and  is  fo  fruitful,  in  all 
parts,  up  to  the  47th  degree  of 
latitude,  that  wine  is  a  lucrative 
article  of  exportation,  as  well  as  in 
common  ufe  amongeven  the  low- 
eflof  its  inhabitants  ;  the  latitude 
of  which  country  is  much  the  fame 
as  that  of  the  Newengland  liatts. 
The  raoftfoutherly  part  is  in  the 
latitude  of  Bofton.  And  even 
in  England  and  Germany,  high- 
er latitudes,  which  are  not  fa- 
voured with  fo  much  of  the  ge- 
nial warmth  of  the  fun,  the  gar- 
deners find  that  vines  are  capa- 
ble of  being  cultivated  with  fuch 
fuccefs,  as  to  produce  large 
quantities  of  grapes,  ripened  to 
fuch  a  degree,  as  to  afford  a  good 
vinous  juice. 

In  the  neighbourhood  ol  Bof- 
ton, in  Newengland,  vines  are 
feen  fpringing  up  fpentaneoufly, 
in  fome  fituations,  in  great  plenty  ; 
and  many  of  them  are  loaded  with 
fruit.  And  fome  vines  are  found 
in  the  forty  fourth  degree  of  lat- 
itude. Who  can  doubt  whether 
the  appearance  of  thefe  indige- 
nous vines  indicate,  that  nature 
has  defigned  fuch  a  country  tor 
vineyards  ? 

I  have  known  a  ver>'  good  and 
pleafant  wine  made  of  the  juice 
of  our  wild  purple  grapes.  But 
we  need  not  be  confined  to  thofc 
which  are  the  natural  growth  of 
the  countrv',  for  it  is  well  known 
that  feveral  kinds  of  foreign 
grapes  have  been  raifed  plenti- 
fully here  in  gardens,  without  a- 
ny  extraordinary  culture. 

Thofe  who  would  cultivate 
vines  in  gardens,  fhouJd  procure 

ihofe 


V  r  N 

thbfe  forts  which  have  been 
found  lo  profpcr  well  in  cold 
countries  :  Pdrticularly  thofe 
winch  ripen  their  fruit  well  in 
Great  Britain,  Gerniany,  or  the 
northerly  parts  i>t  France,  The 
white  fweet  water,  the  ChafTclas 
blanc,  the  white  mufcadine,  and 
other  white  grapes,  may  be  bcil 
to  cultivate  in  gardens,  as  they 
are  in  general  more  palatable  for 
eating. 

My  account  of  the  culture  o[ 
vines,  fhall  be  an  abridtjment  ot 
what  Mr.  Miller  has  written  on 
tins  fubje^t,  in  his  Gardiner's 
Did  10  nary. 

"  All  forts  ol  prapes  are  prop- 
agated either  from  layers  or  cut- 
tings :  The  latter  is  preferred  ; 
becaufe  the  roots,  being  flender, 
are  apt  to  get  dried,  and  die  by 
tranfplar.ting. 

"  M-ike  choice  of  fuch  fhoots 
as  arc  ilronp.  and  of  the  laft  year's 
growth.  Cut  them  from  the  old 
vine,  jufl  below  where  they  were 
produced,  taking  a  knob,  or  piece 
of  the  two  years  wood,  to  each, 
which  Ihould  be  pruned  finooth. 
Then  cut  off  the  upper  part  of 
the  (hoots,  fo  as  to  leave  the  cut- 
ting about  fixteen  inches  long. 
When  the  piece  ot  old  wood  is 
cut  at  both  ends,  near  the  young 
fhoot.  the  cuttings  will  refemble 
a  little  mallet.  In  making  the 
cuttings  after  this  manner,  there 
can  be  but  one  taken  trom  each 
Ihooi  ;  whereas  moil  perfons  cut 
them  into  lengths  of  about  a  foot, 
and  plant  them  all,  which  is  very 
wrong  ;  tor  they  will  not  be  fo 
fruitful. 

"  Cuttings,  thus  prepared,  if 
not  then  planted,  Oiould  be 
placed  with  their  lower  part  in 
the  grouHil,  in  a  dry  foil,  with  lit- 
ter over  their  upper  pans  to  pre- 
vent their  drying.  They  may 
thus  remain  till  the  beginning  of 
Apnl  /^May  inthi«  country]  then 


V  r  N  359 

take  theiT)  out,  and  wa(h  them  from 
the  filth  they  have  contracted,  and 
if  you  find  them  very  dry,  let 
them  fland  with  the  lower  parts 
in  water  fix  or  eight  hours,  which 
will  diftend  their  veflcls,  and  dif- 
pofc  them  to  take  root. 

"  1  hen,  the  ground  being  pre- 
pared, the  cuttings  Ihould  be 
planted.  Open  the  holes  about 
fix  feet  dillancefrom  each  other, 
putting  one  good  ftrong  cutting 
into  each  hole,  which  Ihould  be 
laid  a  little  doping,  that  their  top* 
may  incline  to  the  wall  :  It  muft 
be  put  in  fo  deep,  that  the  upper- 
moft  eye  may  be  level  with  the 
furhce  of  the  ground. 

"  Having  placed  the  cutting  in 
the  ground,  fill  up  the  hole  gen- 
tly, prcfTing  down  the  earth  with 
your  foot  clofe  about  it,  and 
raife  a  little  hill  jud  upon  the 
top  of  the  cutting,  to  cover  the 
upper  eye  quite  over,  which  will 
prevent  its  drying.  Nothing 
more  is  necefTary,  but  to  keep 
the  ground  clear  from  weeds  till 
the  cuttings  begin  to  Ihoot;  at 
which  time  look  o^er  them  care- 
fidly,  to  rub  off  any  fmall  Ihoots, 
it  fuch  arc  produced.  You  muft 
continue  to  look  over  them  once 
in  three  weeks  during  the  fum- 
mcr  fcafon,  and  rub  off  all  lateral 
fhoots  that  are  produced,  and 
keep  theground  clear  from  weeds. 

'*  The  Michaelmas  following, 
if  your  cuttings  have  produced 
flrong  Ihoots,  prune  them  down 
to  two  eyes.  Being  cut  thu* 
early  in  autumn,  the  wounds  will 
heal  before  the  bad  weather 
comes  on,  and  the  roots  will  be 
flrengthened. 

*'  In  the  foMowing  fpring,  gen- 
tly dig  the  borders,  to  loofen  the 
earth,  but  be  careful  not  to  injure 
the  roots  of  your  vines.  Alfo 
raife  the  earth  up  to  the  flems  of 
the  plants,  fo  as  to  cover  the  old 
wood,  but  not  fo  deep  as  to  cov- 
er 


360 


V  I  N 


er  either  of  the  eye?  of  the  laft 
year's  wood.  After  this  they 
will  require  no  turther  care  tiil 
they  begin  to  fhoot,  when  you 
fhould  look  them  over  carefully, 
to  rub  ofF  all  weak  dangling 
fhcots,  leaving  no  moie  than  the 
two  fhoots  which  are  produced 
from  the  two  eyes  of  the  laft 
year's  wood,  which  fhould  be 
faftened  to  the  wall.  And  till 
the  vines  have  done  fliooting, 
look  them  over  in  three  or  four 
■weeks,  torubofFall  lateral  fhoots 
as  they  are  produced,  and  to  fall- 
en the  main  Ihoots  to  the  wall  as 
they  are  extended  in  length, 
■which  mufl  be  Ihortened  betore 
the  middle  or  end  of  July,  when 
it  will  he  proper  to  nip  off  their 
tops,  which  will  {Irengthen  the 
lower  eyes.  And  during  the 
fummer  keep  the  ground  clear 
from  weeds  ;  and  permit  no  plant 
to  gro\7  near  the  vines,  which 
would  not  only  rob  them  of  their 
nourifliment,  but  fhade  tiie  lower 
parts  ot  their  rnoots,and  prevent 
their  ripening  :  Which  will  not 
only  caufe  their  wood  to  be 
fpongy  and  luxuriant,  but  render 
itlefs  fruitful. 

"  As  foon  as  the  leaves  begin 
to  drop  in  autumn,  prune  thefe 
young  vines  again,  leaving  three 
buds  to  each  ot  the  fhoots,  pro- 
vided they  are  Itrong  :  Other- 
wife  (horten  ihem  down  to  two 
eyes  :  for  it  is  a  very  wrong  prac- 
tice to  leave  much  wood  upon 
young  vines,  or  to  leave  their 
fhoots  too  long,  as  it  weakens  their 
roots.  Then  you  Hiould  fallen 
them  to  the  wall,  fpreading  them 
tmt  horizontally  each  way,  that 
there  may  be  room  to  train  the 
new  Ihoots  the  following  fum- 
mer. And  in  the  fpring  the  bor- 
ders muft  be  digged  as  before. 

"  The-  thiid  leafon,  you  muft 
go  over  the  vines  again,  as  foon 
as  they  being  tg  fhgot,  to  rub  off 


V  1  N 

all  danglers  as  before,  and  tiarrt 
the  flrong  fhoots  in  their  proper 
places,  which  njay  be  fuppofed  to 
be  two  from  each  Ihoot  of  laft 
year's  wood.  But  if  they  attempt 
to  produce  two  (hoots  from  each 
eye,  the  weakelt  of  them  muft 
be  rubbed  off.  If  any  of  them 
produce  fruit,  asm^any  times  they 
will  the  third  year,  you  fhould 
not  flop  them  fo  foon  as  is  gen- 
erally praclifed  upon  the  bearing 
Ihoots  ol  old  vines  ;  but  permit 
them  to  (hoot  forv/ard  till  a 
month  after  inidfummer,  at  which 
time  you  Hiay  pinch  off  the  tops 
ot  the  fhoots  :  For  if  this  were 
done  too  foon,  it  would  fpoil-the 
buds  for  the  next  year's  wood, 
which  in  young  vines  muft  be 
more  carefully  preferved  than  on 
older  plants. 

"  During  the  fummer,  you 
muft  conftantly  go  over  your 
vines,  and  difplace  all  weak  lat- 
eral Ihoots  as  they  are  produced, 
and  carefully  keep  the  ground 
clear  from  weeds,  that  the  Ihoots 
may  ripen  well." 

Alter  three  years,  the  vrnes  are 
conhdered  as  grown  up  ;  and 
concerning  the  management  of 
grown  up  vines,  the  fame  writer 
lays  ;  "  Vines  rarely  produce 
any  bearing  fhoots  from  wood 
that  is  more  than  one  year  old  ; 
therefore  groat  care  Ihould  be 
taken  to  have  fuch  wood  in  every 
part  ot  the  trees  ;  for  the  fruit  is 
always  produced  upon  tfve  fhoots 
of  the  fnnie  year,  which  come 
out  of  the  buds  of  the  Idlt  year's 
wood. 

"  The  heft  method  is  to  ffiorten 
the  bearing  Oioots  to  about  four 
eyes  in  length,  bccaufe  the  lower- 
moit  feldom  is  good, and  three  buds 
are  lufficient ;  for  each  ot  theie 
will  produce  alhoot,  which  gen- 
erally has  two  or  three  bunches 
of  grapes  :  So  that  from  each  of 
thofe  Ihoots  may  be  espefted  fix 

or 


V  I  N 

•r  eight  bunches,  which  «re  a 
fufhcient  Quantity.  Thefe  flioots 
mail  be  laid  about  ciglitcen  inches 
afunder,  for  if  they  are  clofer, 
when  the  fide  Ihoots  are  produc- 
ed, there  wil!  not  be  roi>m  enough 
to  train  them  againd  the  wall. 

"  At  the  winter  pruning  of 
your  vines,  you  (hould  always 
obferve  to  make  the  cut  juft  a- 
bovc*  the  eye.  Hoping  it  backward 
from  it,  that  if  it  Ihould  blee<l  the 
r  '  !  not  flow  upon  the  bud. 

re  there  is  opportunity 
ot  cuiang  down  fome  young 
(hoots  to  two  eyes,  in  order 
to  produce  vigorous  Ihoots  ior 
the  next  year's  bearing,  it  fhould 
always  be  done  ;  becaufe  in  (lop- 
ping thofe  Ihoots  which  have 
iruit  on  them,  as  foon  as  the 
j^rapes  are  formed,  which  is  frc- 
c]iiently  pratliled,  it  often  fpoiis 
the  eyes  for  producing  bearing 
branches  the  following  year,  and  | 
this  rcferving  of  new  wood  is  what 
tlie  Vignerons  abroad  always 
praf^ice  in  their  vineyards.  The 
bell  feafon  lor  pruningofvinesisa- 
bout  the  middle  orend  of  Otlober. 

"  The  latter  end  of  April,  or 
the  beginning  of  May,  when  the 
vines  begLn  to  (hoot,  carefully 
look  them  over,  rubbing  off  all 
I'Tiall  buds  which  may  come 
:  the  old  wood,  which  only 
ices  weak  dangling  branch- 
(  >,  as  alfo  when  two  Ihoots  arc 
produced  from  the  fame  bud,  the 
weikell  of  them  (hould  be  dif- 
p!.ired,  which  will  caufe  the 
otiiers  to  be  flrongcr  ;  and  the 
foo-icr  thi$  is  done  the  better  for 


V  I  N 


361 


\  I'll 


Uh. 


go  over  I 
•  all  the, 
•  ;  at  the  { 
jame  tmu-  tailcn  up  all  the  ftrong  j 
branches,  that  they  may  not  hang  ; 
from  the  \vall.  Towards  the 
middle  of  June,  (lop  the  bearing  1 
branches,  which  will  llrcngth( n  i 

\V  w 


the  fruit,  provided  you  leave 
three  eyes  abin-e  the  bunches  : 
For  if  you  (lop  them  too  foon  ic 
will  injure  the  fruit,  by  taking  a- 
way  that  part  of  the  branch  which 
is  nccelfary  to  attract  the  nourilh- 
ment  to  the  fruit,  as  alfo  to  per- 
fpirenfFthe  crudities  ot  the  (ap. 

"  But  though  I  recommend 
the  (lopping  thofe  (hoots  which 
ha^e  fruit  at  this  fca(on,  it  is  not 
to  be  pratnfcd  upon  thofe  (hootg 
which  are  intended  for  bearing 
the  next  year  ;  for  thefe  rr.ull  not 
be  (lopped  before  the  middle  of 
July,  K.il  you  caufe  the  eyes  to 
(hoot  out  (Irong  lateral  branches. 
"  During  fummer  rub  off  dang- 
ling branches,  and  train  the  (hoots 
to  the  wall  as  before,  which  will 
accelerate  the  growth  of  the  fruit, 
and  admit  the  air  to  them,  which 
is  needf  uT  to  ripen,  and  give  thcni 
a  rich  flavour.  But  you  muft 
never  dived  the  branches  of  their 
leaves." 

The  fame  dire£lions  fhould  be 
followed,  when  the  vines  are 
trained  to  efpallers,  or  to  wooden 
fences  ;  and  the  pruning,  (lop- 
ing, &c.  in  vineyards,  are  the  fame 
as  in  gardens,  or  green  houfes. 

The  vines  in  vineyards  inu(t 
be  fupported  by  flakes  ;  by  two 
fhort  ones  tiie  firflyear,  by  long- 
er ones  the  next,  and  fo  on  as 
there  Ihall  be  sccafion.  But  as 
to  thofe  things  which  are  mod 
pec;>liar  to  vineyards,  the  above 
author  directs  that  tfie  (oil  whicU 
is  to  be  chofcii  tor  the  purpofc, 
is  that  the  fur  face  of  which  is  a 
li^ht  fandv  loam,  not  more  than 
a  toot  and  a  half  or  two  feet 
deep,  with  a  gravelly  or  chalky 
hoiiotn  ;  but  it  the  foil  have  a 
bottom  of  firong  clay  or  loam,  it 
is  not  fit  for  this  purpofe.  Astd 
tire  fituation  of  the  place,  it 
Ihould  incline  to  the  fouth,  with 
a  gradual  dcfcent,  that  the  water 
may  drain  ciT;  but  a  ftecp  (lope 

U 


302.         V  I  X 

is  not  good,  as  it  will  not  fo  well 
hold  the  manure. 

To  prepare  the  foil  for  plant- 
ing, he  fays,  "  In  the  Tpring,  it 
the  ground  is  green  fu-ard,  it 
fhould  be  plou-ghed  as  deep  as 
the  furface  will  permit ;  then 
\vell  harrowed  to  break  the  clods, 
and  cleanfe  it  irom  the  roots  oi 
noxious  weeds.  Atter  thi^,  it 
mufl:  be  frequently  ploughed  and 
harrowed  for  one  year,  to  render 
the  furface  light.  The  following 
ipring  the  ground  fhould  be 
ploughed  again,  and  after  making 
the  furface  even,  the  rows  Ihould 
be  marked  out  from  foutheafl  to 
jiorthweft,  at  the  di fiance  of 
ten  feet  from  each  other  ;  and 
thefe  rows  fhould  be  croffcd  a- 
gain  at  five  or  fix- feet  diHance, 
which  will  mark  out  the  places 
where  the  plants  fhould  be  plac- 
ed." But  as  we  are  favoured 
with  a  drier  atmofphere,  I  fiiould 
think  the  rows  may  as  well  he 
planted  nearer  together,  as  it  will 
be  a  faving  of  ground  and  la- 
bour. 

He  adds,  "  The  proper  kinds 
of  grapes  fhould  be  chofen.  The 
\'ignerons  abroad  always  obferve 
that  the  grapes  v.'hich  are  good 
fxjr  eating  never  make  good 
wine  ;  and  therefore  make  choice 
of  thofe,  whofe  juice,  after  fer- 
menting, affords  a  noble  rich 
liquor.  Thefe  grapes  are  always 
auffere,  and  not  fo  palatable." 
He  fuppofes  the  fort  moft  proper 
for  vineyards  in  England,  is  the 
Auvernat,  or  true  Burgundy 
grape  ;  and  thinks  it  belt  that  a 
vineyard  fhould  produce  only 
one  kind  oi  grapes  ;  becaafethe 
mixing  or  the  juice  of  feveral  to- 
gether, will  caufe  the  wine  to 
ferment  at  different  times.  ' 

Aher  the  cuttings  are  planted, 
be  recommends  keeping  them 
clean  from  v,eeds ;  and  as  the 
rowsarje  at  a.great  distance  from 


\'  I  A' 

each  other,  he  allows  thafthfc?- 
fpaces  between  may  be  fown,  or 
planted  with  any  kinds  of  efcu- 
lent  roots,  which  do  not  grovr- 
tall,  provided  there  is  proper  dif- 
tance  left  from  the  vines,  and' 
care  taken  that  the  vines  be  not? 
injured  by  the  crops,  or  in  gath- 
ering, or  carrying  them  off  the 
ground.  And  this  hufbandry 
may  be  continued  till  the  vines 
come  to  bearing  ;  atter  which 
there  fhould  be  no  fort  of  crop 
put  between  them,  becaufe  the 
cleanei-  the  ground  is  kept,  the 
more  heat  will  be  reflected  to  the 
grapes. 

"The  ground  fhould  be  yearly 
well  dug  or  ploughed,  and  always 
kept  free  from  weeds  ;  becaufe 
the  roots  of  the  vines  will  other- 
wife  be  robbed  of  their  nourifh- 
ment. 

"  When  a  vineyard  is  arrived 
to  a  bearing  flate,  it  fhould  be  fo 
pruned,  that  there  fhould  be  nev- 
er too  many  branches  left  on  a 
root,  nor  chofe  too  long;  for 
though  there  may  be  a  greater 
quantity  of  fruit  produced,  yet 
the  juice  will  not  be  fo  good  as 
when  there  is  a  moderate  quanti- 
ty ;  and  the  roots  will  be  weak- 
ened, which  is  found  to  be  of 
bad  confequcnce.  The  number 
ok  branches  which  the  Italians 
leave  upon  a  flrong  vine  are  four ; 
two  ot  the  flrongefl  have  four 
eyes  ;  and  the  two  weaker  are 
fhortened  down  to  two  eyes  each. 
Shoots  that  have  borne  fruit,  are 
either  cut  quite  away,  or  reduced 
to  two  eyes. 

"  The  ground  of  a  vineyard 
fhould  not  only  be  conltantly 
well  tilled,  but  a  dreffing  of  fome 
good  manure  applied  to  it  every 
third  year,  in  the  fpring,  and 
well  mixed  with  the  foil. 

"  When  a  vineyard  is  care- 
fully drcffed,  it  will  be  as  pleaf- 
ing  a    fight,  as  any  plantation- 


\'  I  X 

of  tree?  or  fhrubs  nluicver.  If 
the  roA's  be  regular,  and  the 
ilakescxartly  placed,  and  ihe  up- 
fjgljt  ihoots  flopped  to  an  equal 
height,  there  is  nothing  in  nature 
wiiich  will  make  a  more  beauti- 
ful aj>pearance.  And  during  the 
feafoii  tijat  thevinesare  in  flower 
th«'v  emit  a  moil,  grjtctul  fccnt, 
cfpcialiy  in  tlie  morning  and 
evening.  And  when  the  grapes 
btgin  to  nipcn  there  will  be  trelh 
plcjfure  in  viewing  them." 

A  vineyard  thai  is  well  manag- 
ed will  bear  fruit  the  third  year 
tro:Ti  ihe  planiing  ;  the  crops 
will  be  growing  larger  till  the 
feventh  or  eighth  year  ;  and  re- 
main fnutfiil  lill  about  the  titticth 
year  ;  alter  which  it  will  begin 
to  decline,  and  die  away. 

But  inftead  of  the  cutting  cul- 
ture of  the  vine  fome  have  re- 
commended that  a  plantation  of 
trees  ot  low  growth  be  made, 
.placed  at  proper  diftances,  wiilia 
vine  planted  at  the  root  of  each, 
which  will  climb  up  the  trees, 
and  bear  fruit  without  cutting. 
The  ground  between  the  rows 
fhould  be  contmuaily  well  tilled 
and  manured. 

Much  labour  might  be  faved 
by  this  mode  «>!  culture  ;  and 
that  It  might  anfwer,  tlie  fruitlul- 
nefs   wc  often  obfervc  in  wild 

f  rapes  may  lead  us  to  conclude, 
t  fecms  to  be  tollowing  nature; 
but  the  truit  miiR  be  waited  tor, 
a  conlidcrahlc  number  ol  years 
after  pi  *n:in;;.  And  after  all,  it 
never  wjll  yield  fo  good  a  wine, 
as  vines  itui  are  Lept  1  )w  by  cut- 
ting ;  tor  the  low  vineyards  in. 
Ijancc  a{T4>rdamuch  nclierwine 
than  the  high  o-ies.  thougti  Icls 
in  quaiuitx .  Mcrarcbiit 

three  or  fi>u;  ,.  •■  the  latter 

[even  or  ei^lit,  and  both  culti- 
vated bv  (  uciii-^. 
VlN*KG.\i<.  lour  wine.     B.ii 


!;e  nir> 


■A    la 


JMV 


V  I  N  363 

acid  penetrating  liquor,  prepared 
trom  wine,  cyder,  beer,  ike. 

Theprocelsot  turning  vegeta- 
ble matters  to  vinegar,  is  thus  de- 
livered by  Dr.  Shaw  :  **  Take 
the  fl;ins  ol  railins, after  they  have 
been  iifed  in  making  wine  ;  and 
pour  three  or  four  times  their 
own  <]uanfiiy  of  boiling  water 
upon  them,  fo  as  to  make  a  thia 
aqueous  nii.\iurc.  Then  fet  the 
containing  caOc,  loofely  covered, 
in  a  warmer  place  than  is  ufcd 
tor  vinous  fermentation  ;  and  the 
liquor,  in  a  tew  weeks  time,  will 
become  a  clear  and  found  \nnc- 
gar  ;  which  being  drawn  ofTfrom 
its  fediment,  and  preferved  in  an- 
other cafl;,  well  flopped  down, 
will  continue  pcrfett,  and  fit  for 
ufe." 

All  fuch  things  as  have  under- 
gone, or  are  fit  for,  a  vinous  ter- 
menution,  will  afford  vinegar. 
Our  common  lummer  truits,  fap 
of  maple  trees,  and  other  vegeta- 
bles, and  even  the  pomace  from 
which  cyder  has  been  prefTed, 
will  make  vinegar,  by  means  ot 
only  the  ;»ddiLion  at  water,  and 
expofing  it  to  the  open  air,  and 
warmth.  But  fome  fpirit  IhouKl 
be  added  towcak  vinegar,  to  give 
it  a  body,  and  fit  it  for  keeping. 

**  Liquor  to   be  changed  into 
vinegar,  being  kept  warmer  than 
in  vinous  {crmeniaiion,  it  bcgin.<i 
in  a  few  days  to  grow  tiiick  an4 
turbid  ;  and  wiiliout  throwing  up 
liubbles,  or  hilung,  as  happtnsin 
vinous  fermentatjoti,  dej^'  fits   a 
copious  fediment.     The  cflett  of 
this  feparati6n  begins  firil  to  ap. 
pear  on  the  furfacc  of  t!ic  liquor, 
which  gathers  a   white  (kiii  that 
daily  iiureales  in  thickn'tfs,  til! 
at  length  it  becomes  like  leath- 
er ;  and  now  if  it  cor.'.::r.ies  long 
er  in   this   flate,  tl 
blue,  or  green,  divl. 
grow  tVtid  and  putrety. 
lore,  iii  l.tejinj  tluWii  ; 


8^4  V  r  V 

as  it  grows,  and  thrufting  it  gen- 
tly fo  tiie  bottom  ot  the  velFel, 
coaHih  muchot  the  art  of  vine- 
gar    ziiaking,    efpecially     from 

VINEYARD,  a  plantation  oi 
vines.     See  the  article  r^2??<?. 

ViVEvS,  a  difeafe  in  horfes, 
which  differs  from  the  ftrangles 
only  in  this,  that  the  fwellings  of 
the  icernels  under  the  ears  of  the 
horfe  (which  art' the  parts  at  firft 
ciiiefly  affertedj  feldom  gather, 
or  come  to  m.itter,  but  by  degrees 
perfpire  off,  and  difperfe,  by 
warm  clothing,  anointing  with 
the  marl;!  mallow  ointment,  and 
a  moderate  bleeding  or  two.  But 
ihouid  the  infiammation  contin- 
ue notwithftautiing  thcfe  means,, 
a  luppiuation  mull  be  promoted. 
"  When  thefe  fwellings  ap- 
pear in  an  old  or  full-aged  horfe, 
ihey  are  figns  of  great  malignity, 
and  alien  ()f  an  inward  decay, as 
yvi-Al  as  forerunners  of  the  glan- 
ders. 

Takeof  crude  mercury ,orquick- 
lilver,  one  ounce  ;  Venice  tur- 
pentine,  half  an  ounce  ;  rub 
together    in    a  mortar  till  the 
globules  of  the  quickfib'er  are 
no  longer  vifible  ;  then  add  two 
ounces  or  hog's  lard. 
"  Some    authors   recommend 
this  ointment  to  he  ufed   at  firll, 
in  order  to  difperfethe  fwellings,  ; 
and  pre^'ent  their  coming  to  mat-  j 
ter  ;  bleeding  and  purging  at  the 
fame  time  for  that  purpole  ;  but  \ 
as  in  young  horfes  they  feem  to  • 
be  critical,  the  practice  by   fup- j 
puiation  is  certainly  more  eligi- [ 
ibie  and  [d{e  :  For  want  of  prop-  j 
erly  effecting  which,  the  humours  j 
frequently  lettle,  or  are  tranflat-  i 
ed  to  the  lungs,  and  other  bowels,  ! 
or  falling  oil  the  flefhy    part  of  j 
the  hii^d  quarters,  form  deep  im-  I 
poiyjufties  between  the  mufcles,  | 
\vhic»;difcharge  fuch  large  quan- 
tities o'f  matter  as  fometiraes  kill  ! 


U  L  C 

the  horfe,  and  very  often  endan* 
gcr  his  life."  Bartleti,  Farriery, 
page  99. 

I'ECER,  "  a  folution  of  the 
foh  part  ot  an  animal  body,  to- 
gether with  the  fkin. 

"  The  firft  intention  in  the 
cure  of  ulcers,  is  bringing  them 
to  digeft,  or  difcharge  a  thick 
matter  ;  which  will  m  gener- 
al be  effefted  by  the  green  oint- 
ment,  or  that  v.ith  precipitate. 
But  (hould  the  fore  not  digefl 
kindly  by  thefe  means,  but  dif- 
charge a  gleety  thin  matter,  and 
look  pale,  you  muft  then  have 
recourfe  to  warmer  dreffings, 
fuch  as  balfam.  or  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, melted  down  with  your 
coinm©ndigeftive,and  the  ftrong 
beer  poultice  over  them.  It  is 
proper  alfo  in  tkefe  fores,  where 
the  circulation  is  languid,  and 
the  natural  heat  abated,  <jo  warm 
the  part,  and  quicken  the  motion 
of  the  blood,  by  fomenting  it 
well  at  the  time  of  dreffmg  ; 
which  method  will  thicken  the 
matter,  and  roufe  the  native  heat 
of  the  part,  and  then  the  former 
dreffings  may  be  reapplied. 

"  If  the  lips  of  the  ulcer  grow 
hard  or  callous,  they  muft  be  par- 
ed down  with  a  knife,  and  after- 
wards rubbed  with  the  cauftick. 

'*  Where  foft  fungous  flefh 
begins  to  rife,  it  fhould  carefully 
be  fuppreffed  in  time,  otherwife 
the  cure  will  go  on  but  flowly. 
If  it  has  already  fprouted  above 
the  furface,  pare  it  down  with  a 
knife,  and  rub  the  remainder 
with  a  bit  of  cauiiick  ;  and  to 
prevent  its  rifing  again,  fpnnkle 
the  fore  with  equal  parts  of  burnt 
alum,  and  red  precipitate  ;  or 
wa(h  with  the  fublimate  water, 
and  drefs  with  dry  lint  even  to 
the  furface,  and  then  roll  over  a 
comprefs  of  linen  as  tight  as  can 
be  borne  ;  for  a  proper  degree  of 
pre ffure,  with  mild  application.^ 


U  L  C 

will  always  oblige  thcfc  fpongy 
cxcrelccnces  tofublidc.hui  wiili- 
ciu  hciiidafje  tlic  llrotigcil  will 
not  To  well  fuccced. 

*'  All  finiifcs,  or  cavities, 
Ihould  be  I-iid  open  as  loon  as 
<!ircoverc(|,  alter  banH.iges  have 
been  iiicirectiially  uicd  ;  but 
whore  the  cavity  penetrates  deep 
into  the  niufcles,  and  a  c<»uiucr 
opening  is  impra6Ucablc  or  haz- 
.irdt)us  ;  where,  by  a  continuance, 
the  integuments  ol  the  muftles 
are  conllantly  dripping  and 
niching  down  ;  in  thefe  calcs 
itijeilions  may  be  uft-d,  and  wi!' 
Ireqncnily  be  attended  w  th  fuc- 
ce(s.  A  decottion  ot  colcoiliai 
boiled  in  forge  water,  or  f(>lution 
ot  lapis  inedicanientolus  in  lime 
water,  with  a  fifth  pjrt  of  honey 
and  tiiKture  of  myrrh,  may  be 
firil  tried,  injectmg  three  or 
tour  ounces  twice  a  day,  or  fome 
rofm  melted  down  with  oil  ot  tur- 
pentine may  be  uled  tor  this 
purpufe.  It  thcfc  thould  not 
fucceed,  the  following,  which  is 
ot  a  Iharp  and  caullick  nature,  is 
recommended  on  Mr.  Giblon's 
experience. 

lake  of  Roman  vitriol  half  an 
ounce,  dillolve  a  pint  of  wa- 
ter, then  decant  and  pour  off 
gently  into  a  lirgc  <jnart  hot- 
tie  ;  add  half  a  pint  of  campho- 
rated fpirit  ot  wine,  the  f.inie 
quantity  of  the  bolt  vinegar, 
and  two  ounces  ot  ytgypiia- 
cum. 

"  This  mixture  is  alfo  very 
lUcccfsfully  applied  to  uKerated 
gr.jfy  heels,  which  u  will  both 
ciiMtilc  and  dry  up. 

'■  1"!  •.  '.•  !i  ;  i'v-s,  or  cavities, 
tico  i^rv.iv  (iesciierate  into  fjllu- 
l.e,  that  IS,  grow  pipey,  having 
theinfide  thickened,  and  lined  as 
it  were  with  a  horny  callous  fub-  j 
iUncc.  In  order  to  their  cure,  j 
liiey  inufl  be  laid  open,  and 
Uw  hard  iubllauce  all  cut  awav.  ' 


U  R  I 


3% 


Where  this  is  imprafliial-le, 
(carify  them  well,  and  truil  to 
the  precipitate  medicine  made 
llrong,  rnblttug  now  and  then 
with  caullick,  butter  of  aniiino- 
ny,  or  equal  ^arti  of  quickfilvcr 
and  aqua  fort  is. 

"  When  a  rotten  or  foni  bone 
is  an  attendant  on  an  ulcer,  the 
flelh  is  generally  hjofe  and  flab- 
I  by,  the  difcharge  oily,  thin  and 
I  {linking,  and  the  bene  difcovcr- 
;  ed  to  be  carious,  by  its  feeling 
I  roiigluo  the  probe  pafR-d  through 
tlie  flelh.  in  «;rdtr  to  a  cure, 
:  the  I'one  mult  be  laid  bare,  that 
the  rotten  part  of  it  be  lenioved  ; 
:  for  which  piniHile,  dellroy  the 
I  loole  tlelh,  and  drefs  with  dry 
j  Jint  ;  or  the  dollils  may  be  prcH- 
j  ed  out  of  tintture  ot  myiih  or 
j  euphorbinm.  The  throwing  ofF 
:  the  fcale  is  generally  a  work  of 
nature,  which  is  cfi'erted  in  more 
I  orlefs  time,  in  proportion  to  the 
j  depth  the  bone  isafiecicd,  thoujrh 
'  burning  the  foul  bone  is  thought 
,  by  fome  to  haden  its  reparation. 
j  "  Where  the  cure  does  not 
!  properly  fucceed, mercurial  phyf- 
I  ick  IhouKl  be  given,  and  rcpeat- 
;  ed  at  pri^per  intervals  :  And  to 
■  correfct  and  mend  the  blood  and 
:  jr.iccs,  the  antimonial  and  alter- 
I  ative  powders,  with  a  decoction 
I  of  guaiacum  and  lime  ^v'ater,  arc 
'  proper  for  that  purpofc."  B(itt~ 
ict's  FarriiTy,  page  253. 

URINK,  a  lerous  and  falinc 
fluid,  feparatcd  from  the  blood, 
and  emitted  by  the  canal  of  the 
uiethra, 

Conlidered  .is  3  manure,  this 
is  an  important  liquor  ;  it  is  fiip- 
pofed  to  be  richer  than  the  llalc 
of  beails.  The  difference  may 
be  as  that  ot  human  ordure  to 
barn  dung. 

Mr.  Bradley  relates,  as  of  his* 
own    knowledge,    that    human 
urine  was  thrown  into  a  linl-pit 
tuiiilaiuly  eery  day,  io:  ihic-c 

ur 


365  U  S  T 

or  four  years.  Two  years  after  | 
fome  earth  was  taken  out  of  this 
pit,  and  mixed  with  twice  as 
much  other  earth,  to  fill  up  a  hol- 
low place  in  a  grafs  walk.  The 
turf  which  was  laid  upon  this 
fpot  grew  fo  largely  and  vigor- 
oufly,  befides  being  much  green- 
er than  the  rell,  that  by  the  belt 
computation  he  could  make,  its 
grafs,  in  a  month's  time,  was 
above  four  times  as  much  in 
q-uantity  as  that  of  any  other 
^'pot  of  the  fame  fize,  though  the 
"W'hole  walk  was  laid  on  very 
rich  ground. 

And  Mr.  Hartlib  inftances  a 
widow  woman  near  Canterbury 
in  England,  who  faved  in  a  pail 
all  the  urine  fhe  could,  and 
when  the  pail  was  full,  fprinkled 
it  on  her  meadow,  the  grafs  of 
which  looked  yellow  at  firfl:,  but 
afterwards  grev/  furprifmgly. 

Human  urine  therefore  Ihould 
be  confidered  as  of  great  value 
to  the  farmer.  A  good  method 
of  ufing  it  is,  to  throw  it  upon 
compoil  dunghills  which  are 
Mnder  cover. 

Alfo,  old  urine  is  preferable  to 
dung  for  manuring  of  trees,  as 
it  penetrates  betterto  their  roots; 
and  it  is  faid  to  remove  divers 
infirmities  of  plants. 

USTILAGO,  a  diflemper  in 
wheat,  the  fame  as  burnt  grain,  or 
the  burnt  ear.    See  Burnt  Grain. 

Grain  that  is  infeftcd  with 
this  deilemper  fliould  not  be  ufed 
for  feed,  as  it  is  next  to  irapoffi- 
ble,  even  by  repeated  wafliings, 
to  free  it  entirely  from  the  black 
powder,  the  leall  particle  of 
which,  adhering  to  the  kernels, 
is  apt  to  corrupt  them.  But  by 
wafhing  it  may  eafily  be  made  fit 
for  grinding,  as  all  thediftemper- 
ed  grains  will  fwim,  and  may  be 
taken  off  by  themlelves,  while 
all  the  found  ones  fmk  to  the 
iiottom. 


WAG 


W. 

WAGGON,  a  carriage,  or 
cart,  mounted  on  four  wheels. 

Waggons  anfwer  much  the 
fame  ends  as  common  carts.  But 
are  greatly  to  be  preferred,  Spe- 
cially in  journeying  ;  and  they 
are  quite  neceffary  for  horfe 
teams,  efpecially  when  the  horfes 
are  harneffed  by  two  and  two,  as 
they  ought  to  be  in  large  teams. 
And  if  oxen  are  ufed  they  fliould 
be  harneffed  in  the  fame  manner 
as  horfes.  The  advantages  of 
waggons  areefpecially  thefe  two, 

1.  They  are  far  lefs  fatiguing 
to  the  oxen  than  carts  ;  becaufe 
they  have  to  bear  only  the  weight 
of  the  tongue  upon  their  necks  ; 
whereas,  in  carts,  and  on  de- 
fcending  ground,  the  oxen  are 
crufhed  to  death,  as  it  were,  with 
bearing  a  great  part  of  the  load  ; 
or  in  afcending  a  hill,  the  load 
pulls  their  necks  upwards,  fo  that 
they  are  almoft  choked  and  ren- 
dered incapable  of  drawing  the 
load.  Bulky  loads,  fuch  as  hay, 
and  the  like,  produce  thefe  bad 
efPe^fs  in  the  greateft  degree. 

2.  Waggons  are  better  for  the 
roads,  as  the  wheels  do  not  make 
fo  deep  imprelFions  in  the  ground 
as  thofe  of  carts.  The  load 
bearing  equally  on  four  wheels, 
each  wheel  bears  but  halt  fo 
much  weight  as  one  wheel  of  a 
cart.  Conlequently,  a  waggon 
wheel  preffes  the  ground  with 
buthalf  theforceof  a  cart  wheels 
and  therefore  penetrates  to  but 
half  the  depth ;  fuppofing  the 
tire  in  both  to  be  of  equal 
breadth.  If  tearafters  ufed  only 
waggons  upon  our  roads,  tlie 
roads  would  foon  be  found  to  be 
greatly  mended,  as  they  would 
be  freed  from  thofe  deep  ruts, 
which  are  fo  difagreeable  and 
dangerous  to  travellers. 

WALI^ 


WAR 

WA^L,  the  principnl  part  of 
3  building,  fervin^  both  to  en- 
clofc  <md  fupport  it. 

The  walls  with  which  farmers 
are  moll  concerned  are  icnces 
ct  Hone  upon  their  farms.  See 
the  article  f<rtcf.  The  walls  of 
cellars,  even  in  the  poorertiarm 
houlcs,  ought  tobefocoiillnicled 
as  to  keep  out  all  froft.  There- 
fore the  upt>er  hall  ol  the  wall 
fhould  be  laid  in  good  lime  mor- 
tar. This  will  render  banking 
to  keep  out  troll  unnecellary. 
And  banking  Ihould  be  avoided, 
as  it  caules  the  fills  of  houfes  to 
decay.  It  requires  yearly  atten- 
tion and  labour,  and  gives  to  a 
houfe  an  ill  appearance. 

When  brick  walls  are  to  be 
built  for  houfes,  Sec,  particular 
care  Ihould  be  taken  in  laying 
the  bricks.  In  lummer  they 
Ihould  be  laid  as  wet,  and  in  win- 
ter as  dry  aspolTible.toniakethem 
bind  the  better  with  the  mortar. 
In  fiimmer,  they  Ihould  be  cov- 
ered up  as  fall  as  they  are  laid, 
to  prevent  the  wall  from  drying 
too  fafl.  In  winter,  they  Ihould 
be  well  covered  to  protefl  them 
from  fiiow,  rain, and  Iroll,  which 
are  all  hurtful  to  the  cement. 
But  in  the  coldell  part  of  w  inter 
malon  work  can  hardly  be  per- 
formed at  all  in  this  country. 
Walls  laid  in  this  fcafon  are  not 
cxpeflcd  to  be  durable. 

WANE,  decreafe,  it  common- 
ly fignities  the  third  and  fourth 
quarters  of  the  moon. 

WAKBLKS.  fmall  hard  tu- 
mours on  the  faddlc  part  of  a 
horfc's  back,  occalioncd  by  the 
h'-at  t>f  the  fadtlle  in  travel- 
ling.    They    arc   ulually    called 

A  hot  greafy  dilh  clout  fre- 
quently applied  will  fometiines 
cure  them.  When  this  tails, 
raniphorated  fpirit  of  wine  will 
kc  fuund  jnorc  ed'cdual  ;  efpc- 


W  A  T  357 

cially  if  a  little  of  the  fpirit   o€ 
fal  ammoniac  be  added. 

WATER,  a  fimple,  tranfpa-^ 
rent  fluid,  which  becomes  folicf 
with  a  ceitain  degree  of  cold. 

A  general  divifion  of  this  fluid 
is  into  fall  and  freth.  But  accord- 
ing to  Dr.  Shaw,  it  fecms  divili- 
ble  intoasinany  ditTcrcnt  fpecics, 
as  the  earth  is  into  flrata  or  beds. 
Thus  there  are  mineral  waters,  of: 
various  kinds,  according  to  the 
niineral  fubflances  through  which 
they  pafs,  and  by  which  they  arc 
by  any  means  impregnated.  Wa- 
ter may  therefore  be  as  compound- 
eda  body  as  earth  ;  and  perhaps 
neither  of  them  can  any  where  be 
found  pcrfc^liy  pure  or  unmixed. 

Water  is  of  infinite  ule  in  all 
the  works  both  of  nature  and  art ; 
as  without  it  there  could  be  no 
generation,  nutrition,  or  growtli 
in  any  animal,  vegetable,  or  min- 
eral bodies.  The  blood  could  not 
flow  in  the  veins,  the  fap  in  the 
veflels  of  vegetables,  nor  the  parti- 
cles of  minerals  concrete  or  grow 
together,  without  water.  Neither 
could  there  be  any  corruption, fer- 
mentation,or  diirolution  perform- 
ed without  it.  But  I  mull  not  at- 
tempt to  fpcak  of  all  its  ufes, being, 
limited  by  my  general  fubjecl. 

Thole  however  have  grofsljr 
miftaken  the  matter,  who  have 
fuppofed  water  to  be  the  fole 
food  by  which  vegetables  arc 
nourilhed  ;  tliougU  it  mull  be 
allowed  to  be  ablolutely  ncccfla- 
ry  to  their  nourilhment  and 
growth.  It  is  an  important  a- 
gent  in  mi\iag  and  dillolving  the 
other  ingicdien's  ot  the  food  of 
plants  ;  gives  them  the  ferment- 
ation that  is  nccelfary,  and  is  are 
elFential  part  of  the  nutritive 
fleam  that  enters  the  roots  and 
other  parts  of  vegetables.  And 
the  purelf  water  contains  in  it- 
felf  many  earthy  particles,  asap- 
pcar-by  llic  ciuits  that  adhcra 

tOk. 


368  \V  A  T 

to  thCjiniides  of  velTels  in  which 
water  is  often  boiled. 

Nor  is  water  wholly  deftitute 
of  fcilts  and  oils.  It  is  no  won- 
der, therefore,  that  a  .plant  will 
live,  and  grow  for  fome  time, 
with  its  roots  thrufl  into  a  vefTel  of 
water.  For  e^-en  in  this  (ituation, 
it  partakes  of  every  necefiary  in- 
gredient of  its  natural  food, though 
not  in  the  right  proportions. 

Water  not  only  ferves  thus  as 
a  vehicle  to  the  food  of  plants, 
but  carries  with  it  where  it  runs 
inflreams  many  particles  ot  veg- 
etable mould,  &.C.  which  enrich 
the  foil.  After  heavy  rains,  it  is 
found  tha^t  water  depofits  a  fer- 
tilizing fediment,  which  changes 
the  furiace  of  the  foil  to  a  dark 
colour. 

Watering  the  ground  alfo  pro- 
motes the  putrefaction  of  every 
fubffance,  whether  animal  or  veg- 
etable, contained  in  the  fuil,  or 
lying  on  the  furface. 

Where  a  good  head  of  v.-ater 
can  be  made  without  too  great  an 
expenfe  ;  or  where  a  brook,  or 
part  of  a  river,  can  be  fo  diverted 
from  its  courfe,  as  to  be  made  to 
ipreai  its  waters  over  the  neigh- 
bouring grafs  grounds,  it  Ihould 
be  attended  to,  as  a  matter  of  no 
fmall  importance.  But  the  wa- 
ter fhould  be  perfectly  under 
command  ;  otherwife  it  may 
prove  rather  hurtful  than  bene- 
jicisl.  Too  much  of  it  w^ould  be 
as  great  an  evil  as  too  little. 

Particular  care  fhould  be  taken 
that  the  water  which  is  led  over 
grafs  grounds,  be  only  fuch  as  is 
fit  to  nouriHi  plants,  which  cha- 
lybeate waters,  or  fprings impreg- 
nated with  a  mineral  acid,  cer- 
tainly are  not.  Such  water  is 
rather  poifonous  to  plants,  and 
prevents  their  growth. 

The  quantity  of  v;atpr  thrown 
over  the  land  fhould  be  rightly 
proportioned  ;  a  light  fandy  foil 


\V  A  t 

will  bear  more,  a  flifFfoil  a  lefg 
quantity,  without  overcharging 
the  veil'els  of  the  plants,  or  cool- 
ing them  too  much. 

The  channels  fhould  be  (o 
made  that  the  water  may  be  com- 
municated to  every  part,  except- 
ing where  there  are  little  hollows 
which  are  naturally  wet.  The 
main  chaniiel  Ihould  be  broad, 
and  its  defcent  but  juft  enough 
to  caufe  the  water  to  run  ;  and 
from  the  main  channel,  a  great 
number  of  very  narrow  ones 
(hould  be  cut,  that  the  water  may- 
be well  fpread  through  every 
part  of  the  furface. 

Watering  the  ground  in  this 
manner  fhould  be  avoided  when 
the  air  is  extremely  hot  ;  becaufe 
heat  draws  the  water  too  haftily 
into  the  plants,  which  renders 
them  weak.  The  night  time 
fhould  be  preferred  to  the  day 
tor  letting  out  the  water,  or  a  day 
that  is  cool  and  cloudy  may  be 
chofen,  rather  than  one  that  is 
hot  aird  dry. 

No  water  fhould  be  admitted 
in  the  fpring,  till  after  the  ground 
which  has  been  hoven  by  the 
frcfi  is  well  fettled.  But  after- 
wards, and  in  a  dry  fpring,  wa- 
tering may  be  plentifully  ufed, 
til!  the  grafs  begins  to  fpring  up. 
Alter  the  fhooting  of  the  grafs, 
the  water  Ihould  be  adrainiffered 
more  Iparingly,  or  not  at  all  if 
the  weather  proves  rainy.  And 
when  the  grafs  comes  to  be  tall, 
no  water  fhould  be  applied,  but 
in  cafe  of  neceflity,  as  when  a 
drought  prevails,  which  would 
otherwife  Ihorten  the  crop  ;  for 
ii  it  were  applied  at  this  time  in 
a  large  quantity,  the  grafs  would 
be  lodged  ;  or  if  the  water  be 
not  clean,  it  will  foul  the  grafs, 
and  give  the  hay  an  ill  tafle. 

After  the  Iccond  crop  of  hay 
is  taken  off,  water  may  be  thrown 
over  the  ground  in  plenty  ;  for 

the- 


W  A  T 

Uie  jjrounji  ti  ihen  very  flry.  and 
the  wcitlicr  fo  cool,  that  vegeta- 
bles will  not  he  injured  by  pleii- 
Ctiul  watering:;. 

Giuntid  that  is  thus  watered 
ivill  pr«>dure  plenty  of  grafs,  un- 
Jefs  it  liumld  happen  to  be  too 
much  chilled  by  watering  ;  to 
prevent  which  it  (hould  have  a 
fpriiikling  ol  iome  warm  com- 
p.>H,  loot,  or  other  hot  drclling, 
each  year,  in  autumn. 

Carelhould  be  always  taken  to 
lea\  0  oIT  tliis  watering  before  the 
month  ol  December,  when  llrong 
lrollsareexpe<^ted  ;  becaufe  troll 
dellroysall  vegetables nuich  more 
when  they  arc  lull  of  fap,  and 
where  the  foil  is  very  wet. 

When  you  willi  to  water  land 
which  is  above  the  level  of  an 
adjacent  flrcam,  an  engine  may 
be  ufcd  to  raile  it  to  the  proper 
height.  Ihey  who  are  willing 
to  be  at  this  expenfc  may  find 
defcriptions  of  Atchinudes'  ztui- 
trr  lki\:-u\  thr  Perjian  wheel,  M. 
Br/itt'or's  wkerl,  and  an  engine 
inu^fitci  by  M.  dr  la  Biye,  in  the 
Coinhl-t,-   Fanner,  article   Wafer. 

WAFER  FURROWING, 
dmwing  furrows  in  the  lowcll 
parts  of  a  field  of  wheat,  or  other 
winter  grain,  as  ioan  as  it  is  har- 
»owed  in,  in  order  t*  draw  oH  the 
liipcill'ious  water,  that  none 
may  (land  on  the  furtace  during 
the  winter. 

'I'his  piece  of  good  hufbandry 
t(  confidered,  in  the  old  coun- 
tries, as  indifpenfably  nccellary  ; 
unlcfs  when  a  field  is  on  fuch  a 
declivity  that  the  water  cannot 
il.ind  on  it.  For  if  wnter  llaiul 
long  upon  orn,  in  a  Irolly  foa- 
fon,  t)r  almnft  any  fcafon,  it  will 
either  be  killed,  or  io  iltnted  in  its 
growth,  thai  it  wdl  piuduce 
nothing. 

If  tliii  practice  were  adopted 
by  my  countrymen,  the  lafiour 
•I  doing  w|i'.  \    iv   I.y:  rf  "rinc.  I 


W  E  A  369 

am  pCrfuaded  they  would  find  fo 
great  an  advantage  in  it,  that 
they  would  not  afterwards  incline 
to  lay  it  afide.  It  is  probable  it 
might  prevent  the  winter  kil- 
ling of  much  grain,  an  evil  that 
is  greatly  complained  of. 

WAT  liRIN'G,  applying  wa- 
ter to  plants  to  nourilh  ihcm. 

V^egetibles  that  are  newly 
tranfplanied,  as  -they  liavc  their 
roots  more  or  lefs  diminilhed, 
or  othcrwifc  injured,  often  need 
watering  till  they  have  taken 
new  root.  But  this  llioiild  be 
done  with  caution.  If  a  dry 
feafon  follow  the  iranfplanting, 
let  them  be  watered  if  they  ap- 
pear to  droop,  only  on  evenings, 
and  in  cloudy  weather,  and  witK 
water  that  has  been  e\poled,one 
day  at  lealf,  to  thefhining  of  the 
fun  ;  not  with  water  directly 
from  a  well,  or  a  cold  fpring,  a» 
it  will  give  a  chill  to  the  plants. 
Only  a  fraall  quantity  Ihould  be 
applied  at  once,  that  it  may  have 
an  effett  limilar  to  that  of  a  rc- 
frelhingrain.  For  water,  applied 
too  pleiuifiilly,  fonieiiinos  walh- 
es  away  the  hncil  of  the  moulcj 
from  the  roots  ;  or  m^kes  little 
cavities  about  them,  which  admit 
to»)  much  air. 

In  a  dry  feafon,  whole  gar- 
dens lometinus  nceil  watering  ; 
and  in  doing  it  the  above  pre- 
cautions are  to  l>c  regaided, 
1  hey  are  happy  who  have  a 
piece  of  flantling  water  in  their 
garden,  or  a  rivulet  near  at  hand, 
Ironi  whence  the  garflen  may  be 
watered  wiilioiit  much  labour. 

WKA'FHl'lR,  the  If  ate  or 
cotidiiion  of  the  atnu)lpherc 
with  le'^ard  to  beat,  cold,  wind, 
rain.  Iroll,  fnow,  ivc. 

Innumerable  advantages  would 
arifc  to  the  hufbandman  from  a 
foreknowledge  of  the  changes  of 
the  weather ;  -^nA  even  from  sl 
lurcknuwkJgc  of  the  general 
vl:aii:ticrs 


^p  W  E  A 

chara£lcrs  of  the  approaching 
leafons.  In  the  former  cafe,  he 
would  be  able  to  order  his  bufi- 
nefs  from  day  to  day  in  the  bell 
manner,  and  fo  as  to  prevent 
much  hurry,  perplexity  and  lofs  ; 
efpeciafly  in  the  feafons  of  hay 
making  and  harvefting  ;  in  the 
latter,  he  would  be  happily  di- 
refled  in  his  choice  of  crops, 
and  the  bcflmethods  ot  cultivat- 
ing them.  And  as  this  knowl- 
edge is  not  to  be  obtained,  the 
ability  to  Hiake  very  probable 
conje6lures  is  nextly  to  be  cov- 
eted, as  it  will  be  found  to  an- 
fwer  very  valuable  purpofes. 

Virgil,  and  other  early  writers 
•n  hufbandry,  pointed  out  many 
rules  of  prognoflicating  the 
changes  of  weather  in  their  own 
countries.  But  thefe  will  not 
univerfally,  and  perhaps  not 
generally,  apply  in'  other  re- 
gions. Perfons  ought  therefore 
to  be  careful  that  they  do  not  lay 
too  much  ftrefs  upon  them. 

Journals  of  the  weather,  winds, 
and  {late  of  the  atmofphere, 
fhould  be  made  and  kept  in  every 
climate  in  this  country  ;  from 
the  comparing  of  which  for  a 
courfe  of  years,  it  is  probable 
that  fome  valuable  prognofticks 
might  be  formed,  which  have 
not  yet  been  thought  of. 

The  obfervations  made  in  one 
climate,  will  not  perfeftly  an- 
fwer  for  another,  even  in  the 
fame  country.  In  fome  parts  of 
the  (fate  of  MafTachufetts,  forin- 
ftance,  a  fouth  wind  in  a  fum- 
mer  morning  forebodes  a  hot 
day,  and  in  other  parts  a  cool  one  ; 
and  the  changes  of  weather  are 
not  jufl  the  fame  in  the  maritime 
as  in  the  inland  parts.  The  lat- 
ter are  hotter  in  fummer  and 
colder  in  winter  than  the  mari- 
times. 

That  our  farmers  may  enable 
tfeemfelves    to  form    judicious 


W  E  A 

prognofti cations,  fome  parts  6*f 
knowledge,  falfely  fo  called, 
ought  to  be  unlearned,  or  ex- 
ploded ;  as  weeds  muft  be  ex- 
tirpated, that  ufeful  plants  may 
be  nourifhed. 

Thofe  who  draw  their  prog- 
nofticks from  the  motions  and 
afpefts  of  the  celeftial  bodies  arc 
certainly  lefs  apt  to  attend  to 
more  fure  obje6ls  in  the  earth 
and  atmofphere. 

If  any  celeftial  influence  is  to 
be  much  regarded  in  this  cafe, 
one  would  think  it  ought  to  be 
only  that  of  the  earth's  fatellite, 
the  moon,  becaufe  of  its  nearnefs.- 
That  fhe  influences  the  tides  is 
well  knov/n  ;  and  thefe  may 
have  a  fmall  influence  on  the 
winds  and  weather.  And  proba- 
bly vapours  may  be  more  copi- 
oufly  raifed  when  fhe  is  neareft 
to  the  earth,  which  affords  a 
greater  probability  of  approach- 
ing rain  or  fnow. 

But  what  reafon  can  there  be 
affigned,  for  fuppofing  that  her 
place  in  the  Heavens  at  the  mo- 
ment of  her  full,  change,  or 
quartering,  can  have  any  influ- 
ence  on  our  atmofphere  ?  Or  that 
the  weather  in  the  latter  quarters, 
ihould  be  governed  by  that  in' 
her  former  quarters  ?  Thefe 
things,  though  believed  by  many, 
have  never  been  confirmed  by 
any  fet  of  accurate  obfervations. 
The  few  that  I  have  made  have 
rather  tended  to  refute  them. 

Barometrical  obfervations  may 
beof  fome  real  ufe.  "  In  gener- 
al, it  may  be  expefted,-  that 
when  the  mercury  rifes  high,  a 
few  days  of  fair  weather  will  fol- 
low ;  if  it  falls,  rain  may  be  ex- 
pefted." 

Birds  of  paffage  have  always 
beea  fuppofed  to  indicate  the 
nearnefs  ot  approaching  feafons, 
by  their  removing  to  different 
climates. 


W  E  A 

It  is  well  known  that  ilic 
y/eathcr  is  much  governed  by 
winds.  Rain  is  very  often  pre- 
ceded, and  aixonipanied  by  a 
/outhcaft  wind,  and  Ihow  by  a 
wind  from  the  northeall,  or 
north  northeafl :  And  an  cafl 
wind,  continued  twelve  hours, 
fcldoni  laiis  to  bring  rain  ;  and 
yet  fome  rain  oftemimes  comes 
fronu'very  other  quarter.  W.ien 
the  winds  blow  from  any  pomt 
betwixt  north  and  weft  tlje  wcaili- 
CT  is  expeOed  to  continue  lair 
and  dry. 

The  weather  is  oftcncr  unfct- 
tled  about  the  times  ol  the  equi- 
noxes, than  at  other  feafons  : 
And  high  winds  and  ftonns  are 
more  to  be  cxpefled. 

Falling  weather  oftener^hap- 

f>ens  a  httle  before  or  after  the 
ull  and  change  of  the  moon  than 
at  other  times,  efpecially  it  (he 
happen  to  be  near  to  her  perigee, 
at  the  time  of  thcfc  changes.  For 
the  attraction  ol  vapouis  from 
the  furfaccof  the  earth  is  then 
greateft. 

The  rednefs  of  the  fky  at  the 
rifing  of  the  fun,  has  ever  been 
confidcred  as  a  fign  of  loul 
wcatherapproaching  ;  butitislir 
jrom  being  infallible. 

The  falling  of  heavy  dews  is  a 
ijgn  of  the  continuance  of  fair 
weather. 

The  fctting  of  the  fun  behind  a 
black,  watery  cloud,  betokens  ap- 
proaching rain. 

The  wading  of  the  fun,  as  it  is 
called,  is  a  pretty  Aire  (igii  that 
foul  w  'Aiher  is  very  near. 

Whenihedifcof  the  lun.ciiher 
at  rifing  or  fetting,  appears  very 
broad  and  dim,  the  atmofphereis 
charged  with  plenty  of  vapour, 
which  will  foon  condcnfe  and 
fall  upon  the  earth.  The  con- 
trary happens  when  the  fun  ap- 
pears brilliant, frnall  and  dazzling, 
ml  rifing  and  letting,  as  thcfc  ap- 


W  E  E 


37* 


pcaranccs  indicate  a  dry  ft  ate  ol 
the  air.  1  he  copious  evapora- 
tion  of  boiling  water  is  a  pretty 
fine  fign  of  lallinj;  weather.  For 
I  fuppofe  this  ariics  from  the 
fame  caufe,  (whatever  it  he)  as 
the  increaled  ufceni  ot  vapour.s 
in  general. 

i  he  wind  commonly  blowi 
from  the  point  from  whence  me- 
teors are  fecn  to  Ihoot  in  the 
night  preceding. 

when  Iwiuc  are  bufy  in  col- 
Iccling  fticks  and  ftraws,  foul 
weather  is  approaching. 

Many  more  figns  ol  changes 
in  the  weather  might  have  been 
mentioned  :  But  1  iludy  brevity. 

WEDGE,  one  of  the  me- 
chanical powers,  the  force  oi 
which  is  extremely  great. 

The  wedge  is  a  triangular 
prifra,  whcfe  bales  arc  acute  an- 
gled triangles. 

1  he  wedge  is  a  needful  imple- 
ment among  farmers,  for  the 
cleaving  of  their  wood  and  tim- 
ber. It  ftiould  be  made  ol  a  fofr 
kind  of  iron,  that  it  may  not  hi 
broken  near  the  point,  by  driv- 
ing it  in  frofty  weather,  or  forc- 
ing itinto  hard  knots,  Thchcad 
(hould  be  about  two  inches  thick, 
and  the  length  of  the  wedge 
from  eight  to  nine  inches. 

WEEDING,  the  operation  of 
deftjroying  weeds  among  uftlul 
plants,  or  of  freeing  from  weeds. 
j  There  are  feveral  methods  ol* 
doing  it.  ^^'^here  plants  in  beds, 
whetner  fown  broad  caft  or  v.x 
rovvs,  arc  young  and  fiTiall,  and 
arc  infeftofl  with  weeds,  the 
weeds  mull  be  pulled  up  with  the 
thumb  and  finger  ;  or  clfe  cut 
out  with  the  weeding  hook. 
When  weeding  is  done  by  hand, 
care  fhould  be  taken  that  thr 
roots  be  not  left  in  the  gronnci. 
Therefore  the  fingers  ol  the  weed- 
cr  fhould  go  into  the  foil  nioicoi 
Icfs,  according  to  the  ftrcngth  o'. 

the 


372  W.  E  E 

the  roots.  The  weeds  may  be 
faved  in  bafkcts,  and  thrown  to 
the  fwine.  Where  the  plants 
are  larger,  the  weeds  may  be 
tilled  by  a  hoe  with  a  (harp  edge, 
which  fiiouM  be  wider  or  nar- 
rower, according  to  the  difiance 
at  which  the  plants  ought  to  ftand 
from  each  other  after  hoeing. 
But  it  is  necelFary'  that  the  hoe- 
ing be  perlorined  in  dry  weath- 
er ;  otherwife  many  of  the  weeds 
Will  revive,  and  grow  :  And  the 
forenoon  is  better  than  the  after- 
noon lor  this  work,  becaufe  a 
dewy  night  coming  on  before 
they  are  withered,  fume  of  them 
will  get  rooted  before  the  next 
morning.  Weeders  fhoiild  be 
careful  that  they  tread  upon 
weeds  that  they  hoe  or  pull  up, 
as  little  as  polLble  ;  becaufe  do- 
ing this  will  clofe  the  earth  about 
them,  and  prevent  their   dying. 

When  fmall  plants  fl;jnd  in 
rows  according  to  the  drill  huf- 
bandry,  the  plants  in  the  rows 
muft  be  once  weeded,  and  thin- 
ned as  in  gardens;  but  the  weeds 
in  the  intervals  are  to  be  more 
cxpeditioully  deftroyed  with  the 
■plough,  horle  hoe,  or  cultivator. 

V/ilEDS,  ufelefs  or  noxious 
plants,  or  vegetables  not  to  be 
cultivated. 

Weeds  infeft  all  kinds  of  land 
jnore  or  lefs,  and  occafion  abun- 
dance of  labour  for  the  farmer, 
and  the  gardener,  fo  much  that 
we  feldom  find  it  perfectly  ac- 
complifhed. 

Weeds  are  feveral  ways  hurt- 
ful to  the  crops  that  are  cultivat- 
ed. 

1.  They  rob  other  plants  of  the 
food  that  fhouid  nourilh  them. 
For  they  require  as  much  nour- 
ifhment  from  the  earth  as  better 
flants  do  ;  and  in  general  tiicy 
are  fed  with  the  fame  kind  ot 
juices  :  For  it  has  been  proved, 
tliat  the  food  of  all  plants  is  near- 


W  E  E 

ly  the  fame.  So  that  wherever 
weeds  are  fuETered  to  ffand  dnd 
grow  among  plants,  the  crop  will 
receive  proporti')nably  the  lefs 
quantity  ot  nouriPnment  from  the 
earth.  It  will  aifo  receive  the 
lefs  nourifhraent  from  the  air, 
unlefs  the  v.-eeds  are  of  a  much 
lower  Hature  than  the  plants  that 
were  meant  to  be  cultivated,  and 
nearly  covered  by  the  plants. 

2.  Weeds  alfo  lelTen  the  quan- 
tity of  pafture  for  plants  in  the 
(oil.  For  their  roots  occupy  and 
fill  many  of  thofc  interftices  in 
the  foil,  which  would  have  been 
occupied  by  the  roots  of  the  cul- 
tivated plants.  And  many  kinds 
of  weeds  have  fuch  a  multitude 
of  flrong  and  binding  roots,  that 
they  render  the  foil  fliff  and 
hard  ;  and  fo  compact  that  the 
roots  of  tender  plants  cannot  ex- 
tend theipfelves  in  it.  This  bad 
quality  is  poilelTcd,  in  a  remark- 
able degree,  by  the  quitch  grafs, 
and  by  forne  other  \veeds. 

3.  Weeds  prevent  plants  from 
tillering,  or  branching  out  horn 
their  roots,  as  many  kinds,  and 
particularly  the  farinaceous, 
which  are  the  raofl  valuable,  are 
inclined  to  do,  when  they  have 
room.  But  the  growing  of  a 
multitude  of  weeds  among  them 
reduces  them  to  a  crowded  fitua- 
tion  ;  the  confequence  is,  that 
they  ib.oot  iip  only  fingle  ftalks, 
by  which  means  the  crop  is  great- 
ly dimlnijhed. 

4.  Weeds  deprive  plants  cd 
that  free  circulation  of  air  about 
them,  which  is  necelTary^^i  their 
being  in  a  healthy  and  Mgorous 
Hate.  For  want  of  this  they  run 
up  wci:k,  remain  of  a  loofe  and 
fpongy  contexture,  and  bend 
doM'n  and  lodge  by  their  own 
v.'eight,  unleis  the  weeds  happen 
to  be  fo  ftrong  as  to  hold  them  up. 

5.  Weeds,  befidcs  the  gener- 
al evil  of  taking  away  the  food 

of 


WEE 

•f  plants  rob ilie foil,  p-irti'iilarly 
of  Its  rnoilliirc,  an  i  1,.  r.l  !\  re- 
duce it  to  fuch  a  dry  it  itc  tlut 
ntiihcr  wceHs  nor  other  )  l.»nts 
can  receive  from  it  any  vegeta- 
ble food,  for  want  of  that  pro- 
portion  of  inoinurc  which  is  nec- 
<»T<jrv  to  q'\r  it  fluidity.  Ac- 
I  '  vahlc  th.it  rlic 

«t:  : ;  brio'^s  on  an 

eaii>  a^ipejfancc  oi  droui;I;t. 

L^iftly,  fome  weeds  u\  the 
creeping  kind  twine  about  the 
plants  in  fuch  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  their  growth,  and  the 
circnlation  ot  their  f.ip.  Dihers 
overtop  them,  ar.d  ihut  out  the 
direct  influence  ot  the  fun,  and 
further  opprcfs  them  with  tiieir 
unwholcloine  dripping  on  tliem. 
And  there  are  llill  others,  the 
dodder  in  particular,  which  draw 
their  nouriihmcnt  directly  out  ol 
the  hcvlies  of  plants,  by  fHikinj; 
their  fibres  inio  them,  and  caufe 
rhom  to  lan);uilh. 

So  thai,  on  the  whole,  the  mif- 
•  hiels  done  by  weeds  are  fo  great 
and  many,  tliat  when  they  are  fuf- 
fered  to  grow  unmolcllcd  among 
ideful  plants,  whate^■er  culture 
has  been  given  to  the  foil  to  pre- 
pare it  for  a  crop  is  thrown  a- 
way  ;  and  the  feeds  ihit  are 
fown  are  entirely  wafted  and  loft. 
Weeds  r:iay  be  divided  as 
plants  in  general  arc,  into  annuals 
mJ  pere  iuijIs  ;  or,  as  Mr.  Dix- 
jo:i  his  .i.)nc  it,  intothofc  which 
it  :iiedl)y  the  feed,  ai\i\ 

r  :  a.'c  propagated  Vy  the 

root.     But  I  (hall  purfuc  a  meth- 
n<l  wliich  t>  different  frotn  both, 
and  which  better  fuifs  my  pref- 
e'lt  liiclination  :  An.l  only  toii- 
fi'lcr    'h'[c    wer.ls   in  .:  i,  rncnil 
way,  wl:.ch    clj.tUy     iault    c;ur 
^     laads    that   are  in    tillage,   and 
'      thofc   that  prevail  in  our  grafs 
[     land    ;   and    how     to     frccit 
t!ie     exiflence,    or     puvalcuLe 
•1    chcfc   kinds  ;  and   the    bell 


W  E  E  373 

methods    ot  preventing,  fubdu- 
ing  and  dellroymg  them. 

1.  As  to  thole  which  infeil 
larul  thitis  employed  in  tillage, 
iiid  whith  are  very  numerous, 
there  3ie  leveral  ways  to  prevent 
their  cxiftenccin  fields  ;  hi  leall, 
to  prevent  their  arifiiig  in  fucK 
plenty  as  to  be  very  trouhlefonie 
or  detrimental  to  the  cr<»ps. 

The  Hrft  thing  that  I  would  in- 
fift  upon  is,  that  no  leeds  of 
weeds  (hould,  by  any  means,  be 
carried  into  the  fields.  And  that 
this  e'  il  may  be  avoided,  rw> 
dunt;  ncr  cotnpoft,  lliould  be  laid 
upon  the  (oil,  until  it  has  under- 
g(mc  fuch  tcrmentations  in  heaps, 
as  to  allow  oppoi  tunity  to  deftroy 
the  vegetative  quality  ot  all  the 
feeds  that  are  contained  in  it. 
Therefore  all  dungliills  intended 
for  the  manuring;  ot  (owed  fie'ds, 
Ihould  be  Ihovelcd  over  two  or 
three  times  in  a  liimmer;  by 
means  of  which,  mod  or  all  of 
the  feeds  contained  in  the  heaps 
will  vegetate,  and  be  dcftroyeil. 
But  when  land  is  laid  down  for 
grafs,  this  precaution  is  not  ne- 
celfary  :  Bccaulc  tillage  weed* 
will  not  ilourilh  in  gra.'s  lands ; 
at  lead  not  io  much  as  to  do  any 
great  damage. 

But  when  there  is  a  necefliiy 
ot  ufing  new  duntr,  which  a- 
bounds  with  the  feeds  ot  weeds, 
on  land  to  be  continued  in  til- 
lage, let  it,  it  pollihle,  be  applied 
only  to  a  h'jed  crop,  in  the  til- 
ling of  which,  the  weeds  will  be 
deftroyed  a<:  taft  as  they  rife,  dur- 
ing the  iunimer. 

Or,  if  low  ground  hay  has 
been  ufed  by  itfelt,  in  teeding 
the  young  part  of  the  llock  Jas 
indeed  it  ought  always  to  bej  let 
(he  dung  that  is  made  ot  that  be 
liid  un  the  dried  parts  ot  the 
Irtim.  There  will  be  no  danger 
in  living  it  on  wl.ilc  it  is  new  ; 
'cr  it  uic  feids  Ipijut  and  come 


374        W  E  E 

up,  they  will  not  profper,  as  the 
foil  does  not  fuit  their  nature, 
being  raoftly  aquaticks. 

As  to  or- er  manures,  fuch  as 
jnarJe,  mud,  aflies,  lime,  foot, 
fea  ^\'eeds,  &c.  thefe  having  no 
feeds  in  them  that  will  grow  up- 
on land,  there  is  no  danger  of 
their  caufing  the  ground  to  be- 
come weedy.  If  they  do  this, 
in  any  meafure,  it  muft  be  only 
by  vivify  mg  latent  feeds  in  the  foil. 

Another  thing  which  is  indif- 
penfably  necelfary  to  prevent  the 
abounding  ot  weeds,  is,  to  fuffer 
no  Vv'eeds,  neither  in  gardens  nor 
in  tillage  lands,  to  ripen  their 
feeds  in  autumn,  and  fcatter  them 
oui  upon  the  ground.  The  prac- 
tice oi  fluggards  muft  be  laid  a- 
fide  :  For  as  a  man  foweth,  fc 
Jliall  he  alfo  reap.  If  weeds  are 
thusfovvnon  every  part  of  afield, 
it  is  no  wonder  if  the  ground  be 
filled  with  them  in  the  enfuing 
year  ;  Nothing  fliort  of  a  mira- 
cle, unlefs  it  be  want  of  ftrength 
in  the  foil  to  nourifh  them,  can 
prevent  it.  The  prudent  huf- 
bandman,  therefore,  before  the 
feeds  of  the  weeds  are  ripened, 
■will  go  over  his  grounds,  and 
deftroy  all  the  weeds  that,  appear. 
If  there  fhould  happen  to  be  a 
plenty  of  them,  let  them  be  piled 
in  heaps  in  the  borders  of  the 
fields,  and  a  little  earth  thrown 
on  them  ;  in  which  fituation 
they  will  ferment  and  putrefy, 
and  become  good  heaps  of  ma- 
nure, in  the  fucceeding  year. 

If  any  Ihould  objett  to  the  la- 
bour of  doing  this,  let  them  con- 
fider  whether  it  wiJl  not  fave 
them  ten  times  as  much  labour 
in  future,  in  fubduing  the  weeds, 
after  the  ground  is  filled  with 
them,  befides  procuring  them  the 
advantage  of  having  much  better 
crops. 

Another  good  preventive  of 
the  increafe  of  weeds,  is  burning 


WEE 

the  ftubble  as  it  ftands  after  reap- 
ing.  On  land  that  is  defigned  to 
be  lowed  the  next  year,  this  is  a 
good  piece  of  hufbandry  ;  tor  it 
will  deftroy  fo  many  of  the  feeds 
of  v/eeds,?^  to  prevent  the  enfu- 
ing crop  from  being  ro  very 
weedy  as  it  otherwife  would  be ; 
at  the  fame  time,  it  will  deftroy 
many  infefts,  clean  the  ground, 
and  render  it  fitter  for  the  ope- 
rations ot  tillage  ;  not  to  mention 
how  much  the  ground  will  be 
fertilized  by  the  afhcs  of  the  ftub- 
ble. 

But,  to  prevent  the  increafe  of 
weeds,  as  well  as  toanfwer  other 
good  purpofes,  it  is  beft  that  two 
broad  caft,  fowed  crops,  when  it 
can  be  otherv/ife  ordered,  fhould 
not  fucceedeach  other.  Where 
a  hoed  crop  is  well  tilled  every 
other  year,  the  weeds  are  not 
wont  to  increafe,  in  -fuch  a 
degree  as  to  be  very  trouble- 
fome. 

Another  precaution,  and  which 
has  not  been  fufficiently  attend- 
ed to,  is  taking  care  to  avoid 
fowing  the  feeds  of  weeds  with 
grain  and  other  crops.  A 
thorough  cleaning  of  the  feed  is 
of  great  importance.  This  may 
be  accomplifhed  by  winnowing, 
fifting,  fv/imming  and  repeated 
walhings.  But  the  feeds  of 
weeds  are  often  fowed,  after  they 
haye  been  feparated  irom  grain 
by  winnowing.  This  will  be  the 
cafe  v/hen  the  chaff  and  rubbl'^t 
at  the  tail  of  the  fheet  is  thrown 
upon  a  dunghill,  which  is  to  be 
removed  and  applied  to  the  foil, 
before  the  feeds  contained  there- 
in have  had  opportunity  to  veg 
etate  and  get  deftroycd. 

If  a  farmer  begins  on  a  farm 
that  is  not  much  infeftcd  with 
weeds,  and  will  carefully  obferve 
the  direftions  given  above,  I 
think  he  will  be  always  favoured 
with  clean  crops,  and  that  weeds 


WEE 

will  never  prevail  much   in  his 
tillage  land. 

It  is  true,  that  fomc  feeds  may 
be  waited  by  the  winds  from  oth- 
er fields  into  his  <:nclofurcs. 
The  befl  preventive  of  this  is 
having  dole  fences.  But  ihofe 
feeds  to  which  a  light  down  ad- 
herts,  are  often  mounted  high  in 
the  air  ;  fo  that  there  is  no  pof- 
fibility  of  fencing  againft  them. 
Of  this  kind  are  the  feeds  of 
thiflles,  &c.  However,  they 
feldom  tarry  in  the  places  where 
they  firft  fall,  but  are  driven  to 
the  borders  of  fields. 

But  when,  by  means  of  a  neg- 
ligent or  flovcniy  culture,  lands 
in  tillage  are  become  weedy,  the 
farmer  fllould  perfcdly  know, 
and  fpirltedly  pra6Hfe,  the  mod 
cffe^^ual  methods  oi  fubduinj; 
the  weeds,  which  arc  his  moll 
formidable  enemies.  For  they  di- 
minifh  the  hufbandman's  crops, 
more  than  moflpeople arc  a\yare  ol. 

The  mofteneftual  way  ot  def- 
troying  them  is,  by  a  good  fum- 
merfaHowing.altcrnately  plough- 
ing and  harrowing  the  ground  in 
dry  weather,  as  olten  as  the  weeds 
appear  in  plenty  on  the  furface 
At  each  ot  thcfc  ftirrings  a  large 
quantity  ot  weeds  is  defiroyed, 
and  converted  into  manure  ;  and 
th«  feeds  ol  another  crop  fo  ex- 
pofcd  to  the  air,  that  they  will 
fpring  up,  and  at  the  next  ftir- 
ring  of  t!ie  foil  be  dcftroyed. 
And  il  tliefe  operations  are  con- 
tinued until  no  more  weeds  arife, it 
may  be  concluded  that  the  ground 
is  in  excellent  order  tor  a  crop. 
It  is  not  only  cleaned  from  weeds, 
but  greatly  enriched  :  And  it 
".vill  not  be  liable  to  be  infefleJ 
with  weeds,  to  any  great  degree, 
for  feverai  years  atier. 

Next  to  (allowing,  which  may 

be  thought  rather  expcnfivc,  the 

'left    way    to   get   the   better   ol 

"ceds,  is  to  employ  the  land  i:; 


WEE        375 

hoed  crops,  for  two  or  three 
years  in  (ucccflion,  not  omitting 
autumnal  hand  weeding.  Or  a 
crop  of  peale,  fowed  thick,  or 
any  crop  that  forms  a  clofe  cov- 
er to  the  furface,  may  do  much 
towards  fubduing  the  weeds. 
The  tew  weeds  that  vegetate  un- 
der fuch  a  cover  arc  fo  cramped 
and  kept  under,  as  to  be  prevent- 
ed trom  going  to  feed  ;  or  at 
leaft  from  bringing  their  feeds  to 
maturity. 

Extraordinary  deep  plough- 
ing, or  treitch  ploughing,  has 
been  recommended  as  efieilual. 
But  in  this  pratlice,  care  fhould 
be  taken  to  avoid  turning  in  too 
many  of  the  feeds  of  weeds. 
The  autumn,  therefore,  is  not  the 
right  lime  for  this,  but  ratlier  the 
fpring  or  fummer.  For  if  many 
feeds  are  thus  buried,  the  next 
deep  ploughing  that  there  may 
be  occafion  for,  will  bring  them 
again  up  to  the  air,  and  caufe  not 
a  few  of  them  to  vegetate,  though 
it  fhould  happen  to  be  not  till 
many  years  alter. 

As  deep  ploughing  defiroy* 
weeds,  or  ratlier  puts  them  out 
of  the  way,  fo,onthe  other  hand, 
nothing  can  more  encourage, their 
growth  than  the  fhallow  plough- 
ing, which  is  commonly  given 
tor  fowed  crops  in  this  country. 
But  it  all  other  methods  were 
to  prove  incffetlual  for  the  def- 
truciion  ot  annual  weeds,  laying 
tillage  land  down  to  grafs,  and 
fowing  it  with  cleaned  grafs 
feeds,  will  not  tail  to  fubdue  thefc 
weeds  ;  the  moft  ot  which  de- 
pend upon  tillage  to  promote 
their  growth  ;  and  the  reft  will 
be  overtopped  and  lit  fled  by  a 
good  crop  of  grafs.  And  a  flrong 
fward  will  foon  be  tormeJ, 
through  wliich  the  tender  kmds 
ot  annual  weeds  will  not  penc- 
j  tratc,  of  which  fort  the  moft  arc, 
.  thatarc  found  in  land  that  is  tilled. 

l^VCD 


3/6 


AV  E  E 


Ev'en  the  qnitch  grafs,  f»ne  of  the 
molt  vexatiousot  ali  weeds, is  thus 
either  deftroyed  or  rendered 
harmlefs  :  For  when  it  tlourifli- 
es  in  grafs  ground,  it  makes  an 
excellent  hay. 

2.  The  weeds  that  appear  in 

grafs  lands  in  this  country,  may 
e  divided  into  upland  weeds 
and  aquaticks,  lome  tew  of  which 
arc  annuals,  but  a  greater  num- 
ber, efpeciaily  of  thofe  that  are 
moil  noticed,  are  perennials. 

Of  the  upland  weeds  thofe 
which  have  proved  to  be  the  moll 
troublefomeare  the  upright  crow 
foot,  Ranunculus,  commonly 
known  by  the  name  yellow  weed  ; 
ragweed,  ragwort,  or  Roman 
•wormwood,  Senecio;  the  greater 
daify,  ox  eye,  or  pifs  abed,  Chryi- 
anthemum  ;  yarrow,  dandelion, 
dock,  thirties,  iorrel  ^nd  John's 
wort. 

Some  of  thefe,  particularly  the 
two  laft,  and  the  daify  and  ra§- 
\keed,  are  conquered  by  a  plenti- 
ful manuring  of  the  ground  ;  tor 
where  the  land  is  rich  they  are 
not  found  toflourii'h.  Paituritig 
the  la.'id  with  (hcep  is  laid  to  be  fa- 
tal to  the  daify,  and  the  crow  foot. 

But  the  moft  effectual  way  to 
dellroythefis  weeds,  is  to  break  up 
the  land,  and  employ  it  in  tillage. 

When  it  is  not  lound  conve- 
nient to  take  this  method,  the 
weeds  may  either  be  dug  out  or 
elfe  pulled  up  by  hand,  which, 
when  tfie  ground  is  moiftened 
by  rain,  may  beeafily  done.  It  is 
to  be  remembered, that  this  Ihould 
be  done  at.  crbelore  midfummer, 
that  none  of  their  ripened  feeds, 
or  any  that  may  })OjnbIy  vege- 
tate, may  be  Icattered  on  the 
groimd. 

The  aquatick  weeds,  fuch  as 
flags,  rulhes,  and  the  like,  are  not 
eafily  fubdued  by  any  of  the 
above  methods,  fome  of  which 
Xave  often  been  tried  in  vain. 


\\  E  E 

Draining  the  land. which  deprives 
them  of  that  degree  of  wetnef* 
which  i'^  fuitable  to  their  nature, 
is  an  infallible  method,  and^ per- 
haps, the  only  eflfeftujl  one.  of 
deilroying  them.  But  lim- 
ing the  ground  at  the  fame  time, 
renders  the  operation  more  fud- 
den  and  efTe^tual.  Or  if  lime 
cannot  be  had,  alhes  and  foot  are 
good  fubllitutes. 

But  the  molt  fpeedy  method 
of  getting  rid  of  thefe  weeds  is, 
digging  out  the  roots,  or  ufing 
the  land  in  tillage. 

\VEE\TL,an  infe6>  of  the  bee- 
tle kind,  rcfembling  the  Maybug, 
with  a  long  fliarp  pointed  head, 
to  the  hinder  part  of  which  are  fix- 
ed two  antennae.  It  is  black,  and 
therefore  eafily  diflinguilhed  in 
ariy  corn  ;  but  its  principal  and 
tavoritc  food  is  wheat,  of  which, 
either  old  or  new,  it  devours 
greai  quantities,  without  howev- 
er comn.unicating  any  badfmell 
to  it. 

Uponthrufting  one's  hand  into 
a  heap  of  corn,  one  may  eafily 
perceive  by  its  heat,  whether  it 
contains  many  of  thefe  infefts, 
which  generally  lie  pretty  much 
Collected  ;  and  the  particular 
places  where  they  are  moft  nu- 
merous, feel  much  warmer  than 
the  reft. 

This  obfervation  led  M.  Du- 
hainel  to  think,  that  a  confidera- 
ble  heat  is  probably  neceftary 
tor  the  hatching  of  their  eggs  ; 
and  that  in  this  cafe,  even  if  tliey 
ibould  live,  they  will  not  be  able 
to  breed  in  his  ventilating  grana- 
ries. 

To  prove  this  he  made  repeat- 
ed experiments,  the  refults  of 
which  made  it  evident  that  this 
infecl  cannot  multiply  in  corn 
that  retains  a  proper  degree  of 
coolnefs,  which  it  may  be  made 
to  do  by  frequent  ventilating. 
When  tojii  is  fifted  in  a  fievc 

line 


\\    H  K 


I'lrr  f")  njucJi    fmalier   than  tl>c 
Mt  tMoll  of  thcni   drop 

Bmulallf  ^.sM.  Du- 

liaroel  tncil,  I.  .hv>piofer- 

fcd  was,  to  dry  tiicturnona  Uove, 

or  aver,,  heatcJ  to  eighty  or  tunc- 

>  of  M.  de   Reaumur's 

•■.cter. 

W'HKAT,  Tnticum,  the  moa 

ufchil  (4  all  farinaceous  pfants. 

the  feeds  of  v.'hich  are  the   bell 

grain  tor  bread. 

The  different  fpecics  of  wheat, 
->.-d:n;?  to  Mr.  Miller,  are,  the 
•r  wheat,  without  a\%*ns,  or 
iKaiiU;  the   funimer,  or   fp'ing 
whea:  ;  grey   ^xillard,   or   duck 
hill  wheat,  with  long  beards ;  the 
c^  le  w!ie.»t,   fo  named   for   the 
i:  ;pe  of  the  cars,  u  liich  refemble 
a     -  le  ;  and  the  polontan  whjat. 
Other  kin  h  he   fuppofes  to   be 
oily  varieties  occafioncd  by  Cul- 
ture and  foil. 

T!ie  Smyrna  wheat  is  very  dif- 
tL'r.:-.:  fi'in)  all  other,  jModucing 
......  1....:-  central  ear.  and  fevrr- 

laieial  ones  from   the 
*  t'ac   I'lrge  one.     This 

l.iits  a  rich  and  ilron;;  foil,  as 
t'lcio  is  no  dinger  of  its  being 
I.  h  fcems  to  be  better 
•  ■-■ '  i^'^n  any  other  fpccies  of 
wi  It  to  the  horic  hoeing  htil- 
ban  iry. 

The  only  fpecies  or  varieties 

»'•"  ^rc  cuhiva:c  i  in  this  coun- 

.c,   ih*   winter  arid    (prinj^ 

•    "  •  '•;'!  and  bearded,  the 

an  I  f!je   Siberian 

•*      .1,  w..i«.;»  In  bA-1,  or  wiihout 

"  Ar    :•     ^    'V.c!  and  a  half  of 
feed  .nt  qiur.iity  for  an 

arre.  ^.^i'".;    i.<'s  it  i       ' 
large  crops  tiam   a 


\V  H  E 


3f7 


^  > 


■luircd  ;  thefmallcr,  tlie  Icf 
'ty   :    Tor   the   number   o 
;;;ji;;s   is    to  be  rej^Jidcd   inortf 
iluu  the  meafurc,  i»r  weight. 

(.'hanging  the  feed  yearly,  or  at 
leall  every  otli'-rycar,  is  proper, 
or  even  ncccHdiy  :  For  it  has  al- 
ways been  cxptrienced,  that  the 
(d'Mc  fec(f,  fown  fevcraf  years  iti 
fuccefUon,  degenerates  ;  fo  that 
the  crops  conn  :iually  grow  worfc. 
But  feed  Ihould  not  only  be 
Ihitied  from  one  place  to  anoth- 
er, but  alfo  fown  on  a  foil  that 
is  different  from  that  on  which  it 
jrew.  It  Ihould  be  taken  from 
a  fliff  foil  for  a  light  one,  and 
from  a  light  for  a  ftifFone. 

As  feed  wheat  cannot  always 
be  procured  from  diftant  coun- 
tries in  feafon,  farmers  at  a  few 
miles  di fiance  Ihould  at  \eatt 
change  wirheach  other.  But  in 
the  iio'therly  parts  of  this  coim- 
try,  bringing  feed  from  the  fouih- 
ward  win  not  do  wcU,  as  it  rip- 
ens the  later. 

A  foil  of  good  loam,  well' 
warmed,  and  ftirred,  is  proper  for 
wheat.  BiU  other  UnU.  well 
prepared,  fometimcs  anfwer  well 
enouj{h.  Wli.^at  fucceeds  upoa 
the  lirongeff  lands  well  tilled, 
when  they  have  been  drained^ 
and  hid  dry. 

The  way  of  prepnring  the  foil 
fi»r  a  crop  of  wheat    l  mean  that 
which  has  been   moll   practiled 
in  tlie  old  countries  and  has  fuc- 
cceded  well  in  this)  is,  by  a  good 
fummcr  tallowing.      Three   or 
♦•>ur  pJoughings,   and   as  many 
harrowings,  at  proper  intervals, 
will  bring  al.nolt  any  foil,  that  is 
not   veiy   flubborn,  into  a  good 
tilth.     And  it  it  be  thought  need- 
ful  to  a^ply   any  manure  to  tlic 
foil  brfore  lowing,   let   it  be  old 
u  ;  and  let  it  not 
't  before  the  laft 
:i^,  u:  lecd  furrow,  as  it 
i  ;  fo  that  ihc  corn  may 
have 


378         W  H  E 

have  the  greateR  poflTible  benefit 
of  the  fleam  produced  by  the 
manure  in  the  roil. 

Where  fummer  wheat  is  in- 
tended to  be  fown,  the  ground 
being  previoufly  clear  ot  weeds, 
by  means  of  a  hoed  crop  preced- 
ing, one  good  ploughing  in  au- 
tumn, and  two  in  thefpring,  may 
be  fufficient. 

But  another  good  method  of 
preparing  ttre  land  for  a  wlieat 
crop,  is  fowing  it  with  clover. 
After  it  has  borne  two  crops  ot 
clover,  it  will  be  in  excellent  or- 
der for  wheat.  Give  only  one 
ploughing,  fow  the  feed  and 
Tiarrow  it  in. 

But  whether  you  fow  winter 
or  fpring  wheat,  let  the  feed  be 
always  well  waflied  before  fow- 
ing. I  need  not  here  repeat 
what  has  been  faid  on  the  affair 
offteeping  the  feed.  See  the  ar- 
ticle Sf?iut. 

The  time  of  fowing  winter 
wheat  admits  of  fome  latitude. 
Some  time  about  the  latter  part 
of  Augufl,  or  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember, is  to  be  chofen.  It  may 
be  a  little  later  or  earher,  pro- 
vided the  ground  have  the  right 
degree  of  moifture  tor  tilipge, 
and  for  promoting  vegetation. 
The  latter  Ihould  be  carefully  at- 
tended to,  and  the  feeds  Ihould 
never  be  fowed  iw  ground  when 
it  is  very  dry.  Rather  than  do 
this,  rain  Ihould  be  waited  for  as 
much  as  two  or  three  weeks. 

Wheat  that  is  fowed  in  au- 
tumn, a  clover  lay  excepted, 
ihould,  inflead  of  harrowing,  be 
covered  with  a  (hallow  furrow, 
and  the  furface  left  rough.  It 
will  be  Icfs  in  danger  of  being 
killed  by  the  frofl  in  winter,  and 
lefs  injured  by  drying  winds  in 
the  following  fpring.  The  fur- 
rows fhould  be  left  without  har- 
rowing ;  for,  the  more  uneven 
ihe  ground  is,  the  more  the  foil 


W  H  E 

will  be  pulverifed  and  mellowed 
by  the  frofl.  But  it  w^ill  often 
be  of  advantage  to  pal's  a  roller 
over  the  ground  intlie  following 
fpring,  to  clofe  the  eanh  about 
the  roots,  and  prevent  the  earth 
from  being  dried  by  the  fpring 
winds,  to  too  great  a  depth. 

Wheat  fown  in  the  fpring 
fhould  be  only  covered  with  the 
harrow,  as  it  has  no  time  to  lofe, 
and  ought  to  be  up  early.  For 
the  fame  reafon  it  fhould  be  fow- 
ed as  early  as  the  ground  can  be 
got  into  the  right  order  to  re- 
ceive it. 

It  weeds  arife  in  plenty  among 
the  wheat,  they  fhould  be  deft  toy- 
ed in  the  fpring  ;  otherwife  the 
crop  will  be  much  robbed  of  its 
nouriihment.  This  matter  has 
not  yet  been  fufRciently  attend- 
ed to  in  this  country  ;  though  in 
other  countries,  particularly  m 
Scotland,  the  people  make  as 
much  account  of  weeding  their 
fields  ot  grain,  as  their  gardens. 
This  fliould  by  all  means  be  per- 
forme«l  before  the  time  when  the 
plants  begin  to  fend  out  their 
ears  ;  becaufe,  after  this,  they 
will  be  the  more  in  danger  ot  be- 
ing hurt  by  people's  pafTing  a- 
mong  them.  Efpecially  the 
wheat  ought  not  to  be  touched 
while  it  is  in  bloffom.  As  it  is 
in  the  critical  feafon  of  feecunda- 
tion,  it  may  be  very  detrimental 
to  the  crop,  x^nd  if  the  weeds 
be  not  taken  out  before  the  grain 
is  become  Ijrgeand  tall,  many  of 
them  will  be  covered  and  hidden 
under  the  plants  ;  fo  that  only 
the  largell  weeds  will  be  pulled 
out,  while  the  refl  are  fuffered  to 
ffand  and  perfect  their  feeds. 
For  thefe  reafons,  Mr.  Milleir  re- 
commends to  farmers  a  praftice 
among  kitchen  gardeners,  which 
he  fays  has  been  found  to  be  of 
great  benefit  to  crops,  and  has  al- 
io been  a  great  faving  to  them  in 

the' 


\w  H  r 

thcoper«itionof(lcnii>yi:ig\vccci"!, 
which  is,  makin:^  iile  ot  a  Jtuall 
kind  ol  h«>es  lor  cleaning  the 
whrat  early  in  the  fpring,  octoic- 
the  ground  is  covered  witli  the 
blades  oi  ihc  corn.  By  this  in- 
flrnrnent,  all  the  weeds,  iinall 
and  great,  will  be  cut  up  ;  and 
if  it  be  done  in  dry  weather,  \vill 
die.  He  reconinicnds  a  lecond 
hoeing  about  tlirce  ^vccks  alter 
the  lirft,  which  will  fubduc  thofc 
weeds  which  happen  to  retnam  a- 
live.  And  at  the  time  ol  hocint»,he 
recommends  thinning  the  plants, 
w  here  they  happen  to  flan<l  to«.> 
thick,  which  he  thinks  will  do 
much  to  i)revent  the  lodging  ot 
the  corn,  and  retider  it  lei's  lia- 
ble tobefmutty.  Whether  thefe 
hoeinr;s  will  giejtly  iticreaic  the 
crop  1  think  there  can  be  no  rea- 
fon  to  doubt,  luilefs  tlK-y  Ihould 
caufe  it  to  ripen  lo  mu.  h  Liter  as 
to  expofc  it  to  blight.  Rut  I 
flionlfl  not  expect  it  from  fuch  a 
fupcrhcial  hoei'ig. 

Some  fjrmcrs  arc  apt  to  think 
there  h  no  inconvenience  in  fut- 
iering  fhcep  to  ieed  on  the  young 
plants  of  winter  wheat,  in  ati- 
tiimn,  or  winter,  or  even  early 
in  the  fpring.  But  who  can  ra- 
tionally fuppofe,  that  the  blatlcs 
with  which  nature  has  furnilhed 
thcic  plants,  arc  not  of  ulc,  to 
»lraw  in  nouridiment  from  the 
air  and  desvs,  for  the  increafe  of 
the  flalkand  the  ear  ?  In  order 
to  be  fatisfied  of  this,  the  above 
mentioned    writer  cut  ofT  fome 

rilants  of  wheat  aliernatcly,  ear- 
y  in  the  fpring,  and  always  foimd 
the  ilalks  of  thefe  plattts  nuich 
fmallerand  Ihortcr,  and  the  f^rain 
poorer,  than  thofe  of  the  imer- 
mediaie  plants  whofe  blades  were 
not  cut. 

There  certainly  is  luit  one  cafe 
in  which  it  can  be  right  that  win- 
ter grain,  whether  wheal  or  rye, 
{h'juld  be  ted   in   autumn  ;  and 


W   H  E  379 

that  is,  when,  by  bciiig  foued 
very  early,  it  is  in  danger  of  ear- 
ing before  winter;  for  this  fljould 
;  !)y  ail  means  be  prevented.  But 
;  in  no  cafe  Ihould  a  bead  be 
fullered   to    feed   on    it    in    the 

NV^hcat  is  ripe  for  cutting 
when  the  llraw  is  turned  yellow, 
its  ears  hang,  no  greennefs  ap- 
pears in  the  middle  of  them,  and 
the  grain  is  hard  when  bitten." 

Ihc  farmers  in  England  cut 
their  wheat  greener  than  they 
did  formerly,  becaufc  they  find 
it  makes  a  rather  whiter  flour, 
which  fells  at  a  higher  price. 
Otieot  their  fkillul  farmers,  who 
cuts  his  wheat  early,  fays,  that 
he  lound  upon  trial,  his  wheat 
early  reaped  was  heavier  bv  the 
biiihcl,  tliati  the  fame  wheat  when 
it  Hood  till  it  was  thoroughly 
ripe.  This  iri>-ht  be  owing  to 
its  greater  fmoothncfs,  by  means 
of  which  it  lay  clofer  in  the  bulh- 
el  ;  for  »t  is  hardly  credible  titat 
the  whole  crop  will  be  heTvicr 
lor  cutting  it  green.  But  as  lofs 
by  (haltering  out  the  corn  is  thus 
l>revcntcd,  it  may  be  a  balance 
to  its  (hrinklng  the  more,  as  I 
think  it  certainly  docs.  The 
prudent  farmer  mufl;  life  his  own 
judgment  in  this  mattci. 
j  Wheat  and  other  grain  that  is 
'  lodged,  may,  and  ought  to  be, 
cm  the  earlier  :  For  after  the 
draw  is  broken  vr  corrupted,  it 
conveys  no  noiuilhmcnt  ic  the 
grain,  or  as  bad  as  none. 

The  ancients  reaped  their  corn, 
as  Pliny  fuvs,  before  it  was  fully 
ripe.  And  it  is  certain  that  great 
inconvcnicnrcs  arif.f'ioni  letting 
fome  forts  of  grain  Hand  till  tbty 
come  to  their  utmoft  maturity. 
The  chaff  and  flraw  are  the  worle 
fodder.  .\nd  ilTuch  corn  chance 
to  take  wet  in  harvellin;*,  it  fuf- 
fers  the  more  tor  being  very 
ripe.    Bui  corn  cut  in  a  greener 

Hate 


3-So  Yi  H  E 

itatewill  bear  a  good  deal  oi  wet 
without  damage. 

When  corn  is  blighted,  Tt 
fhouM  be  cnt  the  fooner,  or  even 
betbreit  is  halt  ripe.  For  though 
it  ceafes  to  receive  nounfh'.ncnt 
through  the  llraw,  it  is  fdid  it 
•will  improve  by  lying  in  the  ear, 
and  that  it  threlhes  out  the  more 
eafily,  _ 

One  acre  of  grain  is  a  large 
day's  work  for  the  reaper.  The 
iifua!  price  ot  reaping  an  acre  in 
this  country,  has  been  a  bulhel  of 
tlie  grain. 

From  three  to  fo:ir  quarters, 
that  is,  from  twenty  four  to  thir- 
ty two  bufhels  of  wheat  on  an 
acre,  is  reckoned  in  England  to 
be  a  good  crop. 

To  prevent  lofs  by  fliedding, 
the  corn  which  is  laid  in  grips,  is 
to  be  bound  up  in  Ihcavcs, either 
in  the  cool  ol  tl>e  evenings  or 
before  the  de-A-  is  quite  gone  off 
in  the  morning.  And  it  Ihould 
Tiever  be  removed  either  into  the 
li^ock,  the  barn,  or  the  ftack,  in 
the  middle  of  a  funny  day,  but 
rather  at  a  time  when  the  flight 
dew  isjuflfufficicnt  to  prevent  its 
ihedding.  Scethearticle //arcry?. 

As  to  (owing  wheat  in  drills, 
fee  New  HulLandry. 

But  fetting  of  wheat  is  reck- 
oned by  fome  of  the  Englifh  as 
a  great  improvement  in  hulband- 
ry.  A  Norfolk  farmer  one  yejr 
fet  filty  feven  acres.  The  fuperi- 
ority  of  his  crop,  both  in  quantity 
and  quality,  was  fo  great  that  it 
induced  him  the  following  year 
to  fet  three  hundred  acres,  and 
he  has  continyed  in  the  practice 
ot  fetting  ever  fince.  This  no- 
ble experiment  was  the  means  of 
introducing  the  pra6lice  in  the 
vicinity,  and  to  a  confiderable 
■extent.  Though  the  fet  crops 
appear  very  thin  during  autumn 
?nd  winter,  the  plants  tiller  and 
^readprodigioufly  in  the  fprin^. 


W    H  E 

;  The  cars  and  the  grain  are  iarff 
}  er,   and  fpcci.fically  heavier  per 
!  bufhel  than  other  wheat, 
i      The  lands  on  which  this  meth- 
od is  moll  profpcrous  ore,  either 
j  aiter  clover  Ikibb'e,  or  on  which 
j  tretoil  and   gjafs  feed  were  fowri 
j  the    fpring   before    lait.      Thefe 
;  grounds,  ajter   the  ufual  manur- 
{  ing,  are  once  turned  over  by  the 
j  plough   in  an  extend:;d  flag  or. 
;  turf,    ten    inches   wide  ;  along 
\  which   a    man,  who  is   called  a 
;  dibbler,  with  two  fetting   irons, 
fomewhat  bigger  than  ramrods, 
but   confiderably   bigger  at  th-a 
lower  end,   and  pointed   at  the 
extremity,  fleps  backward  along 
the  turf,  and  makes    the  holes, 
about   four  inches  afundcr  each 
way,   and   an  inch  deep.     Into 
thefe   holes   the    droppers  drop 
two  grains*  which  is  quite  fufn- 
cient.      Thus    three     pecks    of 
grain    is    enough    tor   an    acre. 
The  regularity  of  its  rifing  gives 
opportunity  for  weeding  or  hantj 
hoeing. 

This  method  is  advantageous 
when  feed  corn  is  dear.  Sir 
Thomas  Bevor  found  the  pro- 
duce to  be  two  bulhcls  per  acre 
more  than  from  fown  wheat, 
having  much  lef'?  fmall  corn  mix- 
ed wuh  it ;  and  it  fetches  a  high- 
er price  three  pence  per  bulhel. 
'Fhc  cxpenfe  ot  dibbhng  an  acre 
is  los. 

Another  new  method  of  culti- 
vation is,  propagating  wheat  by 
dividing  and  tranfplanting  its 
roots.  "  On  the  fccond  ot  June 
1766,  Mr.  C.  M:lh:r  lowed  lom^ 
grains  of  the  common  red  wheat ; 
and  on  the  eighth  of  Augult 
a  (ingle  plant  was  taken  up  and 
feparated  into  eighteen  pans,  and 
each  part  planted  feparateiy. 
Thefe  plants  having  pulhed  out 
feveral  fide  (hoots,  by  about  the 
middle  ot  September,  (bme  ot 
them  were  taken  up  and  divided^. 


W  H  T. 


W  II  E 


3«« 


•hit 


>n:l   liiviiuiti    , 

r  the    w!!*tfr, 

.ion   of  lUem, 

bctv.'cea    the   middle   of 

h  and  th<*  irnldlc  lA  April, 

ice.l    five   hundred    plants. 

wi  re  divid.-d  QO  further. biK 

p^rirmtcd  to  remain.  Tlie  plants 

vscie  ill  gener.tl    ftronger   than 

any  wheat  in   the   fields.     Some 

o|  them  prodiicetl  upwards  of  one 

]r.;a-!red  ears  from  a  (ingle  roof. 

Mjtv  of  the  ears  msafiircd  feven 

inches  in  length,  and  contained 

lijtwcen  fixty  and  feventy  grains. 

ihe  whole  number  ol  cars, 
which,  by  this  prt^c-fs,  were  pro- 
dui  '.'J  from  one  grain  of  wheat, 
v\a^  111,109;  ^^'hich  yielded  three 
iwk.s  ^nd  three  quarters  of  clear 
ctirn,  the  weight  of  which  was 
47  H  joz  :  An.d  from  a  calcula- 
tK»n  in.ide  by  counting  the  num- 
hor  ct  grains  in  an  ounce,  the 
V.  r,  L-  :.  ■•■.•^^CT  of  grains  was  a- 
:)'!■'.     57'>,.v;o.''      Ericycfop:ed:.i. 

Though  tins   mi-th<>d  is   curi- 

''i';.  it  is  attended  with  fo  muoh 

'.  few  or  none   wilt  be 

,  ..  io  follow  Mr.  Millei's 
example. 

WHEEL,  a  fimple  machine, 
con  filling  ol  a  round  piece  oH 
matter,  revolving  on  an  axis*  It 
is  one  ol  ike  principal  mechan- 
ic k.  powers. 

As  the  fanner  has  ratich  occa- 
r^in   tor   ufing    wheel  carriages, 

n^ihing  ought  to  be  faid  of 
\^  !;cr!s  ill  a  work,  of  this  kind. 
A  id  perhaps  the  following  oI>- 
Icrvaiums  rii.r 

to  ihofc  who  ■  . 

iit'jcc  ol  inloriiiaiiu.i. 

I.  The    wheels    of    carriages 

mil  be  exactly  round.     For  if 

f!: '  mve  were  out  ot  the  centre, 

1  in  turning  woiild    be 

in  liic  fame  tuauner  up- 


on plain  groM'id,  as  '-  :1s 

arc  whcr;"  the  groun  .  n; 

and  the  difficulty  of  the  draught 
is  in  the  fame  manner  increafed. 
For  this  rcufon,  wo<xleti  wheels, 
which  are  deii:;ned  to  go  on  the 
roads,  (liould  always  be  iho;l  with 
iron  ;  becaufe  thoftr  which  are 
not,  by  wearing  fafler  in  feme 
parts  of  the  rtm  than  in  others, 
■fooa  lofc  their  circular  form,  and 
become  harder  to  cJr  iw,  jolting 
up  and  dowu  9n  the  mod  level 
way. 

e.  The  fdloes  or  the  rim,  mud 
be  at  right  angles  with  th«  naves, 
or  hubs,  notwithff:inding  the  in- 
clination ot  the  fpokes  ;  for 
ottierwife  the  wlicels  will  not 
move  regularly  in  the  ruts,  but 
form  a  crooked  track  upon  the 
ground,  jufl  as  it  dt>cs  when  the 
axis  i.s  too  final!  to  fill  the  hole, 
or  Ixjxes,  in  the  nis'c.  This  is 
as  really  detrimental  to  the  going 
of  wheels  as  their  being  out  of 
round.  The  fpokes,  in  this  cafe, 
will  not  be  all  eq:ially  inclined 
t<^  the  nave,  and  the  wheel  will 
h:i\e  the  Icfs  flr^ngth,  and  will 
be  more  liable  to  be  broken  in 
moving  upon  an  uneven  place. 

3,  The  fpokes  milf  be  fo  fet 
in  the  nave  is  to  incline  outwards. 
This  would  be  needlefs  and 
wrong,  if  wheels  were  always  to 
be  moved  on  a  perfVit  plane  ;  for 
they  would  bear  the  load  perpen- 
dicularly. IJut  as  witeels  mufl 
often  go  upon  uneven  places, 
and  '^all  into  lioles  and  ruts,  aqd 
as  the  wheel  that  is  lowefl  bears 
a  greater  parr  ot  t!»e  load  than 
the  other,  and  fomeiimcs  alinijft 
tlie  wh  »l<'  of  it  ;  it  is  neceflary 
that  thv-  wb.ecl  Ihould  become- 
perpen  licjljr  at  the  moment  of 
Its  linkin:;  in  tlie  part  un'.ltr  the 
nave.  Dilhing  wheels  are  alio 
Icfs  !'  !i'r'  ?->  hr  o   "-T-*  th:-:i  j-rr- 


ihc 


382         W  H  E 

4.  The  axletree  mufl  be  at 
rl^ht  angles  with  the  fhaft,  or 
tongue,  ot  a  cart  or  waggon. 
Otherwife  it  will  not  move 
i^raight  forwards  in  the  track,  or 
directly  after  the  team,  but  fide- 
ways.  But  the  axle  fhould  be  fo 
fet  in  the  naves,  that  the  wheels 
may  be  gathering  forward,  as  it 
is  called,  that  is,  that  the  fore 
parts  of  the  rims  may  be  a  little 
nearer  together  than  the  hinder 
parts.  Otherwife  the  wheels 
■will  notfoeafily  keep  in  the  ruts, 
as  will  appear  evidently  to  any 
one  thai  takes  notice  of  their  go- 
ing. And  the  axle  is  ufually  fo 
inferted  into  the  naves,  that  the 
wheels  gather  at  the  bottom. 
This  evidently  gives  an  advan- 
tage to  the  axle  ;  as  the  wood,  in  ; 
fitting  itto  the  holes  of  the  naves, 
is  not  cut  acrofs  the  grain  on  the 
under  fide,  it  is  not  fo  liable  to 
be  broken  by  the  weight  of  the 
load.  Whether  there  be  any 
other  advantage  in  it,  I  do  not 
determine.  But  it  is  certain  that, 
in  this  cafe,  the  fpokes  in  the 
Jower  part  of  the  wheel,  which 
have  the  whole  prefTure  of  the 
load,  will  be  the  nearer  to  a  per- 
pendicular fituation,  while  on 
level  ground,  which  feerns  to  be 
fome  advantage.  But  the  lower 
fpokes  ought  in  no  part  of  a  fid- 
Jing  road,  to  lean  outwards.  For 
this  will  put  both  the  axle  and 
the  wheel  to  a  great  ftrain. 

5.  H'gh  wheels  are  more  eafi- 
ly  drawn  than  low  ones.  They 
ha'/e  lefs  refinance  from  friftion, 
fuppofing  the  axle  to  he  ot  the 
fame  fize  as  in  low  wheels,  which 
ought  to  be  fuppofed.  the  foad  be- 
ing the  fame.  For  a  wheel  that 
has  double  the  circum.fcrence  ot 
another,  will  make  but  one  turn 
Avhile  the  other  makes  two  ;  con- 
fequently  the  firft  will  have  but 
Lalf  fo  much  friftion  to  over- 
come   as    the    fecond.      High 


W  H  E 

wheels  have  alfo  the  advantage 
of  low  ones  in  furmounting  ob- 
ftacles,  as  every  fpoke  a6ts  as  a 
lever,  in  moving  the  wheel  for- 
ward, and  as  a  longer  Ipoke  re- 
moves the  power  to  a  greater  dif- 
tance  from  the  weight.  And 
high  wheels  eafily  pafs  over  holes 
into  which  fmall  ones  would 
fink  ;  and  the  impreffion  they 
make  upon  foft  ground  is  not  to 
deep  as  that  which  is  made  by 
fmall  ones,  as  a  greater  portion 
ot  their  rim  is  always  in  conta6l 
with  the  foil. 

It  is  objected,  that  a  cart  with 
high  wheels  is  more  apt  to  over- 
turn. This  inconvenience  might 
be  eafily  removed,  by  taflening 
the  lower  timbers  of  the  cart  to 
the  under  fide  of  the  axle,  as  in 
fome  parts  of  this  country  has 
been  praftifed  for  a  long  time, 
particularly  in  coal  carts. 

Another  objetiion  to  high 
wheels  is,  that  they  make  the 
cattle  draw  too  high.  This  may 
receive  the  fame  anfwer  as  the 
former.  Or  they  may  be  made 
to  draw  low,  by  fixing  the  traces 
to  arms  made  for  the  puroofe, 
reaching  as  far  below  ttilQfetle 
as  any  one  pleafes.  ^''' 

6.  The  fore  and  hinder  wheels 
of  a  waggon  fhould  be  ot  equal 
height,  in  order  to  render  the 
draught  as  eafy  as  potlible,  as 
Dr.  Defaguliers  proved  by  ex- 
periments. 

7.  All  perfons  who  ufe  the 
fame  roads  fhould  place  their 
wheels  at  the  fame  diflances 
f'om  each  other.  For  he  who 
does  not  obferve  this  caution, 
but  makes  them  go  two  or  three 
inches  wider  or  narrower,  will 
find  that  he  rauft  carry  a  lefs 
load  than  others  do,  in  propor-  , 
tion  to  the  flrength  of  his  team. 

Laffly,  broader  nms  than  thofe 

which     are    in     common     ufe, 

would  be  more  conducive  to  the 

goodaefs 


W  H  E 

jroo>4ucfs  of  the  roads,  if  all  who 
•Irivc  teams  in  the  lame  roads 
wuul  I  agree  to  lu*  confined  to 
the  lame  brcaflth.  For  the  broad- 
ci  the  rim,  the  lefs  the  wheels  will 
fink  into  the  foil  ;  but  the  nar- 
rower the  rim. the  deeper  ruts  will 
be  mi  I  .     Se.'  the  article  Cart. 

WHEEZING,  or  PUR- 
SIVENESS.  a  diftempcr  m 
hoffes,  otherwife  called  Broken 
frmJ,  in  which  the  horfe  makes 
a  hiding  or  whiftling  lound  in 
his  throat  in  breathing,  and  has 
a  greater  heaving  in  the  Qanks 
than  in  common  colds. 

This  diforder  is  commonly 
caiifed  by  furfeiting,  violent  ex- 
ercifc  when  the  belly  is  full,  or 
by  being  rid  or  driven  into  the 
water  when  he  iihot  and  f\veaty, 
or  from  an  obflinate  cold  not 
well  cured. 

For  the  cure  of  this  diforder. 
Dr.  Braken  advifcs,  "  that  the 
horfc  Ihould  have  good  nourifli- 
ment,  much  corn  and  little  hay, 
and  that  every  day  the  water 
given  him  be  impregnated  with 
Inli  an  ounce  ol  (alt  petrc,  and 
two  drams  of  fal  ammoniac." 
the  hay  mide  ot  white 
cure  this  diftemper. 
[ELP,  the  young  ol  a  dog, 
fox.  lion,  or  any  wild  beaft. 

WHEY,  the  fero.is  part  of 
milk,  or  tliat  which  remains  fluid 
when  the  curd  is  taken  lor 
checfe. 

Whey  is  an  important  liquor 

for  Iwinc.     They  arc  extremely 

fond  of  it,  and  it  conduces  much 

to    their   growth  and    fattening. 

It  is  particularly  proper  for  fows 

that   Tickle    pigs,    as   it   greatly 

■  their   milk.     But  care 

!  •  T.iken  not  to  overfeed 

»r  ;  tor    it 

.   that   after 

y  of  it,  efpc- 

•  .1    .  _   _         I  wc^'-licr-  tlicy 

fweli  up  and  die. 


[WO   aram 
Soo^fiy  { 
weflfvill 
WHEL 


W  H   I  38a 

WHITE  SCOUR,  a  dif- 
eafe  wifh  which  Iheep  are  of- 
ten aHefcied,  and  is  fatal  to 
them  in  otiier  countries,  tliough 
I  have  not  known  11  to  be  fo  in 
this. 

"  The  following  medicine 
has  been  often  given  with  fuccefs, 

fjrovided  the  ll.cep  are  at  the 
ame  time  removed  into  a  dry 
piifture. 

Take  a  pint  of  old  verjuice, 
half  a  pound  of  common  or 
bay  fait,  dried  well  before  the 
fire, pounded, and  fifted  through 
a  fieve.  Then  mix  the  ver- 
juice with  the  fait  by  dej^rees  ; 
and  add  half  a  pint  ot  com- 
mon gin,  and  bottle  it  up  for 
ufe.  \Vhenariy  ot  your  Ihcep 
are  feized  with  this  difor- 
der. feparate  them  from  the 
flock,  and  give  each  ol  them 
three  large  tabic  fpoonfuls  of 
the  mixture  tor  a  dofc,  repeat- 
ing it  two  days  after,  if  they 
are  not  better."  Complete  Fat" 
mer. 

WHITE  WEED,  or  PISS- 
ABED,  a  hated  weed  in  our 
mowing  lands  and  paitures, 
which  anfwers  to  thedefcription 
of  the  Greater  D.itfy,  or  Ox  Eye, 
mentioned  by  BritiOi  writers, 
and  called  by  fome  Maudlin, 
icort.     See  IVeedi. 

It  has  a  five  cornered  ftalk. 
The  leaves  are  ja:;v;cd.  and  em- 
brace the  ftalk.  1  he  fliiwers  are 
difcous,  large  an-l  radiate*.!.  TUtj 
ray  is  white,  and  the  diflt  yel- 
low ;  the  feeds  have  no  down. 
It  flowers  in  June,  and  i&  pe- 
rennial in  the  roots. 

When  this  weed  has  got  pof- 
fefllon  of  the  ground,  no  good 
graCes  grow  w.th  it  ;  becaufe, 
perhaps,  the  roots  hind  the  foil 
in  fuch  a  manner  as  ro  cramp 
other  roots.     Or,  I  >ng 

feeder,  it  tleons  ci  l  ^  oi 

their  tood 

W'UCM 


384 


W  I  L 


When  i I  is  in  its  green  date, 
neither  neat  cattle  ni^-  liorfes 
will  cat  it.  But  if  it  be  cut 
while  in  hlofFoni,  and  well  dried 
for  hay,  the  cattle  will  eat  it  free- 
ly in  winter,  and  live  well  on  it. 
The  crop  howex'eris  always  thin 
and  light.  If  it  is  mowed  late,  or 
not  well  cured  and  prelcrved, 
the  hay  will  be  of  very  little 
value. 

Dunging  the  grcrund  is  cm  en- 
emy to  this  weed  ;  and  it  is  laid 
that  pafturing  wlth'lheep  kills  it. 
But  to  conquer  it  elfeCtually, 
there  can  be  no  better  way  than 
to  ufe  the  land  in  tillage,  for 
hoed  crops,  fevcral  years  in  fuc- 
cefhon. 

WILLOW,  Sidix,  called  al- 
io fallow  and  ofccr,  a  well  known 
tree,  ot  which  there  are  many 
fpecies. 

Some  willows  may  be  propa- 
gated to  great  advantage  for  lire 
woofl,  as  they  are  very  rapid  in 
their  grov.th. 

Other  kinds  have  twigs  that 
are  long  and  tough,  and  are  uie- 
ful  for  hoops,  bafltet  work,  &c. 
Thefe  are  commonly  kept  low 
by  cutting  ;  when  this  is  ne- 
glefted  they  grow  into  large 
trees. 

A  wild  fbrubby  willow,  natur- 
al to-this  couuLry,  is  common  in 
our  wet  lands.  This  is  called 
white  willow,  S^hx  alba,  and 
in  rrtedicine  is  a  good  iubflitutc 
for  the  Cor  it  X  peyui'ianiis. 

The  Jail  X  vnninalu,  the  tough- 
eft  kind  of  willow,  has  not,  that  I 
know,  been  yet  propagated  in 
this  country.  The  weeping 
willow,  fo  called,  has  been  im- 
ported irom  Europe  :  But 
Vi-hether  it  profpcrs  1  atn  unable 
to  fay. 

No  more  than  two  forts  of  for- 
eign willow  have  been  ;nuch 
propagated  in  this  country,  a  yel- 
low and  agrecn  fort.  The  former 


\V  I  L 

grows  well,  even  in  a  foil  that  13 
pretty  dry.  The  Intter  llourifiies 
hnelv  in  a  \\'<:i  firuation. 

Mr.  Miller  fays,  "  All  forts  of 
willows  may  be  eafily  propagated 
by  cuttings  or  fets,  either  in  the 
fpring  or  autumn,  which  readily 
take  roo^.  Thofe  forts  which 
grow  to  be  large  trees,  are  culti-. 
vated  ior  their  timber,  fo  arc 
generally  planted  from  fets 
which  are  about  feven  or  eight 
leet  long ;  thefe  are  fliarpened 
at  their  larger  end,  and  ilirull  in- 
to tire  ground  by  the  fides  of 
ditches  and  banks,  where  The 
ground  is  moifl ;  in  which  places 
they  make  a  confiderable  prog- 
iefs,  and  are  a  great  improve- 
ment to  fuchellates,  becaufe  their 
•fOps  will  be  lit  to  lop  every  fifth 
or  fixth  year.  This  is  the  ufual 
method  now  praftifed  in  moft 
parts  of  England,  where  the 
trees  are  cuUis'ated,  as  they  are 
generally  intended  for  prefent 
profit.  But  if  they  are  dehgned 
lor  large  trees,  or  are  cultivated' 
tor  their  wood,  they  fhould  be- 
]ilanted  in  a  different  manner  ; 
ior  thofe  which  are  planted 
from  fets  of  feven  or  i'^^^t 
feet  long,  always  fend  W^  ^' 
number  ol  branches  toward  the 
top,  winch  fpread,  and  torm 
large  heads  fit  tor  lopping  :  But 
their  principal  Hem  never  ad- 
vances in  height  ;  therefore, 
where  regard  is  paid  to  that  they 
ihould  be  propagated  by  Ihort 
young  brandies,  which  thould 
be  put  alniolt  their  whole  Iji'gth 
in  the  ground,  leaving  only  two, 
or  at  molt  but  three  buds  out  of 
the  ground.  And  when  thefe 
have  made  one  year's  Ihoot  they 
niould  be  all  cut  off,  except  one 
ot  the  flrongefl  and  bell  fituated, 
%v'hich  mult  be  trained  up  to  a 
Item,  and  treated  in  the  fame 
way  as  timber  trees.  Jt  thefe 
arc  planted  with  fuch  a   defign, 

the 


w  I  U 

thfr  rows  fliould  be  fix  fret  afun- 
der,  and  fcts  four  tect  diflance 
in  the  row*  :  By  planting  them 
fo  clofc  they  will  naturally 
draw  each  other  upward  ;  and 
when  they  arc  grown  fo  large  as 
to  cover  the  ground  and  meet, 
they  fhould  be  gradually  thinned, 
fo  as  at  the  lalt  to  leave  every 
other  row,  and  the  plants  in  the 
rows,  about  eight  feet  afunder.  If 
they  are  fo  treated,  the  trees  will 
grow  to  a  large  fize,  and  rife  with 
upright  rtenis  to  the  height  of 
fony  feet  or  more. 

*'  When  thefe  cuttings  are 
planted,  it  is  ufual  to  Ihacpen 
thofe  ends  to  a  point,  which  are 
put  into  the  ground,  for  the  bet- 
ter thruftingof  them  in  ;  but  the 
beft  way  is  to  cut  them  horizon- 
tally, juft  below  the  bud  or  eye, 
and  to  make  holes  with  an  iron 
in  the  ground  where  each  cut- 
ting is  to  be  planted,  and  when 
they  are  put  in,  the  ground 
Ihould  be  prelfed  clofe  about  the 
cuttings  with  the  heel,  to  fettle  it, 
and  prevent  the  air  from  penetrat- 
ing to  the  cuttings. 

"  The  after  care  rauft  be  to 
icijM|  hern  clear  from  weeds  the 
r*m'  ft  feafons,  by  which  time 
they  will  have  acquired  fo  much 
ftrength,  as  to  overpower  and 
keep  down  the  weeds  :  They 
will  alfo  require  fome  trimming 
in  winter,  to  take  off  any  lateral 
ihoots,  which,  it  fuflered  to  grow, 
would  retard  their  upright  prog- 
Tcfs." 

WIND  GALL,  "  a  flatulent 
fwelluig,  which  yields  to  the 
prcfTure  ot  the  finger,  and  recov- 
ers its  fhape  ow  the  removal 
thereof.  The  tumour  is  vifibleto 
the  eye,  and  often  feated  on  both 
fides  of  the  back  iinex%i,  above 
the  f  ■  '  -  he  fore  Irgs  ; 
but  :  y  on  the  hind 

legs  ;  II:  are  met  with 

ia   varic  .  of  ibc   bcKlv, 

Z  2 


WIN  38f5 

wherever  membranes  can  be  fo 
fepjiated,  that  a  qu.mtity  of  air 
and  ferofities  may  be  included 
within  their  duplicaturer. 

**  When  thev  appear  near  the 
joints  and  tendons,  they  are  gen- 
craly  caufcd  by  (trains,  or  bruifes 
on  the  finews,  or  the  (heath  that 
covers  them  ;  which,  by  being 
o^  erftretched,  have  fome  of  their 
fibres  ruptured  ;  whence  proba- 
bJy  im^y  ooze  out  th*t  fluid 
whi^  is  commonly  found  with 
the  included  air  ;  though  where 
thefe  fwellings  fhew  themfelves 
in  the  interfhces  of  large*  niuf- 
cles.  which  appearblown  up  like 
bladders,  air  alone  is  the  chief 
fluid  ;  and  thefe  may  fafely  be 
opened,  and  treated  as  a  commoa 
wound. 

"  On  the  firfl  appearance  of 
wind  galls,  their  cure  (hould  bo 
attempted  by  reftringents  and 
bandage,  for  which  purpofe  let 
the  fwelling  be  bathed  twice  a 
day  with  vinegar,  or  verjuice 
alone,  or  let  the  part  be  foment- 
ed with  a  deco8ion  of  oak  bark^ 
pomegranate,  and  alum  boiled 
in  verjuice,  binding  over  it,  with 
a  roller,  a  woollen  cloth  foaked 
in  the  fame.  Some  for  this  pur- 
pofe ufe  red  vrh\s  lee^,  others 
curriers*  (havings  wetted  with' 
the  fame,  bracing  the  part  up 
with  a  firm  bandage. 

"  If  tkis  method,  after  a  prop- 
er trial,  (hould  not  be  found  to 
fucceed,  authors  have  adviled 
that  the  fwelling  be  pierced 
with  an  awl,  or  opened  with 
a  Itnife  ;  but  mild  bliflcr- 
ing  is  in  general  preferred  to 
thefe  methods  ;  the  included 
fluids  being  thereby  drawn  off, 
the  impacted  air  difperfcd,  and 
the  tumour  gradually  dimmifh- 
ed.  A  little  of  the  bliftering 
ointment  (hould  be  laid  oh  every 
other  day  for  a  week,  which 
brings  on  a  plentiful  difcharge, 

but 


^26 


w  r  K^ 


but  generally  in  a  lew  days  is 
dried  up,  when  the  hoi  le  may  be 
t3ut  to  his  ulnal  work,  and  the 
bh'ftering  oiiltmeni.  ienev;e(l  in 
that  manner  once  a  month  or 
oftener,  as  the  horfe  can  be 
ipared  from  bnfiaers,  till  the 
cure  is  conipleted.  This  is  the 
only  method  to  prevent,  fears, 
which  firing  of  courfe  leaves 
behind,  and  unlefs  fkilfully  exe- 
cuted, too  often  likewife  a  ful- 
nefs  of  the  joint,  with  ftiffiiefs. 
The  mild  blrileiing  ointment, 
where  the  fublimate  is  left  out, 
is  the  propereft  for  this  purpofe." 
Bartlet's  Farrttry,  page  276. 

WINE,  a  general  name  given 
to  any  brifk  and  cordial  liquor 
drawn  from  vegetable  bodies, 
and  fermented  ;  but  it  is  the 
more  appropriate  name  of  the 
juice  of  the  grape. 

My  general  defign  wilt  per- 
mit me  only  to  give  an  abftraft 
of  the  making  and  management 
of  vvines,  as  praftifcd  in  Trance. 
The  wine  prelfes  that  are  ufed 
in  that  country  arefimilar  to  the 
fcrew  prefTes  that  we  ufe  in  mak- 
ing cider,  but  ot  more  nitc  and 
exquifite  workraanihip. 

"  In  orderto  make  good  wines, 
the  grapes  of  the  fame  vine  mult 
be   gathered   at  difTereat   dmes. 
The    firll  gathering    (hould   be 
the  ripell  clullers,    cut  clofe  to 
the  fruit,  to  avoid  the   fhafpnefs  ; 
and  aufterity  of  the  flalk,  and  all 
rotteir  and   green  grapes  Ihould  1 
be  taken  away  irom  the  branch-  ' 
cs.  i 

"   The    fecond    gathering    is 
fome  time  alter   the  firft,   when  : 
al^that  are  ripened    arc  taken,  j 
The  third  and  laft  gathering  will  ; 
confift  of  the  retufe  of  the  two 
former ;  but   no   rotten    grapes 
ihould  be  admitted  in  either.         ; 
"  A  method  of  making  wine  ; 
in  the  greateft   perfection  is,  to 
&rip  the  giapes  from  the  Items,  \ 


before  they  go  into  the  v^i^ 
Wine  thus  made  is  the  mellow- 
cfl,  bell  coloured,  foundeft,  and 
'itieft  for  keeping. 

"The  wine  of  black  grapes^ 
may  be  made  of  almoft  any  col- 
our ;  and  the  French  make  alf 
their  wines,  both  white  and  redj 
from  black  grapes. 

"  They  who  make  white  wine 
go  into  the  vineyard  in  a  damp 
niiliy  or  dewy  morning,  with  a 
lufficient  number  of  hands  to 
gather  a  whole  prefiing  of  grapes 
in  a  few  hours,  beginning  very 
early  that  they  may  not  be  be- 
lated. They  cut  off  the  beft 
bunches,  lay  them  gently  in 
hand  baflcets,  in  which  they  car- 
ry them  to  the  panniers,  and  in 
the  panniers  pn  gentle  beads  to 
the  prels,  taking  care  not  to  tum- 
ble nor  bruife  them.  The  dew 
increafes  the  quantity  of  the 
wine,  but  renders  it  weaker. 
When  the  heat  is  not  great,  the 
vintagers  continue  their  work 
lUl  eleven  o'clock,  otherwife 
they  leave  off  at  nine  becaufe  of 
a  hot  fun. 

"  As  foon  as  the  grapes  arrive 
they  are  thrown  into  the  piif^'^ 
and  file  firlf  prefling  is  giveil 
without  delay.  The  wine  that 
runs  from  this  prefling  is  th^ 
moll  delicate  of  any,  but  not  the 
lirongeft. 

"  After  this  firfl  preffing, 
which  is  gentle  lor  fear  of  dif- 
colouring  the  liquor,  the  prefs  is 
raifed,  the  fcattering  grapes  are 
laid  up  upon  the  cake,  and  the' 
fecond  prefhng  is  given.  The 
prefs  is  fcrewed  down  with 
greater  lorce  than  before  ;  and 
this  fecond  running  is  but  little' 
inferiour  to  thefirit,  in  flavour  or 
colour.  It  has  the  advantage  in 
this,  that  it  has  a  ftronger  body,. 
and  will  keep  a  longer  time. 
Sometimes  they  mix  the  wine  of 
the-  firll  and  fecond  preffings. 

"  After 


-W  I  N 

**  After  the  two  flill  preflings, 
the  fHtrs  ol  thecdk«"  ot  giaprsare 
cui   '  ■ri<<*n(iiciilarly,  with 

a  fl  .    i  >  far  as  they  ex. 

ccf  I  uif  !-';:!th  ot  the  upper 
P^rt  of  tl.r  puis,  which  is  ict 
down  iij  HI  the  cake.  1  he 
gnpea  u:.n  .irc  cut  off  arc  laid  on 
tne  top  lA  tfjc  cake,  and  the 
thin!  nrellinjf,  commonly  called 
the  firit  CTittin^,  is  given.  The 
juices  of  this  liilf  cutting  are  ex- 
cellent 

"  A  fourth  prrfHo^.  a  fifth,  &c. 
which  arc  callrd  a  lecond  and 
third  cuttinp,  5cc.  arc  afterwards 
given,  the  fules  ol  rite  cike  be- 
ing cut  do\va  and  laid  up  each 
time,  till  the  grapei  ceafc  to 
yield  any  mf)re  juice. 

*' The  liquor  of  the  cuttings 
becomes  gr-idually  more  red,  be- 
caufe  the  prcfs  becomes  more 
iorcibic  on  the  fkin  f)f  the  giapes, 
particles  from  which  render  the 
•wine  red. 

"  The  wines  of  thefe  different 
•CDttings  fas  the  latter  prelhngs 
are  called,]  are  collected  fepa- 
rately,  and  afterwards  mixed  ac- 
cordijig  as  they  contain  m<>re  or  I 
Icij^^thc  quality  that  is  wjnscd. 

^iPie  prt-ilings  for  while 
wine  fhould  be  performed  as 
quick  as  pollihic  one  after  unoth- 
cr,  that  t!ie  grapes  may  not  have 
time  to  h.-jt,  nor  tlie  liauor  re- 
main long  up-^n  the  murk.  Par- 
ticular attention  is  paid  to  this 
for  the  two  firft  runninjjs,  bc- 
caufe  they  are  tlx"  firicfl  wine. 

**  Ot  the  fame  bl.ick  gr.ipcs,  the 
black  m')riilon5,  the  pineaus.and 
the  auvernats,  of  which  white 
wme  IS  made  in  Ci)an)pa:g»,  red 
wine  IS  made  in  Burgundy. 

"  As  much  as  the  heat  of  the  j 
fun  is  avoided  by  the  vintaf^ers 
who  make  white  wine,  io  niuch 
it  is  fougijt  after  and  cholen  hv 
thofe  %irho  make  red  wmc.  TK<*(e 
father  their  grjpcs  wheu  the  idn 


W  I  X  38f 

Thines  hotteft  ;  becaafc  its  artiori 
on  the  outhde  of  the  berries  has 
more  effect  than  fcveral  days* 
flceping  in  the  vat,  as  the  gra^s 
then  ferment  very  fpeedily.  The 
otiicr  cautions  in  gathering 
grapes  for  white  wine  arc  obfcrv- 
ed  here. 

"  Souve  cxprcfs  the  juice  of 
thefe  grapes  in  the  open  air,  in 
the  vineyard,  or  near  it,  by 
throwing  the  bunches  into  large 
tubs,  and  there  raalhing  and 
bruifing  them  to  pieces  with 
flicks,  or  putting  children  into 
the  tubs,  to  tread  out  the  juice. 
Others  carry  them  home,  ob- 
fcrving  not  to  bruife  them  by 
the  way,  and  put  thetn  in  a  vat, 
in  which  they  arc  trodden  and 
maflied.  This  is  repealed,  in  ei- 
tiier  cafe,  till  the  veiiel  is  lull  ; 
after  which  the  broken  grapes 
lie  m  the  liquor  more  or  icfs 
time,  according  to  the  heat  of  the 
weather,  the  flavour  of  the  mulf, 
and  the  degree  of  colour  intend- 
ed to  be  given  to  the  wine. 
During  this  time,  the  whole  is 
frequently  fi'nred  together,  the 
better  to  raife  a  fermentation, 
and  tinge  the  liquor  with  a  due 
degree  of  red. 

"  Some  fay  the  grapes  flioidd 
lie  in  the  liquor  foity  eight 
hours,  while  orhcrs  talk  of  let- 
ting 'them  infufe  [even  or  eight 
days,  or  longer.  Buitheautljors 
of  the  Maijon  Rujcqur  fay  that 
the  duration  of  the  infuiion  of  the 
hulks  Ihould  be  pro])ortioneti  to 
the  heat  of  the  weather,  tiie  qual- 
ity of  the  gfapes,  and  the  intend- 
ed colour  of  the  wine.  For  the 
Coula;ige  wine  four  hours  only 
are  allowed.  The  wine  is  apt  to 
contra£l  a  rough uefs  from  the 
ilalks,  if  it  remains  too  long  on 
them  ;  and  ux>  nnich  fermenting 
ot  the  mull  renders  the  w\r\c 
liarfli  and  coarfe,  depriving  it  oi 
iu  voM  volatile  parts.    Others 

make 


388         W  I  N 

make  it  a  rule  not  to  draw  off 
their  mud  till  its  head  begins  to 
fall  ;  but  this  is  evidently  wrong, 
becaufe  a  great  part  of  the  moll 
aftive  fpirits  of  the  liquor  is  thus 
evaporated, 

"  Indeed,  for  thicker,  heavier 
and  coarfer  wines  than  thofe  of 
Burgundy  and  Orleans,  which 
are  chiefly  intended  above  ;  fuch, 
for  example,  as  the  Bourdeaux 
claret,  a  whole  day  is  frequeritly 
allowed  for  iteeping  of  the  hufks, 
and  fometimes  more,  before  the 
prefs  is  recurred  to, 

"  When  the  mult  has  ferment- 
ed upon  the  hufks  in  the  tubs  or. 
vars,  as  long  as  is  thought  proper, 
it  is  poured  or  drawn  off,  ilrain- 
ed,  and  put  into  cafks.  After- 
wards the  murk,  that  is,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  grapes  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tub  or  vat,  is  colleded 
together,  and  put  into  the  prefs, 
and  preffed  three  or  four  times,  ] 
till  it  is  perfetlly  dry,  the  fides 
being  cut  down  each  time,  as  in 
making  white  wine.  The  liquor 
thus  obtained,  efpecially  if  the 
prefs  be  fcrewed  fo  tight  as  to 
crack  the  feeds  of  the  grapes,  has 
a  ftronger  body  than  the  former 
running,  but  not  any  part  of  its 
fine,  high  and  delicate  flavour. 
Some,  however,  mix  a  little  of 
it  with  their  other  wines;  to 
ilrengthen  them,  and  make  them 
keep  the  better. 

"  Others,  from  a  fpirit  of  econ- 
omy, pour  as  much  water  as  they 
think  proper  upon  the  murk  in 
the  vat,  immediately  a«er  the 
m-ufl  has  been  drawn  off.  They 
do  it  without  delay,  left  the 
murk  fhould  turn  four,  as  it  is 
apt  to  do.  Then  they  ifir  it  a- 
bout,  and  leave  it  upon  the 
murk,  a  longer  or  fhorter  time, 
according  to  the  heat  of  the 
weather,  till  they  find  it  pretty 
high  coloured,  and  judge  that  it 
his  ijicorporated  all  the  remain- 


W  I  N 

ing  particles  and  fpirit  of  the 
wine.  Th-ey  then  draw  this  wa- 
ter off  into  another  veffel,  and 
carry  the  remaining  murk  to  the 
prefs,  where  they  fqueeze  it  till 
no  moifture  remains  in  it.  The 
liquor  thus  expreffed  is  mixed 
witfi  that  which  was  drawn  off  be- 
fore, and  is  then  barrelled.  This 
is  chiefly  intended  for  common 
ufe,  or  rather  for  fervants  ;  but 
it  will  keep  no  longer  than  dur- 
ing the  following  winter,  though 
it  is  brifk  and  pleafant  enough 
while  it  keeps  good. 

"  Another  ufe  the  French  make 
of  the  murk,  is,  to  mend  fuch  of 
their  wines,  v/hetherold  or  new, 
as  are  deficient  in  colour  or 
flrength.  They  turn  them  out  of 
the  cafks  into  the  vat  immediately 
after  the  muft  has  been  drawn 
off,  llir  the  murk  up  fo  as  to  mix 
it  thoroughly  with  the  wine,  and 
let  it  fland  twenty  four  hours  if 
It  be  new  wine,  and  tweh'e  hours 
if  it  be  old.  -When  they  find 
it  has  taken  a  fuflicient  degree 
of  colour,  and  that  it  is  not 
fweet  to  the  tafle,  but  agreeable 
to  drink  ;  they  draw  it  off;  bar- 
rel it  up  feparately,  that  they 
may  know  it  again,  and  put  the 
remaining  murk  to  the  preis. 

"  The  white  unripened  grapes, 
that  were  rejected  at  the  former 
gatherings,  are  to  hang  on  the 
vines  till  the  latter  end  of  Ofto- 
ber,  or  beginning  of  November, 
that  they  may  be  a  little  bitten 
by  the  froft.  They  are  then 
gathered,  and  a  wine  is  made  of 
them,  which  is  fold  quite  warm 
from  the  vat, and  does  wejl  enough 
to  mix  with  a  coarfered  wine. 

"  When  the  murk  has  under- 
gone the  utmoft  dint  of  preffing, 
it  will  be  as  bard  as  a  flone  ;  but 
even  then  it  will  yield,  when  di- 
luted with  water,  fermented  and 
difliiled,  a  fpirit  for  medical  and 
domeftick  ufes. 

♦'In 


W  I  M 

*•  In  leveral  parts  of  Germany, 
■where  the  grapes  kldom  come 
to  lull  maturity,  the  makers  of 
vine  have  iron  Uoves  in  xUcxt 
•\vine  cellars,  •.  conftant 

fire  m   them  .:  time  ot 

their  fermcniaiuti.  i'hi*,  by 
heightening  the  fermentation, 
rij>ens  and  meliorates  the  wines, 
and  renders  them  more  p<ilata!»Ie. 
txpofing  the  cafks  to  the  fun 
•will  have  the  fame  effect  on  wines 
that  are  too  ^cid  to  ferment  fuf- 
ficienfly. 

"  As  the  wines  of  the  lafl  gath- 
ering are  backward  in  ternicnt- 
ing,  the  people  of  ChampaignanJ 
Burgundy,  ahej  their  wines  have 
been  drawn  oflf  from  their  firft 
lees,  three  weeks  after  bemg  firlt 
put  up,  praciife  rolling  them 
backwards  and  forwards.  1  hey 
do  this  five  or  fix  nmcs  a  day, 
for  four  or  five  days  fuccefTivc- 
ly  ;  then  two  or  three  timei  a 
day  for  three  or  lour  days  ;  af- 
terwards twice  a  day  for  four 
days  ;  then  once  a  day  tor  about 
a  week  ;  and  afterwards  once  in 
four  or  five  days.  It  the  grapes 
were  prefTed  very  green.rolling  m 
this  manner  \\  continued,  in  all, 
for  about  fix  weeks.  But  it  they 
were  tolerably  ripe,  rolling  once 
in  totir  or  fivr  <\^ys,  tor  about  a 
/  ,  is  found    to 

I  rolling  fup- 

piici  ii»c  detect  of  the  firll  fer- 
mentation. 

*'  New  wines  will  generally 
ferment  of  themfelves,  in  a  lew 
days  atier  they  have  b)een  put  in- 
to cafks.  Thofe  that  do  not  may 
be  helped,  by  putting  into  them 
a  little  ot  the  fr«th,  or  yealt, 
which  works  from  the  others. 
The  .'inert  wines  will  work  the 
foonefl,  and  the  fermentation 
will  continue  tor  al)otit  ten  or 
twelve  days,  according  to  the 
fort  of  wine,  and  the  feafon  ot 
the  year. 


W   I  N  389 

■       "  While  the   wme   fcrmcrns 
I  the  bung  hole  of  the  cafks^  inufl 
I  be  le!i  open,  or   only    covered 
'  with  a  thin    linen  cloth,  to   prc- 
'■  \ent   any  dirt  f;  11  ; 

and  this  cloth  tl  wl- 

i  h)w,  fo  that  thetruii;  J:.iii;^  Irofll 
the  fermentation  may  work  off. 
'*  When  the  tcrmentation  i$a> 
bated,  which  is  known  by  the 
froth's  ceafinj;  to  arife  fo  taft  as 
before,  the  bung  may  be  clofed. 
down.after  filling  up  ihecaik  with 
liquor  to  within  f.vo  in"!  of  the 
top.andaventholetJ:.  n- 

ed  and  left,  to  carry  t  er 

!  may  be  thrown  up  by  any  lubfe- 
1  qucnt  fermentation.  This  filling 
I  up  ot  the  cafk  fhould  be  regularly 
performed,  every  two  days,  for  a- 
bout  twelve  days  ;  for  the  fer- 
mentation will  continue  a  confid- 
erable  time  in  lt)me  degree  :  And 
if  the  cafks  be  not  kept  fo  full  as 
that  the  loulnefs  thrown  up  b>'* 
the  fermentation  may  be  car- 
ried off  at  the  vent  hole,  it  will 
tall  back  again  into  the  wine  and 
prevent  its  becoming  clear.  Af- 
i  terwards  it  mull  benlled  to  with- 
in an  inch  ot  the  bung,  every* 
fifth  or  fixth  day  for  a  month  r 
After  this,  once  a  fortnight  for 
three  months. 

"  1  hough  the  fermentation 
will  be  over  in  a  (}iorter  time, 
yet  the  cafks  rauft  be  filled  uj> 
once  a  month,  fo  long  as  they  re- 
main in  the  cellar.  For  as  the 
wine  will  inlenlil)Iy  wade  in 
them,  it  will  grow  fiat  and  heavy, 
if  it  be  not  conifantiy  kept  filled 
up.  They  Ihoulii  be  filled  up 
with  a  wine  of  the  fame  kind, 
kept  in  forne  fmali  vefTel,  or  ia 
bottles,  tor  this  purpofe  ;  and 
the  vent  holes  muff  lie  ftop{)cd 
when  tfie  fermentation  is  (^vcr. 

"  The  firll  dr.--  -'^  '-m 
the  lees  is  done-.  le 

of  Dcccrrbcr.  .  i 

Hand  without  t'l!  )T 

•j.acr 


590  WIN 

^iflurbance,  till  the  middle  of 
February,  when  it  will  be  right 
to  dra'A'  the  liquor  off  again  into 
other  cafks.  If  the  quantity  of 
lees  is  then  found  to  be  To  con- 
iiierable  as  to  endanger  their 
contracting  a  putrid  taint,  by  re- 
maining too  long  mixed  with 
the  wine,  it  may  be  advifable  to 
draw  it  off  again,  after  a  proper 
interval  ot  time  :  Or  fometimes 
it  may  be  neceffary  to  repeat  the 
Tacking  many  times.  But  in 
racking,  though  care  fliould  be 
taken  to  keep  the  cafks  full, 
Avines  of  difTjmilar  qualities 
fhould  not  be  mixed. 

"  The  lees  of  feveral  cafks  that 
have  been  racked  off  may  be  col- 
lected together,  and  when  the 
thicker  part  has  fubfided,  a  fpirii 
may  be  drawn  from  the  thinner. 

"  When  wine  is  to  be  tranf- 
ported,  and  thereby  neceflTarily 
expofcd  to  a  warmer  air,  brandy 
is  often  added,  to  check  the 
propenfity  to  a  new  fermenta- 
tion. It  is  alfo  fometimes  done 
to  give  flrength  to  the  wine  ;  but 
the  practice  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, unlefs  applied  before 
the  fermentation   is   completed. 

*'  It  is  neceiTary  for  the  prefer- 
vation  of  fome  wines,  which  are 
apt  to  be  on  the  fret,  to  iumigate 
the  cafks  with  burning  briinitone. 
This  refifts  fennentation.  But 
the  colour  of  red  wines  is  faid  to 
be  deftroyed  by  it.  The  colour 
of  wine  is  frequently  artificial. 
A  deep  yellow  is  made  by  burnt 
fugar  :  A  deep  red,  which  is  not 
natural  to  any  wine,  is  almoft  al- 
ways made  by  red  woods,  elder 
berries,  bilberries,  &c. 

"  Turbid  wines  are  fined  by  a 
mixture  of  the  whites  and  (hells 
of  eggs,  powdered  alabaffer,  and 
ifingiafs.  The  fhells  and  alabaf- 
ter  may  corrett  a  fraall  degree  of 
acidity.  Ifingiafs  alone  wiii  iine 
it  in  a  few  days. 


W  I  N 

"  If  wine  is  grown  very  four, 
the  befl  way  of  corre6}ing  it,  fo 
as  to  preferve  the  fpirit  and  fla- 
vour, is,  adding  a  quantity  of  fak 
of  tartar,  fufhcient  to  neutralize 
the  acid,  juft  before  the  wine  is 
ufed. 

"  If  it  be  intended  that  wine 
fliould  not  froth,  the  befl  time 
for  dra^ving  it  off,  whether  into 
bottles  or  cafks,  is  when  the 
weather  is  extremely  fair  and 
clear,  the  barometer  high,  and 
the  wind  northerly  ;  becaufe  the 
air  is  then  cooltff,  and  the  wine 
4eaft  apt  to  be  upon  the  fret." 

Raifin  Wine  is  a  wine  made 
from  raifins  ffeeped  in  water. 

"  Take  thirty  gallons  of  foft 
water,  either  rain  or  river  water, 
in  as  clear  a  ffate  as  pofTible. 
Put  it  into  a  vefTel  at  leait  one 
third  bigger  than  will  contain 
that  quantity  ;  and  then  add  to  it 
one  hundred  weight  of  Malaga 
raifins  picked  from  the  ftalks. 
Mix  the  whole  well  together, 
that  the  raifins  may  not  remain  in 
clotted  lumps  :  And  then  cover 
it  partly,  but  not  entirely,  with  a 
linen  cloth;  and  let  it  ftand  in  a 
v.-ann  place, if  the  feafon  be  not  hot. 
It  will  foon  ferment,  and  mufl  be 
well  ftirred  about,  twice  in  four 
and  twenr\-  hoars,  for  twelve  or 
fourteen  days.  It  mufl:  then  be  ex- 
amined by  the  tafle,  to  try  it  the 
fweetnefs  be  nearly  gone  off ; 
and  if  that  be  found  fo,  and  the 
fermentation  be  greatly  abated, 
which  will  be  perceived  by  the 
raifins  lying  quietly  at  the  bot- 
tom, the  fluid  muil  be  'ftraincd 
off,  and  preffed  out  of  the  raifins, 
firft  by  hand,  and  afterwards  by 
a  prefs,  if  it  can  be  eafily  procur- 
ed. But,  inftead  of  a  prefs,  two 
boards  may  be  ufed,  with  the  af- 
fiftance  cf  a  large  weight,  or  oth- 
er flrong  force,  which  rauft  be 
continued  as  long  as  any  flmd 
can  be  made  to  drop  from  the 

mafs. 


W  I  K 

*mafs.  The  fluid  In-ing  thus  ftp- 
aijtcil  lioni  the  Ikins  ut  the  mi- 
iins,  mull  he  put  iiuo  a  good 
found  wine  cMk,  well  dried  and 
waituod,  t(»^tth«T  with  eight 
pounds  of  Lilbon  fugar.  and  a  lit- 
tle yeafl.  But  fbme  paitol  tl:e  liq- 
uor mull  bekeptuut,  to  be  added 
from  time  to  time,  as  tlie  abate- 
ment ot  the  fermentation,  that 
"Will  come  on  again,  may  admit, 
Avithout  the  wine  riling  out  of 
the  caik.  In  this  itate  it  mull 
continue  tor  a  month,  with  the 
bung  hole  open  :  And  then,  the 
wiiok  ot  the  liquor  kept  out  hav- 
ing been  now  put  into  the  velRd, 
it  niuft  be  clofcly  flopped  up,  fo 
that  no  air  may  enter  :  And  in 
this  ftate  it  mulH  be  kept  a  year, 
or  longer  :  then  bottK-d  off". 

**  The  wine  may  be  drunk,  an<t 
will  be  very  good,  at  the  end  of 
a  year  and  a  half  :  But  it  will  be 
much  better,  it  kept  longer,  and 
M'\\\  improve  for  four  or  five 
years.  When  it  has  a  projier 
age,  it  will  equal  any  of  the 
ftrong  cordial  fi)rcign  wines  ; 
and  may,  by  the  addition  of  prop- 
er fubllances  to  flavoivr  and  rolour 
it,  be  made  to  refenible  them."' 

"  This  IS  the  molf  porfett  kind 
of  what  may  be  called  artificial 
wine  ;  but  otlK-rs  may  be  made 
cheaper.  Expcnfe  mjy  be  favcd^ 
two  ways  :  One  i«,  (ubflituting 
fugar  lor  raifms,  leavinjr  out  four 
pounds  of  raifms  for  one  poiMid 
of  fugar  added.  Or  (he  pro|M>r- 
tion  of  (ligar  aiKi  raifins,  and  a 
proportion  of  clean  malt  Ipirit 
added,  when  the  bung  of  the  calk 
is  doled  up. 

**  Any  other  kind  of  large  rai- 
fins may  bo  ufed,  inflcad  of  tfie 
Malagi.  The  thinner  the  fkins 
arc,  and  the  fweeter  the  pulp, 
the  Oroncer  the  wme  will  be." 

WINNOW  I. \G.  clearing 
corn  from  its  tftall  by  wind.  Sec 
the  article  I'un. 


W  I  T        ^f 

WINTKR,   one  of  the  four 
quarters  of  tlic  year. 

According  to  fome,  winter  be- 
gins at  tlie  time  when  {he  fun's 
di (lance  from  the  zenith  of  the 
place  is  greatoff,  and  ends  at  the, 
vernal  equinox.  But  it  is  more 
uliully  cikiilidiTod  a$  including 
December,  |.muary,  and  Februa- 
ry. Notwifhlt.inding  the  cold 
of  winter,  it  is  proved  by  aftron- 
omers,  that  the  fun  is  nearer  to 
the  earth  in  winter  than  in  fum- 
mer.  The  reafon  of  the  cold  is 
the  incrcaled  obliquity  of  the 
rays  of  the  fun,  together  with  tlie 
increafcd  length  of  the  nights. 

Winter  is  the  feafon  when  the 
days  are  fliorieU  :  Hut  tfic  Ihort- 
1  ncfs  of  the  days  is  little  regretted 
i  by  our  farmcrs,as  they  have  tlien 
j  tlie  moff  leifure,  or  are  leaft  hur- 
ried in  their  bulinefs.      l*'or,  in 
this  country,    the   ground   is  fo- 
;  continually    frozen    in    winter^. 
I  that   none   of  the  operations  ok* 
j  tillage  can  be  performed.     TIte 
I  good    hufbandman,  however,  is 
;  not  idle  ;  his  trees  in  the  begin- 
j  niiig  of  winter  are  to  be  pruned. 
I  and  his  flock  inuft  be  daily  ami 
'  carefully  tended  :  Stones  which 
i  Irave  been  piled  may  in  the  eafi- 
1  ell  manner  be  removed  on  lleds 
I  to   the   places   where   they    arc 
I  wanted,  for  fencing  or  other  ufes. 
;  Such  of  the  produce  of  his  farm 
as  he  can  fpire  may  be  carried  to 
I  market,  wliith  may  be  more  ea-^ 
fily  done  than  at  any  other  feafon, 
I  See  the  article  Enf^loynicnt. 

WINIKK  (JRAIN.   fee  the 

articles  ITkeat  and  Rye. 

\      WIIHK,  a  twig  or  (hoot  oF 

I  tough  \^■^>^^d,   tiled    inftead   of  a 

rope,  to  tie  things  together,  &c. 

Younfr  Ihoots  of  walnut  wood 

.  arc  proper   for  withes  ;  thofe  oF 

birch,  and  of  fome  kinds  of  wil- 

!  low,anlwer  well  enough.  Withes 

I  in  fences  will  laf)  only  twt)>ears 

1  at  the  loiigcll  ;  and  fome  of  them 

we, 


'392         \V  O  L 

are  apt  to  fail  fooner.  Thofe 
which  are  cut  in  autumn,  after 
the  leaves  are  fallen,  will  laft  con- 
fiderably  longer  than  thofe  which 
are  cut  in  the  fpring  or  fummer. 
If  they  lie  for  a  day  or  two  ex- 
pofed  to  the  fun,  after  they  are 
cut,  they  grow  tougher,  and  are 
more  eafily  twifted.  Steeping 
them  in  fait  water  v/ill  render 
them  more  durable. 

WOAD,  called  by  botanifts 
Jfatis  Jhtiva ,  vel  Intifolia.  The 
Jeaves  of  this  plant  are  cut  off  in 
their  full  fap,  fweated  in  heaps, 
and  ground  to  a  pafte,  made  up 
into  balls  and  dried,  to  be  ufed 
in  dving  blue. 

WOLF,  a  wild  beaf^  of  the 
dog  kind. 

This  animal  is  very  fierce,  e- 
qual  in  fize  to  a  large  maftiff,  and 
has  much  the  fame  appearance. 
.  Wolves  are  gregarious,  go  in 
droves,  and  furprife  the  nightly 
traveller  with  their  hideous  yell- 
ing. No  beaft  of  prey  in  this 
country  is  more  formidable  ; 
they  fometiraes  attack  men. 

Newengland,  even  from  its 
firft  fettlement,  has  been  much 
infefted  v;ith  wolves.  And,not- 
withftanding  the  bounties  that 
have  been  given  by  government 
for  deflroying  them,  the  fettle- 
ments  bordering  on  the  wilder- 
nefs  are  ftill  fubject  to  their 
mifchievous  incurfions  ;  fo  that 
there  is  little  fafety  tor  (heep  in 
thefe  fituations.  Almofl  whole 
flocks  in  a  night  are  fometimes 
deftroyed  by  them.  This  expo- 
fure  to  wolves  IS  equal  to  a  heavy 
tax  upon  our  frontier  planta- 
tions. 

To  fecure  the  flieep  from  this 
enemy,  it  is  necelTary  that  they 
be  paftured  in  the  open  fields  by 
<iay,  and  houfed  in  ffrong  places 
every  night  :  And  even  thefe 
precautions  do  not  always  prove 
effectual. 


w  o  o 

Some  fay,  that  fmearing  the 
heads  of  fheep  with  a  compofi- 
tion  of  tar  and  gun  powder  will 
prevent  their  being  attacked  by 
the  wolves  ;  but  I  cannot  certify 
this  from  mv  own  experience. 

wood;  a  folid  fubUance,  of 
which  the  trunks  and  limbs  of 
trees,  as  wel  1  as  thei  r  roots,  confi  ft. 

"  The  wood  is  all  that  part  of 
a  tree  included  between  the  bark 
and  the  pith.": 

Dr.  Grew  hss  difcovered,  by 
the  affiftance  of  the  microfcope, 
that  what  we  call  wood,  notwith- 
ftanding  its  hardnefs  and  folidi- 
ty,  is  only  an  affemblage  of  mi- 
nute pipes,  or  hoi  low  £bres,  forae 
of  which  rife  from  the  root  up- 
wards, and  are  difpofed  in  form 
of  a  circle  ;  and  theothers,  which 
he  calls  infertions,  tend  horizon- 
tally from  the  furface  to  the  cen- 
tre ;  fo  that  they  crofs  each  other, 
and  are  interwoven  like  the 
threads  of  a  wea^'er  s  web. 

Each  year's  growth  in  wood 
is  marked  by  circles  vifible  to 
the  naked  eye,  by  counting  of 
which  circles  the  age  of  a  tree  is 
known. 

WOOD  LAND,  ground  cov- 
ered  with  wood,  or  trees.  They 
are  moftly  defigned  tor  tewel  and 
timber.  In  felling  them,  care 
Ihould  be  taken  to  injure  the 
young  giowtli  as  little  as  pofTible. 
Fire  wood,  as  well  as  timber, 
ihould  be  felled,  when  the  fap  is 
down.  Otherwife  it  will  hifs 
and  fry  upon  the  fire,  and  not 
burn  freely,  although  it  Ihould 
be  ever  fo  long  dried.  To  tfiick- 
en  a  forcft,  or  to  increafe  the  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a  wood  lot,  it 
(hould  be  well  fenced,  and  no 
cattle  be  permitted  to  be  in  it. 
And  foraething  may  be  done,  if 
needful,  by  layers  and  cuttings. 

WOODY,  abounding  with 
wood,  or  ot  a  ligneous  confift- 
ence. 

WOOL, 


woo 

WOOL,  the  covering  of 
iiccp. 

F  " — -'*  confifls  of  wool  of 
ni  qualities.  The 
i  ',.\iii  a:i  :  hrcnch  ufually  di- 
▼  A  ■  wool  into  three  principal 
ions.  ;  1.  that  of  the  neck  and 
back,  which  ihey  call  mother 
W(X)|  ;  9.  that  of  the  tails  and 
K'ijs  ;  3.  that  of  the  breaft  and 
l<)!y.  Thefe  difTcrent  kinds 
Ihoiild  not  be  mixed  in  fpinniog. 

The  two  bcft  qualities  in  wool 
are  length  and  finenefs. 

To  improve  the  wool  of  our 
fl'^ck';.  no  lambs  Ihould  be  kept 
T  rs,  but  fuch  as  bear  the 

t  1    ;    and    fine    wooled 

rams  iiioiild  be  procured  from 
tiiilant  places,  or  from  foreign 
countries. 

It  will  alfo  conduce  to  the  im- 
cment  of  the  wool,  if  the 
arr  kept  in  dry  paftares, 
1  flioriand  fweet  grafs  in  the 
Tier,  and  upon  the  beft  hay 
^  winter.  Great  care  (hould 
<^  :w  be  taken  to  prevent  their  be- 
iig  overheated,  either  by  oblig- 
ing them  to  feed  in  the  hotteft 
part  of  hot  days  in  furamer,  or 
by  houfing  them  in  too  hot,  fmall, 
and  clofr  places,  at  any  feafon. 
They  (hould  alio  be  kept,  as 
much  as  poflible,  from  fouling 
ibcir  fleeces,  by  lying  on  their 
•xcremcnts,  without  litter. 

The  Spanifh  wool  is  preferred 
to  any  other  tliat  is  produced  m 
Europe.  A  writer  in  that  coun- 
try fays,  "  There  are  two  kmds 
•t  fheep  in  Spain,  namely,  the 
coarfe  wooled  Iheep,  which  re- 
main all  their  lives  in  their  na- 
tive country,  and  which  are 
houfed  every  night  in  winter  ; 
and  the  fine  wooled  (hcep,  which 
arc  all  their  lives  in  the  open  air, 
which  travel  at  the  end  of  every 
fummer  from  the  cool  mountains 
•t  th«  northern  pans  of  Spain,  to 
fee4  «11  Uk  wifit«r  •«  Um  fouth- 

A44 


W  O  O        393 

ern  warm    plains  of  Andalufia, 
Manca,  and  LAremadura.     It  has 
appeared  from  very  accurate  cal- 
culations, that  there  are  not  few- 
er than  five  millions  of  the  finft 
wooled  fheep  in  Spain.     Special 
ordinances,    privileges,  and  im- 
munities, are  iffued  for  the  better 
prcfervation  and  government  of 
the  fheep,  which  are  under  th«  . 
care  of  twenty  fivcthoufand  men. 
Thefe  (hcep  pals  the  fummer  ia 
the  cool  mountains  of  Leo,  Old 
Caftile,    Cuen^a.  and  Arragon. 
The  firfl  thing  the  fhcpherddoes 
when  the  flock  returns  from  the 
fouth  to  its  fummer  downs,  is,  to 
give  the  fheep  as  much  fait  as 
they  will  eat.     Every  owner  al- 
lows   his    flock   of    a   thoufand 
fheep  twenty  five  quintals  of  fait, 
which  the  flock  eat  in  about  fiv» 
months.     1  hey  eat  none  in  their 
journey,  rlof  in   winter.     From 
the  territory  called  the  Montana, 
at  the  extremity  of  Old  Cartilc, 
from  whence  they  fet  out,  to  Ef- 
tremadura,  is  one  hundred  fift>* 
leagues,  which  they  march  in  lefs 
than  forty  days.    As  foon  as  April 
comes,  the  fheep  exprefs,  by  va- 
rious  uneafy  motions,  a  ftrong 
deiire  to  return  to  their  fummer 
habitations.     The  fheep  of  Eflre- 
niadura,  which  never  travel,  have 
coarfe,  long,  hairy  wool,      i  he 
itinerant  fheep  have  fhort,  filky, 
white  wool;  the  finenefs  of  which 
is  owing  to  the  animal's  pafTing 
its  life  in  the  open  air,  of  equal 
temperature  ;  for  it  is  not   colder 
in  Andalulia  or  Eftremadura  in 
winter,  than  it  is  in  Montana  oc 
Molina  in  fummer."    The  flieep, 
by  thefe  judicious  removal*,  arc 
grazing  both  in  fummer  and  win- 
ter, and  are  never  expofed  to  ex- 
trerar  heats  or  colds.  Nexttothi* 
management  infufar  fitiutions  ia 
temperate  climates  are  the  befl 
places  for  the  ronflant  feeding  of 
ftcep,  wU*re  Uic  extremes  ot  heat 


'^4         W  O  R 

and  cold  are  not  fo  great  as  on  a 
continent  in  the  fame  latitude. 

WORMS,  a  wel!  known 
fprciesot  infects. 

Fields  and  gardens  arc  often 
intelled  by  worms.  The  beft  an- 
tidotes are,  dre flings  of  fea  ma- 
nures, wetting  the  ground  with 
fea  water.  Soot,  hine,  and  afhes 
fprinkicd  on  the  ground,  oppofe 
their  ravages.  The  rcfufe  brine 
of  faltcd  meat,  or  water  in  which 
walnut  leaves  have  been  fteeped 
ior  two  or  three  weeks,  Iprin- 
kled  on  gardens,  will  fubdue  the 
worms.  The  water  of  fait  fprings 
may  be  ufed  with  great  advan- 
tage by  thofewhoare  near  them. 
Thofe  who  are  remote  from 
them,  and  from  the  fea,  may  ufe 
fait  and  water,  and  fuch  other 
antidotes  as  they  can  molt  eafily 
procure. 

When  worms  breed  in  horfes, 
it  arifes  from  weak  digeltion,  or 
a  vitiated  appetite.  To  cure  a 
horfe  ct  bots  : 

"  Take  quickfilver  two  drams ; 
Venice     turpentine     half    an 
ounce  ;  rsib  the  quickfilver  till 
no   giiftening   appears  ;    then 
take  an  ounce  of  aloes,  a  dram 
ot  grated  ginger,  thirty  drops 
of  oil  ot   favin,  and  fyrup  of 
buckthorn  enough  to  make  the 
whole  into  a  ball. 
"  One  of  thefe   balls   may    be 
'given  every  fix    days,  v/ith  the 
ulual  precautions  with  regard  to 
mercurial  phyfick  :  And  the  fol- 
!n-.ving  powders  intermediately. 
1  ake  powdered  tin  and  yEthiops 
mineral,   ot   each  an  ounce  ; 
and  give  it  every  night  in   a 
niaili,  or  in  his  corn. 
"  Theie  medicines,  or  any  ot 
liie  various  preparacions  of  anti- 
n:ony  and    mercury,  fhould  be 
continued  feveral  weeks  togeth- 
er, in   order  to   free   the  animal 
entirely    from    thefe   vermine." 
B-firtiei's  farriery. 


'W  6  V 

WOUND,  a  hurt  given  hj 
violence. 

"In  all  freth  wounds  made  by 
cutting  inftruments,  there  is 
nothing  more  required  than 
bringing  the  lips  of  the  wound 
into  contact  by  future  or  bandage, 
provided  the  part  will  allow  of 
it  ;  for  on  wounds  of  the  hips,  or 
other  prominent  parts,  andacrofs 
fome  of  the  large  mufcles,  the 
ititches  are  apt  to  burll  on  the 
horfe's  lying  down  and  rifing  up 
in  the  Itall.  In  fuch  cafes,  the 
lips  fhould  not  be  brought  clofe 
together.  One  flitch  is  fufficient 
tor  a  wound  two  inches  long.; 
but  in  large  wounds  may  be  at  an 
inch  or  more  diffance  ;  and  if  the 
wound  is  deep  in  the  mufcles, 
care  fhoul-d  be  taken  to  pafs  tjie 
needles  proportionably  deep, 
otherwife  the  wound  will  notu- 
nite  properly  at  the  bottom. 

"  Should  the  wound  bleed 
much  from  an  artery  divided,  the 
firll  ftep  fhould  be  to  fecure  it, 
by  pafTing  a  crooked  needle  un- 
derneath, and  tying  it  up  with  a 
waxed  thread.  It  theartery  can- 
not be  got  at  this  way,  apply  a 
button  of  lint  or  tow  to  the  mouth 
of  the  bleeding  vefTel,  dipped  in 
a  flrong  folution  ot  blue  vitriol, 
ftyptic  water,  oil  of  vitriol,  or 
hot  oil  ot  turpentine,  powdered 
vitriol,  or  colcother,  &c.  and  re- 
member always  fo  apply  it  clofe 
to  the  mouth  of  the  bleeding  vef- 
feis,  and  take  care  that  it  is  kept 
there  by  proper  compiefs  and 
bandage,  till  an  efchar  is  formed  ; 
otherwife  it  will  elude  your  ex- 
pectations, and  frequently  alarm 
you  with  frefh  bleedings. 

"  In  a  healthy  and  found  con- 
flitution,  nature  furnifhes  the 
befl  balfam,  and  performs  herfelf 
the  cure,  which  is  fcj  often  attrib- 
uted to  medicine.  When  it  is  oth- 
erwife, and  the  blood  is  deprived 
of  its  balfiraick  Hate,  as  will  ap- 
peal 


\    t  A 


r   of  hcal- 


year    n 

vound.  . 

Jng.  '  '  ;>- 

cr   :  .« 

.j:i  tcr  I. 
>    extern: 

tMDS. 

'*  The  lips  of  the  wound  being 
brr-  iher  by  the   needle 

or  I  t  needs  only  to  be 

covered  wiiii  rags  dipped  in 
brandy,  or  a  pledget  of  tow 
fpread  with  the  wound  ointment, 
and  the  Wfvjndcd  part  kept  as 
much  as  poilible  from  motion. 

**  Remeoibcr  to  drcfs  all  the 
wounds  of  the  joints,  tendons 
and  membranous  parts,  with  ter- 
ebinthinate  medicines:  To  which 
may  be  added  honey  and  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh  ;  and  avoid  all 
frcafy  applications  whatever, 
omentations  and  poultices  are 
alfo  generally  here  of  great  ufe  ; 
the  former  thin  and  attenuate  the 
impai-ted  fluids,  greatly  promote 
a  tree  perfpiration  of  the  limb, 
and  tacilitate  the  unloading  the 
furchargeof  the  veUcIs,  by  quick- 
ening the  motion  ot  the  fluids  ; 
while  the  latter,  by  relaxing  the 
veffcls,  .'.  'V  lenfion,  and 

relieve  ;.  ..trion  by  pro- 

rooting  digcliiuu.     BartUi's  ri 
r:rry. 


^ar. 


X,  j>  Dr.  Johnfoii  obfcr\  c>, 
Wgins  no  word  in  the  Englilh 
JincT.M-r,'.  How  then  can  it  be 
f  .  to  begin  any  article  in 


V   1::  1.  395 

1  i.LLO  \V  W  KED.  meadow 

crow  icot,  Riviun:  uluj. 

This  wcrd  IS  known  in  I-t-S- 

land  bv    il»c    n.iinci,  king   coh. 


m 

'.low 


1  .;'w    ;i^'..cis.    \\.ii 
June,  and  are  ot  a 
colour,  give  oi:r   :: 
and  paltures  a  vcr 
ance.     It  is  of  a   \cjy    hoi  .i.iJ 
acrid   nature,  and  i?  eaten  in  its 
green  ftate  bv  neither  neat  cattle 
nor  horfes.     Therefore,  the  opin- 
^  ion  of  its  increafing  the  ycllow- 
ncli    ol    butter    in    fu-.tr.cr    i» 
groundlefs.       Sec      the     ar.icle 
!  li'fcds.     This  weed,  when  dried, 
j  is  fo   gotnl   fodder,  that  hungry 
j  cattle  (e'ldom  leave  any  pan  of  it. 
YELLOWS,  a  difeafe  inci- 
dent  to  horfes   and    neat   cattle, 
more   properly  called  the  jauo- 
dice.     1  he  vulg.u-  name  ol  this 
difeafe  in  neat  cattle  is,  theOvfr- 
fioiLing  cjthe  Gail.    See  that  ar- 
ticle. 

*'  Horfes  arc  frequently  fuhjccl 
to  this  dillemper.  which  is  known 
by  a  dufky  yellownefs  ol  the 
eyes  :  The  infide  of  the  mouth 
and  lips,  the  tongue  and  bars  of 
the  roof  ol  the  mouth  looking 
alfo  yellow.  The  creature  i«i 
dull,  and  refufcs  all  niiumer  ol 
rood  ;  the  fever  is  IU)W,  yel  bo:h 
t hit  and  the  yellownefs  incrciU- 
together.  Tue  dunz  is  otteii 
hitid  and  dry,  ol  a  pale  yellow, 
or  light  pale  green.  His  unne 
is  commonly  ot  a  tlark  duty 
brown  colour  ;  and  when  it  has 
lettlcd  fonie  time  on  the  ?.  •<  i-- 
msnt.  it  looks  red  lii. 
He    lblc5  with    io"-  ...» 

difficulty,  and  il  tl.  r  is 


^ 
\ 

.'■\i\    '• .  .1  inraT'irr''.! 

.  1. . 

liu 

lOi 

..  .. 

catt! 

i 

.c 

in    :i- 
and  d 

«l 

t-C-:Jk-, 


396  Y  E  L 

ticable,  and  ends   fatally  with   a 
waflingdiarrhcEa  :  Butwherithe 
<liftemper  is  recent,  and  in  young 
horfes,  there  is  no   fear  of  a  re- 
covery, if  the   following   direc- 
tions are  obferved. 
Pirft  of  all  bleed  plentifully, and 
give    the    laxative  clyfter,  as 
jhorfes  are  apt  to  be  very  cof- 
tivc  in  this  diftemper  ;  and  the 
next  day  give  him  this  purge  : 
Take  of  Indian  rhubarb  pow- 
dered,    one     ounce     and     a 
lialf  ;  fafFron   two  drams,  fuc- 
cotrine  aloes  fix  drams,  fyrup 
of  buckthorn  a  fuflicient  quan- 
tity. 

"  if    the    rhuliarb    fhould  be 
found  tooexpenfive,  omit  it,  and 
add  the  fame  quantity  of  cream 
of  tartar,   and  half  an  ounce  of 
Caftile    foap,    vith  tour  drams 
jnore  of  aloes.     This  may  be  re- 
peated two  or  three  times,  giv- 
ing intermediately  the  following 
tails  and  drmk  : 
Take  of  .-Ethiops  mineral  half 
an  ounce;  millepedes  the  fame 
quantity,     Caltile     foap    one 
ounce  ;  make  into  a  ball,  and 
give  one  every   day.  and  wafh 
It  down  with  a  pint  ot  this  de- 
cottion  : 
5  ake  madder  root  and   turmer- 
ick,  of  each  four  ounces ;  bur- 
dock root  flicedj  half  a  pound  ; 
\Ionk's  rhubarb  iour  ounces  ; 
]iquonce   fliced  two  ounces  : 
Boil  in  a  gallon  of  forge  ^vater 
to  three  quarts  ;  ilrain  off  and 
Iweeten  wirh  honey. 
"  Balls  oi  Caftile  foap  and  tur- 
merick  may  be  gi\'en  alfo  for  this 
purpofe,  to  the  quantity  of  three 
or  iour  ounces   a  day,  and  will 
in  moil:  recent  cafes  Aicceed. 

"  By  thefe  means  the  diftem- 
per generally  abates  in  a  week, 
■which  may  be  difcovered  by  an 
alteration  in  the  horfe's  eyes  and 
moutli  ;  but  the  medicines  muft 
fee  continued    till  the  yellownsli 


YEW 

is  entirely  removed.     Should  the 
diftemper    prove  obftinate,   an(i 
not  fubmit  to  this  treatment,  you 
muft  try  more  potent  rem-edies, 
viz.  mercurial  phyfick,  repeated 
two  or  three  times  at  proper  in- 
tervals ;  and  then  the  following 
balls  :         "" 
Take  fait  of  tartar  two   ounces, 
cinnabar     of    antimony   four 
ounces,    live   millepedes   and 
filings  of  fteel,    of  each  four 
ounces,  Caftile  or  Venice  foap 
half    a    pound    :    Make   into 
balls   of  the   fize   ot    pullets' 
eggs,  and  give  one  night  and 
morning,  wuth  a  pint  of  the 
above  drink, 

"  It  will  be  proper,  on  his  re- 
covery, to  give  him  two  or  three 
mild  purges,  and,  if  a  full  fat 
horfe,  to  put  in  a  rowel."  Bart- 
lef's  farne?')'. 

YEOMAM,  the  addition  of 
the  firft  or  higheft  degree  among 
the  plebeians  of  England.  The 
yeomen  are  properly  freehold- 
ers, who  cultivate  their  own 
lands. 

YE  ST,  or  YEAST,  or 
BARM,  a  head  or  fcura  rifing 
upon  beer,  or  ale,  while  it  is 
working  or  fermenting  in  the 
vat. 

It  is  ufcd  as  a  leaven  ot  ferment 
by  the  bakers,  ferving  to  fwell 
or  puft  up  their  dough,  which 
renders  the  bread  lighter,  fott- 
er,  and  more  wholelome,  as 
well  as  more  palatable.  But 
wlien  there  is  too  much  yeft  in 
bread,  it  gives  it  a  bad  tafle. 

YEW  TREE,  the  name  of  a 
tree,  well  known  and  common 
in  England.  Mr.  Miller  fays, 
it  grows  naturally  alfo  in  North 
America. 

Yew  trees  may  be  eafily  propa- 
gated by  fowing  the  feeds  in  beds, 
and  removing  the  young  plants 
into  nurferies,  as  many  other 
trees  are  managed.  It  is  an  ev- 
ergreen. 


Y  O  A 

•rgrwn,  and  a  tonulc  tree,  that 
may  be  eafily  cut  and  pruned  into 
any  form  that  is  (icfired.  The  trees 
grow  flowly,  hut  lomctimes  conic 
to  be  large  trees ;  and  their  timber 
is  highly  valued  for  various  ufes. 

YOAK,  or  YOKH,  a  wood- 
en  inihument,  with  which  oxen 
are  coupled  together  by  their 
necks,  and  by  which  they  draw. 

The  parts  of  a  yoke  are  the 
crofs  tree,  which  (hould  be  made 
•»f  white  maple,  the  bows,  and  the 
(laple  and  ring. 

The  crofi  tree  (hould  be  ot  a 
crooked  form,  that  the  oxen  may 
draw  partly  by  the  bows  ;  for  it 
it  were  llraight  the  bows  would 
not  prefs  their  Ihoulders  at  all. 

It  one  of  the  oxen  be  ftronger 
than  the  other,  as  it  commonly 
happens,  the  ftaple  Ihould  not  be 
inferted  in  the  centre,  but  a  lit- 
tle nearer  to  the  bow  of  the 
Aronger  ox. 

Short  yokes  are  bed  for  the  eafc 
of  drawing  :  But  it  the  oxen 
learn  to  crowd,  or  to  draw  from 
each  other,  they  (hould  be  put  to 
work  in  a  long  yoke  till  they 
are  cured  of  fuch  ill  habits. 

The  bows  (hould  be  made  of 
the  toughcA  ot  wood,  and  that 
which  IS  ver>'  (trong  and  (lifT 
when  feafoned,  fuch  as  hickory 
or  white  oak,  and  be  well  tilted  to 
their  necks.  And  a  bow  ihould 
be  large,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
in  diameter  tor  large  oxen,  not 
only  for  (Irength,  but  becaufe  U 
••^iU  be  eaficr  to  tiie  ox. 


The  principal  ufe  of  the  ring 
is,  to  receive  the  end  ot  the 
tongue  ot  a  cart  or  Qed.  This 
gives  the  ojfcn  command  of  the 
carriage. 


ZAPETINO,  the  Italian  hoe. 

This  inftrumcnt  is  a  finall  hoe 
at  one  end,  and  lias  two  pn  r;^-s 
at  the  other.  It  is  fomctimcs 
made  with  an  eye  for  the  infer- 
tion  ot  the  handle  ;  fomctimes 
with  a  (hank  to  drive  into  the 
handle.  With  one  end  ot  this 
inrtruinent,  weeds  are  cut  up 
in  gardens  ;  with  the  other,  roots 
are  drawn  out,  and  the  ground 
loofened  to  the  depth  of  five  or 
fix  inches. 

ZEA,  a  name  given  to  Turkey 
com,  or  maize.  See  the  ariiclo 
Indian  corn. 

ZEBRA,  the  -wild  afs. 

This  animal  is  faid  to  be  ex- 
tremely beautitul.  It  ii^in  fi/e 
about  equal  to  the  common  afs, 
but  ot  a  much  more  elegant  fig- 
ure. The  whole  animal  is  party 
coloured,  or  l>eautifully  ftripcd 
in  a  tranfverfe  direction,  with 
long  and  broad  (Ireaks,  alternate- 
ly ot  a  deep,  glofTy  and  fhining 
brown  and  white,  with  fome 
black.  It  is  a  native  of  many 
parts  of  the  eaft. 

ZEPHYR,  the  weR  wind. 

ZEST,  an  apartment  in  a 
bam,  where  corn  to  be  thrafbed  is 
laid  up. 


THE     END. 


> 


M^ 


y 


